1981 FAO Manual of Forest Inventory FAO

111111111"111'
FAO
Manual of FORESTRY
PAPER
forest inventory
With special reference

to mixed tropical forests
FOOD
AND
-RICULTVRE
GANIZATION
. OF TH
lL- NATION
198
Elam
Reprinted 1992
Reprinted 1992
The designations
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this
publication do not imply
imply the
the expression
expression of any
any opinion
opinion whatsoever
whatsoever on
the part
the part of the
the Food
Food and
and Agriculture
Agriculture Organization
Organization of the the United
United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory,
territory. city or
or
area or
or of itsauthorities,
ofits authorities,or
orconcerning
concerning the
thedelimitation
delimitation01 itsfrontiers
ofits frontiers
or boundaries.
M-35
ISBN 92-5-101132-X
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©
0 FAO
FAO 1981
1981
- iii _
FOREWORD
FOFtEWOFtD
The Forestry Department

The (fo~erly Forestry and Forest Products
Department (formerly Products Division)
Division) ofof the
the Food
Food
and
and Agriculture Organization of
Agriculture Organization of the
the United
United Nations
Nations has
has been
been involved
involved since
since this
this
Organization's
Organization's inception
inception in the
the definition and implementation of forest
forest resource
resource evaluation
evaluation
programmes, at all
programmes, all levels,
levels, from world and regional forest appraisals
appraisals to local Management
management
inventories.
inventories. number of forest
It has performed a number forest resource
resource surveys in many countries of
world, haa
the world, has carried out a series of world and regional studies - such as the the World
World
Forest Inventory and thethe regional timber trends and prospects studies - and has produced
produced
a few publications on the methodology side such
Buch as "Planning a Forest Inventory"
Inventorytl by
B. Husch,
Dr. B.
Dr. Husch t and the "Manual
and the "Manual for forest
forest inventory operations executed by FAO" (1967).
FAO" (1967).
To take the experience gained by FAO

TO take FAO in the last few years into
into account
account and
and to
to fulfil
fulfil
in
10 this
this field
field FAG's
FAO's role diB8e~ination of knowledge,
role concerning dissemination knowledge, Mr.
Mr. J.P. Lanly, Forest
J.P. Lanly, Forest
Resouroe Surveys Officer,
Resource Officer, was asked
asked to
to write
write aa new
new manual of forest
~anual of forest inventory.
inventory. This
This manual
to be of use mainly
is intended to to professionals
~ainly to professionals dealing
dealing with
with the
the evaluation
evaluation and management
of mixed tropical
tropioal forests,
forests, since it
it is
ia restricted
restricted toto inventory
inventory methods
methods and
and practices
praotices which
have been
have been found
found feasible
feasible in
in these
these areas.
areas.
At the beginning
beginning of 1972
1972 about thirty
thirty specialists all allover the world
over the world were
were asked to
give their comments
give co~ent6 on a draft of the the outline
outline and of of the
the main
main contents.
contents. their
Most of their
euggestions have been taken into consideration.
suggestions consideration. all be
They must all be thanked
thanked here,
here, with
with aa
particular
particular mention
mention ofof Dr.
Dr. P.G.
P.O. de
de Vries from
from Wageningen University in the Netherlands
Netherlands whowho
made the most substantial proposals.
made the The
The sections
sections of Chapter V V devoted to measurement
and volume formed the
esti~ation techniques formed
volume estimation the basis ofof lectures
lectureB delivered
delivered by by Mr.
Mr. J.P.
J.P. Lanly
at the
the training course on forest inventory organized in in August and
and September 1973 by the
Royal
Royal College of Forestry in Stockholm in in cooperation
cooperation with
with FAO, and include information
on recovery studies and accessibility problems,
problems, twotwo topics
topics which
which need
need to
to be
be given more
consideration inin future
future inventory
inventory work.
work. The section onon accessibility
accessibility problems
problems was
was reviewed
reviewed
Prof. U.
by Prof. U. Sundberg,
Sundberg, Chief of the the Forest
Foreat Logging
Logging and
and Transport
Transport Branch
Branch of
of the
the Forest
For.st
Resources
Resources Division,
Division, and
and Chapter
Chapter VI
VI on data recording and processing
prooessing was
was drafted by
Dr.
Dr. H.E.
H.E. Marsch Fbrest Management
Marsch of the Forest Branch.
Manage~ent Branch. also to
Thanks are due also to Messrs.
Messrs. R.
R. Bolton,
Bolton,
J.W. Eastwood, J.
J.W. Eastwood, J. Jackeon D.A. Harcharik for
Jackson and D.A. for their
their contribution
contribution to
to the
the editing
editing of the
the
Englieh
English version
version and
and toto Mr_.
Mrs. R.S.
R.S. Borelli
Borelli for
for her eecretarial help.
secretarial help.
R.G.
R.G. Fontaine
Director
Forest Resources Division
Resources Division
- v -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTE
Page
CHAPTER
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 2
2
1 background
Historical background 2
2
2
2 ftIain features
Main features of
of this
this new
new edition
edi ticn 3
3
CHAPTER - PURPOSE AND PLANNING

II - PLANNING OF
OF A
A FOREST INVENTORY
INVENTORY 5
5
1 Purpose of the
the inventory
inventory 5
5
11
11 Introduction 5
5
12 Definition of the objectives 6
6
2 preparing inventory
Outline for preparing inventory plane
plans 10
10
CHAPTER SAI~PLIIIG TECHNIQUES

III -- BASIC SAMPLING T"CHNIQUES 13
13
1 Introduction 13
11
11 Sampling in forest inventory 13
13
12 Outline of the chapter 14

14
2 concepts
Statistical concepts 14
14
21
21 Population
Population 14
14
22
22 Distribution 16
16
221
221 of values of
Different kinds of of parameters
parameters in
in one
one unit
unit of
of aa
population 16
16
222
222 of the
Distribution of the values of
of aa parameter
parameter over
over aa whole
whole
population 16
16
223 central value

Characteristics of central value and
and dispersion
dispersion of
of the
the
distribution 18
18
224
224 Value of a parameter per area unit
unit in one
one unit
unit of
of the
the
population 1)
23
23 Sampling 20
20
231
231 Size of
of sample 20
20
232 sampling error

Precision and sampling error 21
21
233
233 concepts
Other concepts 22
24
24 measurement errors
Bias and measurement errors 23
23
241
241 Bias 23
242 errors
Measurement errors 24
24
33 Basic mathematical and statistical

statistical techniques
teChniques 25
25
31
31 Principles of sampling error esti~ation
Principles estimation 25
25
311
311 Introduction 25
25
^
A
312 Estimation of the sampling

sampling error
error on fJ-j
ilkj frOM its variance
from 28
28
32
32 of compound
Variance of compound values 30
321
321 Introduotion
Introduction 30
322 of some
Variances of aome functions
functions 31
31
- v _
33 Ratio estimates
eetilllates 35
35
34
34 Optimization in design 36
341 Opti~ization
Optimization of aa .~pling
sampling design 36
3"
342 Optimization of an
an inventory design 40
44 sampling designs
Classical sampling designs 40
41
41 Classification of sampling
Classification of sampling designs
designs 40
411
411 of sampling
Characteristics of sampling designs
designs 40
412 and record
Clusters and record units
units 43
42 Classical sampling designs
designs used in forestry 43
421 Introduction 43
422 sampling designs
Random sampling designs 44
423 Systematic sampling
sampli ng designs
deSigns 56
CIlAf'l'ER
CHAPTER IV - REMOTE SENSING AND
AND MAPPING FOR
POR AREA ESTIMATION IN FOREST INVhliTORY
INVENTORY 62
1 Introduction 62
22 Forest
Forest and
and land-use claasi t·le& tiona
landuse classifications 63
21
21 Various kinds of classifications 63
63
22 Classifications based on vegetation/environment relationships 64
64
23 "Existing land
laJJd use"
use classification
classification used
ll used by FAO inventory
by FAO inventory operations
operations 65
33 of conventional aerial
Interpretation of aerial photographs
photographs in
in forest
Coreet inventory
inventory yo
-,0
31 Introduction 70
311 with or
eBti~.tlon with
Area estimation or without
without forest
forest mapping
mapping 70
70
312 "Compulsory" classifications and classifications developed
.nd classifications developed
within the inventory 70
32
32 on aerial photographs and
Some information on and aerial
aerial coverages
coverages -(1
71
321 photoeraphs
Characteristics of aerial photographs 71
322 of aerial
Characteristics of coverages
a.erial coverages 74
323 Some
Some problems related to aerial surveying 76
324 MosaicB
Mosaics n17
33 Photointerpretatlon
Photointerpretation -(8
78
331 Qualities
Qualities of good photointerpretation 78
78
332 Stereoscopic interpretation 78

333 Assessment of
of photointerpretation
photointerpretation keys.
keys 79
334 Photointerpretation of plots and photointerpretation
with delineation 7~
79
44 Forest lIapping frOM conventional
mapping from conventional aerial
aerial photographs
photographs 8811
41 Introduction 31
31
42
42 Tr&nlillfer froll single photographs
Transfer from photograph. 'J
811
43 Transfer
Transfer fro .. •stereoscopic
from tereoscopic pairs
pairs d1
61
55 Are. e.till.tion from

Area estimation fro", aerial
aerial photographs and maps
photoeraphs and maps 82
82
51 Introductory remarks
reMarks 82
- vi -
- -
52
52 Direct measurements by planimetering on
by planimetering on maps
maps 83
53 Estimation
Ettimation methods baaed
based on sampling techniques 83
531 estimation from
Area estimation from maps
maps 83
5322
53 Area estimation
estimation from from photographs
photographs 84
84
54
54 Continuous area estimation 84
84
6
6 developments in
Recent developments in remote
remote sensing
sensing and
and mapping
mapping techniques
techniques 85
61 Brief
Brief presentation
presentation of recent techniques
of recent techniquee 85
611
611 foms of remote sensing
New forms sensing 85
612 New media
New media forfor information
information storage and reproduction
storage and reproduction 88
613 procedures for
New procedures for information
information analysis
analysis 88
614
614 Orthophotography 89
62
62 applications for
Current operational applications for forest
forest inventory
inventory 89
621
621 Use of of radiation
radiation outside
outside the visible spectrum
the visible spectrum 89
622 Use of space platforms 90
90
CIIA?l'ER
CHAPTER V V -- MEllSTJmXENT
MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS 92
1 Introduction 93
93
2 Tree measurements 94
21
21 Definition of terNS
terms 94
22
22 l!.'n~eration
Enumeration 97
97
221 Enumeration in sanlpling
Enumeration in sampling with units with units
of a given area of a given &rea n
9T
222 Enumeration in in point
point or or line
line sampling
sampling 97
97
23 Species
Species identification 98
98
24
24 Measurements 99
241 Measurement units 100
242 Me&aurement 01..8e8
Measurement classes 100
243 Measurement procedures
procedures and
and instruments
instruments 102
102
3 eBti~ation
Volume estimation 105
31 Defini tio'n of volumes
Definition voh.ea 105
32 Volw'Ie
Volume uni tu
units 106
33 Classification of volume estimation
estimation techniques
techniques 107
107
34
34 Volume estimation on a tree basis
basis 108
341 Geometric formulas applied toto standing
standing or
or felled
felled trees
trees 108
108
342 VolUlle
Volume equations 109
109
343 Voluae
Volume estiMation tapar functions
estimation by taper 116
344 Selection of the most
Moat euitable
suitable volume
volUMe estimation t.chnique
e.ti~ation technique 117
4 Quality assessment
&ssesa-ent 117
41
41 PreliMinary
Preliminary reMark. as •••••• nt ·
remarks on quality assesament 117
117
411 Definition of quality as.es ••ent in aa for
assessment •• t inventory
forest 117
412 A•• e8artent of "net
Assessment ttnet volWl •• " and UIIetulnes8
volumes" usefulness of 'this
this conoept
concept 118
inv.nto~ of
(with special reference to forest inventory of mixed
.ix.d
tropioal
tropical hardwood.)
hardwoods)
413 Other applications
applications of quality ........ nt in foreat
assessment forest inventory
inventory 118
- vii -
42
42 of quality
Methods of quality assessment
assessment 11
1199
421 Asseaament of external characteristics and defects
Assessment defects 119
422 AsaeS81'11ent
Assessment of of internal
internal defects
defecta 125
5
5 Recovery studies
Recovery Btudiea 125
51
51 Principle 25
1125
52 problem.
Related problems 126
126
53
53 procedure
General procedure 126
126
531
531 Main steps
Main steps of
of a• recovery
recovery study
study 126
126
532
532 Implementation 121
12(
533
533 Example 121
12/
6
6 Accessibility studies
studies 129
61
61 Introduction 129
62
62 Selection of
of accessibility
&cceasibility parameters
parameters 130
63
63 Quantification and/or classification
Quantification classification of
of accessibility p&r~.ter8
accellsibility parameters 132
132
631
631 Parameter.
Parameters relevant
relevant to
to felling 132
632 Parameters related to
to transport
tranaport and
and road
road construction
conatruction 133
133
CHAPTER VI - DATA
CIIAPTER VI MorA RECORDING AND PROCESSING IN FOREST INVENTORY 136
136
1 Introduction 137
2
2 Data recording 137
21
21 General requirements
require~enta 137
22 Speoific requirements
Specific requirement. 138
221
221 With relation to the type of data 138
222 With rela tton to data processing
relation prooe.Bing 140
140
23
23 Main kinda
kind. of data reoording 140
24
24 So a.pect. of data recording
.. e practical aspects
Some recording 141
141
241
241 Organintion
Organization in the field 141
141
242 prooessing
Preparation for further processing 141
141
33 nata
Data procesl!Jing
processing 142
142
31 Stopa proce •• ing

Steps of data procesaing
311
311 nata
Data capture 142
312
312 Edi ting of data
Editing 143
143
313
313 Data generation 144
144
314 r ••ulta
Presentation of the inventory results 145
315
315 Syate.
System deoign
design 155
155
32 t~ of data processing
Selection of type prooe •• ing 151
157
321
321 pro ca. ling
Manual data proceaging 151
322
322 Electronic data
Electronic data processing
proo ••• ing (EDP)
(EDP) 158
158
323
323 Combined of data
typeB of
Co~bined types data processing
prooe.aing 160
_ ui i i -
33 Some practical aspects

aspects of EDP 160
160
33
3311 Project-integrated data procesBing
processing 160
332 Sub-contracted data processing
processing 160
333 ~ome
Some standard programmes
views of the use of standard progr~eB 163
CHAPTER VII -- CONSIDERATIONS

GONSIDI:JlA TrONS ON
ON INVENTORY DESIGNS
DJ1lIGNS 164
1 Introducti on
Introduction 165
165
2 Combinations photointerpretation and field
Combinations of photointerpretation field sampling
sampling procedures
procedures 166
21
21 Preliminary remarks 166
2? Areas exactly or
Áreas of the strata exactly or almost exactly known
almost exactly known 166
23
23 the strata estimated
Areas of the through sampling
esti~ated through .... pling 167
231
231 Area estimates
Area estiMates from one sample
from one only
aMple only 16'{
167
232
232 Area estimates with correction
estill.tea with in the
correction in the field
field 171
171
24
24 Other uses
uses of double sampling designs
designs 1{3
173
3 Cons i derat i ons on field
Considerations field sampling designs 1 '{6
176
31 Distribution of the sample 1'16
176
311
311 Unre.tricted
Unrestricted ver.u. atratified sampling
versus stratified a... pling 176
31 ~
312 Random versus systell.tic
Random versus systematic sampling 171
17(
313 Une-stage versus multi-stage sampling
One-stage appling 177
177
314
314 Equal
Equal or
or unequal probability in
unequal probability in sampling
.... pling 178
178
315 Use of an auxiliary
auxiliary parameter
par.... ter 178
178
32
32 Characteristics
Characteristics of the
the sampling units 1'{8
178
321
321 Plot .ampling
sampling versus polyareal sampling
s~pling 178
322
322 Size of the sampling
sampling units
units 179
3~3
323 Shape of the
the sampling
sampling units
units 180
180
4
4 Continuous forest inventory
Continuous forest 182
182
41
41 Definition and utilization 182
182
42 Description of design 182

182
421
421 Different
Different types
types of continuous forest
forest inventory
inventory 182
182
422 Sampling with replaceMent (SPR)

with partial replacement (SPR) 183
55 Sequential sampling 186
AIINJ:;]{
ANNEX I I -- EXAMPLE OF TECHNICAL SPEX:IFICA TIOl!S for inclusion in a coniraoi
SPECIFICATIONS contract of 188
188
aerial
aerial surveying
II
ANtIU Il
ANNIDC -- SELEX:TED
SELECTED ANNOTATED
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 194
CIllPTn!
C ER PTER II
D1'mODUCTIQI
IN TRODUC TI 04
2
CHAPl'ER
CHAPTFR I
INTRODUC'l'I <II
INTRODUCTION
1 B18~orical backieround
Hietorical bac!cground
During the
During the period
period 11-22
11-22 September 1967, aa meeting of
September 1967, of forest ~nv.ntory experta
forest inventory expert.
attached to 1IIDP/SP projects vas
UNDP/SF projects vas held
held at
at PAO
FAO Headquarters
Headquarters inin ROlle
Rome (1).
(1) Tho purpose of
The purpose of
this meeting was
.... the
the improvement
ioIprov.. ent of
of FAO's
PAO'. inventory
i""entory operatione
operations with
with the
the following
following four
four
.ain objeoti~.8 in
main objectives in view:
1) In the
tho light of experience,
experience, to clarify the basic forest resouroe
resource inforaation
information
for potential
needed for potential forest
forest induetry
industry inventors
investors and
and to
to use
use this
this knowledge
knowled8e in
guiding present
guiding present and future projects.
and future projects.
2) sta.ndard.ization in
To aohieve greater uniformity and standardization
Tb in the
the form
fonn of inventory
inventory
results being
being obtained, while still
still leaving
leaving latitude
latitude for
for specialized information
to meet local
that might be required to local conditions.
conditione. This
This would facilitate thethe
comparing and combining
comparing and of the
combining of the resource
resource data
data obtained
obtained on
on different
different inventories.
inventories.
3) Tb improve the efficiency of inventory

To inventory operations so that better and more
more
forest resource
reliable forest resource information
information can
can be
be obtained
obtained at
at lower
lower cost.
cost.
4) Tb intensify the cooperation and collaboration between forest

To forest inventory
inventory
specialists and the
the uners
USers of
of inventory
inventory results
results so
so that
that more
Bore pertinent
pertinent inventory
can be obtained.
information can obtained.
As
As a result of
of this
this meeting,
meeting, aa recommendation
recomaendation was
was made
made that
that the
the present
proeent manual be
all8ist inventory
prepared to assist inventory experts
experts in
in the
the planning
planning and
and execution
e,,"cntion of
of project
project inventory
inventory
work.
edition of
The first edition of the
the Manual
llanual was
""" prepared
prepared by
by B. llusch, the
B. Hnsch, the former
fo .... er Chief
Chief of the
Poreat Reeources
Forest Resources Survey
Survey Section
Section ofof the
ths FAO
PAO Forestry
Forestry Department,
Department, and
and incorporated
incorporated the the
reoo...ndations the meeting.
recommendations of the
ed1 tion it
In that first edition i t was stated that
.... stated that "a"a manual
manual ofof thie
this type
type should
should bebe a working
doc~ent
document subjeot
sulject toto periodic
periodiC modification
modifioation oror revision
revision to to incorporate
incorporate improvements
improv..ents which
becOBe evident
will become evident in
in the
the course
course ofof ite
its use".
use". A revision of
A revision of the
the manual
......ual was
..... undertaken
undertaken
during 1972.
during 1972. A
A queetionnaire was .... sent
sent to
to aa number
nu.bar of
of inventory
i""entory specialists,
.peoialiata, together
together
outline and
with a general outline and the
the main
main contente
contents ofof the
the proposed
proposed revision,
ravision, asking
asking for
for review
raview
auuesUona.
and suggestions. 1I0st them replied
Most of them replied and
and gave
gave us
U8 many valuable suggestions
IIIUI7 valuable SUU"StiOIlll regarding
inforaation
information to to be
be included
inoluded inin the
the new
new edition.
edition. The main emphasis was.... onon the
the definition
definition of
of
the
the purpoaee
purposes of the inventory,
inventory, the accuracy
aocuracy ofof the
the meaeurements
.e.. ureaents and data processing
and data processing
prooedQrea.
procedures. We wish to thank themthe. here
hare for
for their
their kind
kind collaboration,
collaboration, without
without which this
this
bave omitted
edition would have omitted certain
certain important
iaportant items
items and its preparation
and its preparation would
would have
have been
been
mUDh more
much .ore difficult.
difficult.
(1)
(1) of thia
A report of
11. thi. meeting
meeting is
ia given
given in
in document
document FO:SF/7,
PO:SF/ 7, IM 17 dated
III 17 dated 9 October 1967
1967
and entitled
and entitled "Repert
"Report of
of the
tho Headquartere
Headquartero Meeting
Meeting of
of Foreet
Forest Inventory
Inventory Etperte
Expert. on
on
URDP/SF Projects".
UNDP/SF Projeot.".
3
2.
2. Main features
features of
of thie
this new
new edition
edition
a) This document
docu:n8nt isis aa manual.
manual. Its is not
Its purpose is not to
to be a comprehensive
comprehensive textbook
textbook
on forest inventory
inventory but
but toto liet
list and describe briefl
briefly the main tools
tools which are
are used
used in
in this
this
illportant actiri ty and to
imsortant field of forest activit to give adrice on
ve advice on their use.
their use. It doe.
It not seek
does not seak to
to
provide detailed practical instructions for
prllCtical instructions for use by
by technicians
technioians and workers,
workers, &II
as
each inventory
inventery has ite own requirements
i till own raquirements in this
this respect i t8 own special
respeot and needs its
instructions
instructions.•
This manual obviously aannot

cannot suffice for
for all purposes
purposes and questiOns
and a number of questions
una.nswered.
remain unanswered. 'lb.e information given should be supplemented by information
The inforaation taken
taken
from
from other sources such as statistical
atatistical and forestry textbooks
textbooks and periodicals,
periodicals, inventory
reports
reporte as well asas from
from individual
individual research
research and
and reasoning.
reasoning. vi th
operation, with
Each inventory operation,
ita own purposes and
its and. requirements,
requirenente, must
must have
have its
its own
own specifications.
specifications. cannot imagine
One aannot imagine
a single
Bingle book which prevides
provides an an answer
answer for
for all
all cases.
cases.
b) The manual, in
in the
the first
first edition,
edition, WWI: '~anual for forest inventory
W8B entitled "Manual inventory
operations executed byby FAO".
FAD". It aannot
cannot be claimed,
olaimed, however,
hOllever, that inventories executed by
FAD
FAO are any different from
from those
those executed
executed by
by public
public agencies
agenoiee or
or private
private firms,
firms, and
and this
manual takes into account
aocount some
some forest
forest inventory
inventory techniques
techniques used
UBed by
by epecialiete
specialists outside
outside FAO.
FAD.
one has
Moreover, one bas to oonaider the
to coneider the role
role that
that FAO
FAD plays
p1&lS in
in training
training and
and dissemination
dissa.ination of
of
this manual
information; this manual may be of use
USB not only within the framework of FAO inventory
Dot only inventory
operations but also inin many developing countries
many developing countries where
where there
there is lack of
is aa lack relevant
of relevant
expertise. For these
For these reasons,
reasons, reference
reference to
to FAO
FAD inventory
inventory operations
operations has been suppressed
bas been suppressed
in the
th~ new title.
c) Inventories
Inventoriee carried ou·t
out by FA.D countries are most
FAO or developing countries moat often in
tropical regions. Al though this
Although this manual deals with
r,'1&llual deals vi th forest
forest inventory
inventory in in general,
general, most
most
i~~entories of
consideration is given to inventoriee of broadleaved
broadleaved tropical
tropical forests.
forests. These are of
special
special interest for most
moat of the developing
developing countries
countries with
vith forest
forest arean.
areas. As they are cf
less forsstB some
use for tropical foresta eome intereeting
interesting techniques
teohniquBs used
used in
in temperate
temperate zones,
tones, ouch
Buch
an
as photogrammetric measurements, photo volume tables
measurements, photo tables and point
point sampling
lI&IIplin.g ... thoda, are only
methods,
briefly described.
briefly described. However, these techniques
However, techniquee maymay assume
assume increasing
increasing importance
importance for
plantations stands in
plantations and homogeneous natural stands in many deTeloping countries.
man,y developing countries.
d) Almost all forest

foreet inventories in
in developing
developing countries
countries are carried
carried out
out for
for the
the
evaluation of wood resourcos ~phasiB on
reeources with emphasis on estimation
estimation of
of gross
gross vclumes,
volumes, quality
quality
utilization studies.
aseeSBlaent and utilization
assessment studies. ODe .ust
However one not forget
must not forget that there may
tha:\: there may be
be other
other
coll~ ot and
data to colloot othor parameters
and other parameters to
to estimate
estimate according
aocording to
to the
the purposes
purposos ofof the
the inventory.
inventory.
4
cskrrER II
cmP'l'Ell
roRPalE .lIIll
FURPC6ELNT Ple&B!DlO
PLANNTIM CF
OF AAFORIB T IJIVDlroRY
P'ORE3T ENTDITORY
5
CHAPTlll II
CHAPTER II
rull!'alE AND
PURPOSE AND PLANNING OF A
A FORElT
FOREST INVENTORY
'!be
The main components
components of
of aa forest
forest inventory
inventory and the programming
and the progr&IIDing depend
d.,pend upon
upon the
the aime
aims
of the operation. closely related;
Purpose and planning are closely related; purpose
purpoee must be clearly
planning designed
defined and planning designed to
to achieve
achieve that
that purpose.
purpoae. For this
For this reason
reaeon they
they are
are put
put
in this
together in this chapter.
chapter . Further comments
comment. regarding
regarding these
these mattere
matters will
will be
be found
found in
in
"Planning aa Forest Inventory",
Inventory", by
by B.
B. Husch
Rusch (FAO
(FAO Forestry
Forestry and
and Forest
Forest Products
Products Studies
Studies
17).
No. 17).
1 the inventory
Purpose of the inventory
11
11 Introduction
It is very important to define

It defi~e clearly objectives of
the various objectives of the proposed
th~ proposed
ilIVentory.
inventory. 'Hle
The relative importance of each must be
muet be considered,
considered, in
in order
order to
to design
d.esign and
a.nd
implement an operation which best solves
Bolves the problem. also be
Aocount must also ~en of
be taken of the
constraints and
unavoidable constraints arA limitations
limitations euch
such as time and
8S available time funds and
and funds ability of
and ability of
the staff.
A criticism made
A usual criticism made to
to the
the people
people responsible for designing
re8P01~ible for deSigning and
and executing
executing
inventory operations is that they undertake such work without a clear idea of the the
and thus
objectives to be met and thus provide
provide forestry
forestry officers,
offioers, economiate,
economists, loggers
loggers and
vi th inadequate
industrialists with inadequate or
or even
even useless information.
infonnation.
thorough study
Sometimes a thorough study of
of the
the problem
problem may i~icata that
roay indicate that inventory
inventory will not
provide the correct answer. A cost benefit analysis
A cost analysis may
may also
also conclude
conclude that
that aa foreet
forest
efficient tool
inventory is not the most efficient tool for
for providing
prOViding the
the information
information required due to to
existing constraints and limitations.
limitations. Compilation of information
information already
already available,
available,
stands already inventoried
comparison with other similar stands invontoried and
and use
use of
of reeearch
research results,
results, may
meet
meet the required degree of precieion
precision at less
less expense.
expense.
1bere may
There at the
M&1' be, at same time
the same time and in the
aDd in the same country, a8 need
8ame country, need for
for different
different kinds:
kinds
of inventory,
inventory, for
for instance
instance inventory
inventory at
at aa oountry-wide level ("national
countrywide level ("national forest
forost inventory"),
inventory"),
inventories
inventoriee of big units of forest
forest area (for
(for instance
instance 100,000
100,000 haha of
of forest)
forest) or inventories
iaventories
of stands
stands for the preparation of working plans.
plans. But,
But, as an example, it it cannot
cannot be
expected that
that information obtained from foreat inventory
frOIl a national forest inventot'J" will be adequate to to
form
form the
the basis of a detailed local management plan. plan. This has to be pointed . out to the
decision-makere
decisionmakers whowho sometime°
sometimes believe
believe that
that aa single
single type
type of
of forest
forest inventory
inventory will provide
proyide
them
them with all the information they need at different levels. levels . Generally, for lack
Generally, for lack of
of
resources,
resourcee, priority has to to be given to that type of of inventory
inventory which will solve the more more
probleaa.
urgent problems.
stud.y may
Someti..-es a careful study
Sometimes may demonetrate
demonstrate that
that the
the most
moat useful operation to
useful operation to be
be
carried out is a combination
oombination of
of partial
partial inventoriee
inventories at
at the
the VASiOUB
various levels.
levele. Recently a
request to UNDP/SF for
for a national
national foreet
forest inventory
inventory was converted into
was converted into aa combination
combination of the
following operations:
photo interpretation and

reconnaissance by photointerpretaticn and some field plots
Bome field plote of
of the
the forested
forested area
of the country,
country, for an estimation the areas
eBt~tion of the areas covered
cove~ed by each vegetation
by each vegetation and
forest type;
tn>";
--6--
6 -
ve~tation
vegetation selection of
mapping of a selection of forest
forest reserves,
re4erves, with
with complementary
complementary field
field
for rough
plots for r ough estimation
estimation of
of the
the growing
growing stock
stock of
of each forest type;
each f6re8t type;
intensive inventory,
inventory. with vegetation
veg8tation mapping,
mapping, of
of the
the most
moet valuable
valuable forest
forest area.
are~.
This example
e~ple shows that aa forest
shows that forest inventory
inventory programme
programme may
may include
include different
different types
types of
of
inventory in
in order to
to meet
meet different
different objectives.
objectives.
12 the ob
Definition of the objectives
actives
121
121 The
The objectives
objectives must be defined jointly
jointly by the people
by the people who
who will
will make use of
Make use of
(e.g. decision-makers,
the inventory results (e.g. decision-makers, forest
forest managers)
managers) and
and by the
by the
inventory specialist,
specialist, not
not by the latter
by the latter alone.
alone. The inventory specialist should
should design
design
an which will
an inventory which will provide
provide the
the users
users with
with the
the information
information they
they need
need in
in aa suitable
suitable
form
form and with the
the required
required precision.
precision. cooperation with
This cooperation with the
the potential
potential users
users is
is
necessary from the
the time
time that
that the
the inventory
inventory is
is prepared
prepared until
until the
the delivery
delivery of
of the
the final
final
results.
resulte.
this cooperation
Regarding this cooperation two
two difficulties
difficulties may
may be
be encountered:
encountered: .
a) In
III certain cases the
the inventory
inventory specialist
specialist has
has to
to prepare
prepare the
the inventory
inventory atat aa
the users are either
time when the either not
not present
present oror do
do not
not have
have aa clear
clear and definitive
and definitive
infonnation needed.
idea of the information needed. instance, in
For inetance, in aa forestry
forestry development
development
project, management,
project, management, logging
logging and
and economics
economics advisers
advisers maymay arrive
arrive only
only after
after the
the
has started
inventory haz started or
or has
has even
even been
been completed,
completed, because
because they
they cannot
cannot function
f~ction
the information
effectively until the information provided
provided byby the
the inventory
inventory is is available.
available.
no t participate
Usually they do not partiCipate in the preparation of the inventory,
inventory, andand this
this m~
may
the information
explain why the information given
given by
by the
the inventory
inventory is is inadequate
inadequate inin some
Bome cases.
cases.
avoiding this
Possibilities of avoiding this drawback
drawback are
are to
to seek
seek advice
advice from
from the
the greatest
greatest
number of eventual
possible number eventual ueers,
users, to
to compare
compare with
with other
other similar
similar inventories
inventories
already completed and if necessary to request consultancies
coneultanciee fromfrom forest
forest
logging, or forest
management, logging, forest economics
economics specialists
specialiste at the the time when thethe
is being
inventory is being designed.
desiened.
b) Another difficulty
difficulty comes
comes from
from the
the evolution
evolution of of the
the purpose
purpose of
of the
the inventory.
inventory.
ille aims
The aims defined
defined during
during the
the preparation
preparation of of the
the inventory
inventory may
may change
change during
during the
the
course or
of the
the operation. This occurs, forfor instance,
instance, when
when the
the unit
unit eize
size of
of the
the
blocke, for which the
blocks, the results
results are
are to
to be
be provided
provided with
with aa given
given precieion,
precision, changes.
changes.
true for
This is also true for long
long programmes
programmes ofof forest
forest inventory
inventory atat aa national
national level.
level.
is no
There is no general
general course
course of
of action
action toto overcome this difficulty;
overco~e this difficulty; the the only
observation
obeervation toto be
be made is
is that
that the
the more
!lore flexible
flexible the
the initial
initial design,
deSign, the
the eaeier
euier
the transformation
the transformation thereof.
thereof. Moreover, every effort
Moreover, every effort should
should be
be made
made to
to foreeee
foresee
these eventual
.o~e of those
some eventual modifications when designing
~odifications when deSigning thethe inventory.
inventory.
122 Priority of objectives.

obJectives. Not all the objectives have the the same importance.
8~e importance.
Sa.e
ome are very fundamental and and can
can in
in themselves
thenlselves justify
justify the
the whole
whole inventory.
i .n ventory.
Tbe correeponding
The corresponding information
i nformation haz to be
has to be given
given in
in the
the required
required form
form or
or the
the operation
op4ration will
will
tail.
fail. The degree of precision of the information
information provided is i8 also a most important
most important
requirement. the other
On the other hand, it may be acceptable to
hand, it to fulfill
fulfill a secondary
secondary objective
objective
only apprOximately ( f or instance,
approximately (for instal1ce, by accepting
accepting a lower
lower precision
preCision in the
the corresponding
infol'lll&tion)
information).•
prioritr of the
The priority the objectivee
objectives to
to be met haz to be
has to be clearly
clearly assessed
&Bsessed before designing
an inventory.
inYentory. For instance,
instance, if the estimation of the area of a forest
forest is more
more important
important
than the
than the estimation
estimation of
of ita
its volume,
volume, the inventory design will
will strengthen the
the work
work of
of
interpretation of remote
remote sensing
seneing imagery and mapping and give lees
less importance
impOrtance to
to tree
tree
~ea8urement8 imagery or in
measurements on imagery i n the
the field.
field. Likewise, be assessed among
Likewise, priority can be among the
the
- 7-
zones
zones or the blocks of the
the region
region inventoried.
inventoried. far as
As far as volume
volume estimation
estimation isis concerned,
concerned,
not have
species do not have the
the same
same economic
econoruic value,
value, so the inventory
80 the inventory will
will be
be designed
designed in
in order
order
the results
to provide the results with
with aa specific
specific precision
precision for
for the
the most
most important
important species:
species:
volumes of individual secondary
seccndary species m~ leBs precisely,
may be estimated less precisely, especially
especially ifif
very low
they have a very low stocking
stocking density
density and
and are
are unevenly
unevenly distributed.
distributed.
123 requirements.
Additional requirements. Forest inventories
inventories generally
generally include
include aa substantial
substantial
amount of field
field work,
work, which
which implies
implies high
high expenditure
expenditure and
and more
more or
or lees
lese
difficult logietics.
logistics. the ratio:cost
In particular the ratio:cost ofof accessibility
accessibility to to the
the sampling
eampling
plots/coat
plots/cost of data recording
recording isis sonetimes
Bonetimes very
very high.
high. The additional cost incurred by by
parameters, not
measuring and recording other parameters, not directly related to the purpose
purpose ofof the
the
inventory
inventory,, may prove insignificant.
insignificant. Under such conditions it it may
may be
be desirable
desirable toto take
take
the
the opportunity offered by by the
the inventory
inventory logistics
logistics toto collect
collect data
data of
of value
value to
to specialists
speCialists
not
not concerned with the primary
primary purpose
purpose of
of the
the inventory
inventory (soil
(soil scientists,
scientists, dendrologists,
dendrolOgists,
hyte-
:.y+/r c!,logists, etc.).
cidogists, etc.). This is all the more
This morf'l justified
justified as
as aa forest
forest inventory
inventory often
often
1-rovides the
provid~B themost
most objective
objective and exhaustive way of penetrating
and exhaustive penetrating unknown
unknown and
and remote
remote areas.
areas.
no general answer to
There is no to this question,
question, and each inventory operation
operation isis aa
special case.
case. Many things
things have
have to
to be
be considered,
considered, among
among which
which we
we can
can quote
quote (a)
(a) the
the cost
cost
of the
the collection of these additional data,
data, and (b) the qualifications
qualifications and and training
training of of
the field staff for
the field for this
this additional work and the corresponding
correspvnding reliability and and preCision
precieion
of the data collected.
FNen if not explicitly

Even explicitly required
required for
for the
the purpose
purpose of
of thethe Lnyentory,
I.rr"entory, some
Bome data
data have
have to
to
be
be systematically collected, because
because they
they are
are known
known to
to be
b ..! useful in any
use::u~ in any case.
case. In
In
tropical
tropical forest these data
forest inventories these data are:
are:
logging parameters, i.e.

i.e. slopes,
slopes, soil
soil bearing
bearing capacity,
capacity, terrain
terrain obstaclee,
obstacles,
undergrowth, areas, etc.;
undergrowth, occurrence of swampy areas, etc.;
complete
complete enumeration of trees by species
speqies and diameter classes above aa givengiven
minimum diameter (say 10 cm)
cm) in aa sub-sample
subsample ofof the
the sampling
sampling plots,
plots, if
if only
only
certain commercial species
species are
are to
to be
be inventoried
inventoried in
in the
the main
main sample;
sample;
enumeration of eeedli'ngs,
seedlings, saplings and poles of the most important
important species
species
in
in aa sub-eample
subsample ofof the
the sampling
sampling plots,
plote, for
for further
further regeneration
regeneration and
and
management studies.
studies.
Other data, not of

data, although not of direct
direct relevance
relevance to
to the
the purpose
purpose of
of aa forest
forest inventory,
inventory.
either in
can easily be recorded either in the
the office
office (such
(SUCh as
as climatic
climatic data)
data) or
or inin the
the field (such
(such
for individual
as seed collection aspects for
&8 individual species,
species, degree
degree ofof dominance
dominance of of the
the crowns,
crowns, dates
dates
etc.).
and periodicity of seed crops, etc.).
the attitude
In any case the attitude of
of the
the inventory
inventory officer,
officer, when
when he
he is
is faced
faced with requests
requests
data, should
concerning additional data, Bhould be
be positive.
positive. advantageous solution
Probably the most advantageous solution
and researchers
is to ask the respective specialists and researchers or
or some
some of
of their
their trained
trained staff to
to
and join
use the inventory infrastructure and join the
the inventory
inventory staff
staff in
in order
order to
to collect
collect their
own data.
data. This efficient as the
This solution would also be the most efficient the data collected would
would be
be
reliable and
more reliable and the
the cost
cost of
of the
the infrastructure
infrastructure ehared
shared between
between the
the two
two parties.
parties.
124 Most important

jostis specifications for
artartaui_.ficlations for the
the purpose
purpose of
of a8 forest
forest
inventory
i)
i) E%act limits
Emact li;jd ts and
and size
size of
of the
the area
area to
to be
be inventoried
inventoried (the
(the existence
existence of
of
good recent topographic and land-use maps
and landuse mapa and/or
and/or remote
remote sensing
sensing imagery
imagery
will facilitate decisions at at this
this stage);
stage);
- 8 -
ii)
ji) Divisions to to be mad~ within
he made within the
the area:
area: this
this question is is important
important as
as the
the
intensity of the
intenaity the inventory
inventory depends
depends on
on the
the size
size ofof the
the ultimate
ultimate foreet
forest sub-
sub-
division forfor which
which results
results are
are requested
requested with
with a8. specific
specific precision
precision
(these
(these classificationR the stratification(o)
classifications exclude the stratification(s) performed
performed to
to improve
improve
the precision of thethe results
results for
for the
the above
above units);
units); these
theBe claaaifications
classifications
be:
Ift.y be:
may
based on bioclimatic relationships
relationshipR (as
( as for
for instance
instance land
land capability
capability
classification);
t o existing
related to exinting land-'.l.8f'!
landuse and and vegetation;
vegetation;
to forest
related to f or'!'fl t management
man."lRM'lent criteria
cri teria such
such as:
llS:
terrure
ownership and tenure
administrati on
administration
and accessi.bility
physiography and accessibility
( waterShed. catchment
protection (watershed catchment area)
area)
other management critera, e.g.
ma~ment critera, e.g. logging
logging compartments
compartmente
o f two
combination of two or
or several
Reveral of
of the
the above
above classifications.
classifications.
iii) o t the information

Nature of illlormation required:
req uired: Information may
may be
be 2ictorial
pictorial (maps,
(maps,
mosaics,
mosaics, graphs and charts, etc.)t ~e8criptive
charta, etc.), (qualitative description
deacriptive (qualitative description
of the forest
f orest types,
types, for
fo r instance),
instance), or quantitative.
quantitative.
Regarding pictorial
ictorial information some
Bome characteristics have to
to be defined
defined
such as what the dimensions of the smallest
a8 scale and resolution (what smallest patch
patch
of forest
forest type to
to be shown on the map will be). This
This last characteristic
pertains also
aleo to the precision of
of the
th e required information.
information.
for quantitative results
As for results one
one may
may consider
consider the
the following
following questions:
questions:
do 9tatic and/or
do they correspond to a static and/ or dynamic appraisal
appraisal?? (i.e.
(i.e. at the
time of the inventory
inventory only,
only, ' or
or also
alao concerning
co ncerning the
the evolution
evolution of
of the
the forest);
forest);
are
are they means
means per unit area,
area, e.g.
e.g. per hectare (or,
(or, for
for Bome
some stands,
stands, per
per
tree) or totals
tree) totals??
are the final
are the final resv.lte areas, numbers
results areas, numbers of trees,
trees, volumes,
volumes, weights
weights (for
(for
instance, forest inventories for pulp production),
instance, in forest productlon), prices
prices (taking
(taking
into account
account the unit pric~8 of the products)
unit prices prOducts) ?
iV)
iv) Presentation of the
the information
information required:
required: Once the type of information to
is know, as
be provided is as well
well an
as the
the desired
desired precision,
preciSion, the
the method of eventual
eventual
precentation
prenentation of the results can be decided.
decided. final
The format of the final
tables, for instance,
tables, for instance, will be drafted and shown to the usera
users in order
order to
to get
get
their agreement. be considered
This must be considered as an important
88 an important item
item because
because
clarity and reduction of the "access
"access time" to the
the results
results are two
two important
important
an inventory
qualities of an inventory report.
report. dialogue between
Moreover a dialogue between the
the ueers
users
and the makers of the inventory at this
this stage,
stage, regarding the eventual
eventual
prenentation results, sometimes facilitates
presentation of the results, facilitates a clearer definition
of the objectives by the users.
A met
A eet of
of table
table outlines
outlines for
for quantitative
quantitative results
results concerning
concerning areas
areas and volumes,
volumes,
as the basic mini~um
considered as information to
minimum information to be presented by allall FAO forest
forest
inventories, was designed during the
inventories, the meeting ofof forest
forest inventory
inventory experts
experts
attached to
to UNDP/SF projects held inin 1967 in Rome.
1967 in The purpose ofof this
this
exercise WaS
was to
to harmonize the presentation
presentation ofof the
the results
results of
of FAO
FAO operations
operations
thua facilitate
(and thus facilitate in
in particular
particular the
the periodic
periodic aseessment
&asessment of
of forest
forest resources
resources
at
at national,
national, regional
regional oror world-wide levels).
worldwide levels). TheBe
Theae tables are presented in in
Chapter 6 of this .anual deal. with
Manual which deals with data
data recording and processing
problemB
problems in forest inventory.
- 9 -
Complete standardization
standardization ofof the
the tablee
tables of
of results
results given b7 all
given by all forest
forest
inventories is probably
probably not
not foreseeable
foreseeable inin the
the near
near future.
future. However,
However, it it
table outlines in Chapter 6 could
would help considerably if the tabla could be
b. used used
far as
as far as possible,
possible, with
with additional
add! tionaltables
tablesproduced
producedwhenever
whenever nece::. .... a.r:;.
neceL-ar:,-.
v)
v) Precision of
Precision of the
the information
information required:
required: thethe precision
preCision ofof the
the results
results
corresponding
corresponding to to the
the most
most important
important parameters
parameters must
must be
be determined
determined prior
prior to to
the inventory. For some other parameters,
Borne other parameters, thethe precision
precision required
required may not
;na.y not
be detel"lnined exactly, but
determined exactly, but must
must not
not exceed
exceed aa oertain
oertain order
order of
of magnitude.
magnitud.e.
Regarding precision, three
three important
important considerations
considerations have
have to
to be tak~n into
be taken into
account:
a) the total error of aa sampling
sampling estimate
estimate has
has two
two components:
components:
is the sampling
one is sampling error
error calculated
calculated from
from the
the values
values measured
measured in
in the
the
sampling Wlite, is related
units, which is related to
to "precision"
"precision" in its statistically
statisticl'.11y
restricted sense;
restricted sense.
the second ieis the ~bias which may originate either from the s~pling
sampling
procedure, from the
procedure, the estimation
estimation procedure
procedure or
or from
from the
the measurement
measurement
errors (for analysis of bias in sampling,
sampling, see paragraph 24 of 1/
Chapter 3). Sometimes the bias may farfar exceed the sampling error-/
error"J
which is,
is, often and wrongly,
wrongly, the only one taken into account.
account. When
When
we
we speak about
about precision of an estimate in general,
general, we must refer to
must ref~r to
the total
the total error
error and
and not
not only to the sampling error.
only_tó_th222m2ling_2122E. One ml~t
must try
to estimate the
the total
total error using in
error tieing in particular objective
objective checking
checking
procedures, design the
procedures, and must design the inventory
inventory toto eneure
ensure that
that this
this total
total
error is
is no more than
than the
the admissible
admissible error.
error . This
This point is one of
the
the most and, unfortunately,
most tricky problems and, unfortunately, one of the leastleast studied
studied
in textbooks inventory reports.
textbooks and inventory reports.
b) in all sampling
Required precision in sampling designs
designe must be given
given at
at a certain
probability level.
probability level. The meaning and the
the choice
choice of
of aa probability
probability level
level is
is
not
not always well conceived
conceived by
by the
the potential
potential users
users of
of inventory
inventory results,
results,
considerable impact
although this has a considerable impact on
on the
the intensity
intensity of
of the
the inventory
work. necessary, this
Whenever necessary, point will have to be well
this point well clarified
c larified
before designing the inventory.
inventory.
c) Required precision
precieion must be referred to
to aa given
given population, which may be
populatio~, which
the whole area inventoried or only subdivisions
subdivisions ofof it
it (administrative
7aministrative
units,
units, vegetation types,
types, compartmente,
compartments, watershed
watershed aatchments,
catchments, logging
loggir~
blocks). influenc~9 the
The mean size of these divisions greatly influences
inventory work.
intensity of the inventory work.
each figure
It is desirable that each figure be
be given
given at least
least with
with its
its corresponding
corresponding
sampling error. Precision for
Precision for many secondary
seoondary reeults
results isis frequently
frequently not
not
the cost
estimated in order to reduce the cost of
of data
data procesaing.
processing. However,
However,
preciSion of certain
precision oertain figures
figures may
may be
be very
very low,
low, due to
to the
the high
high variability
of the corresponding parameter. It
It ia neoessary to point
is necessary point out
out the
the
expeoted low precision of
expected of these
these figures
figures or
or to
to omit
omit them
them altogether
altogother (for
(for
is related to
instance if the result is to the
the volume of
of aa species
species of
of very
ve~y nu.,
rBr~
occurrence,
occurrence, it may be combined
combined with
with the
the corresponding
corresponding figure
figure for
for other
species
speciee so combined figure
BO that the combined figure is
is reasonaly
reaaonaly precise).
precise).
11
1/ Especially (1~ sample)
Eepecially in complete (100% sample) inventories
inventories in
in which,
which, by
by definition,
definition,
sampling error
sampling error is
is zero.
zero.
-
- 10
10 -
-
2
2 Outline
Outline for preparing inventory plans
forre lanv ns
'nle following outline is

The is presented
presented as an example
example of
of aa format
format which can be Wield
used in
preparing plans
preparing plana for
for aa forest
forest inventory.
inventory. is given with
This example is with the
the knowledge that
that
is no
there is no single
single outline
outline which
which should
should be
be used
used at
at all
all times,
times, since
Bince the
the outline
outline will
necessarily vary
necessarily vary to fit the
to fit the inventory
inventory under
under consideration.
consideration. i8 that
The important point is
a written plan should
Bhould be
be prepared
prepared and
and all
all the
the topics
topicB shown
shown below
below should
should be
be considered.
considered.
ItemB mentioned in
Items in the
the previous
previous sub-chapter
sub-chapter are
are summarized
Bummarized under
under the
the heading
heading "Purpose
"Purpose
of the inventory".
inventory".
I.
I. Purpose of the inventory
invrntory
a) of the
General definition of the objectives
objectives in
in collaboration
collaboration with
with the
the potential
potential
USftrB of the
users of the results of inventory.
the inventory.
b) Priority of objectives.
c) Additional requirements
requirementB (to
(to be
be discussed
diBCUSBed with
with interested
interested specialists:
Bpecialists:
80il botanists, etc.).
scientists, ecologists, botaniste,
soil scientists, etc.).
d) specifications of
Detailed specifications of the
the objectives:
objectives:
exact
exact limits and size of the
the area to be inventoried
inventoried
divisions to be made within the area
nature of the information
ini'onnation required
the information
presentation of the information required
required
information required
precision of the information required
H.
II. General
General information
a) Authority responsible
Authority responsible for
for the
the inventory
inventory and
and other
other agencies
agencies collaborating.
collaborating.
b) Available information
information and
and data
data on
on the
the area to be inventoried from
from paet
past
surveys, reports, maps or
surveys, reports, or remote sensing imagery
r~ote sensing imagery on:
on:
forest
general description of forest
- variability of parameters to be Measured
measured
condition of
condition of terrain,
terrain, accessibility,
aocessibility, transport
transport facilities
facilitie8
c)
c) Resources available for carrying
carrying out the inventory.
inventory.
Ill
III.. Inventory design
desigE
a) Outline of inventory
inventory design
deSign to
to be
be used.
used.
b) Oeneral description
General de8cription of
of the
the various
various phases.
phases.
i) interpretation of remote sensing imagery

aerial surveys, interpretation imagery
i' mappin« and
mapping area estimation
and area estimation procedures
procedures
ii~i1
ii
iii complete tally
tally or
or sampling
8ampling methods
Methods for
for reoording
reoording of
of forest
forest characteristics
characteristios
iv
lV to be
relationships to be used
used for
for expressing
expressing estimated
e8timated quantitative
quantitative data
data of
of
stands, e.g. volume
stands, volume tables
tables
- 11 -
IV.
IV. procedures
Measurement procedures
a)
a) Description of design
Description of design for
for both
both office
office and
and field
field work;
work; inin particular,
particular, size,
size, shape,
shape,
distribution of
number and distribution of sampling
sampling units
units toto meet
meet required
required precision.
precision.
b) Procedures of interpretation of remote sensing imagery:

imagery:
i de t ailed instructions
detailed instructions on
on all
all techniques;
techniques;
ii staffing andand description
description of
of duties;
duties;
iii instrtll'lsnts i
instruments;
iv) [onns
forms and recording of observations
c)
c) Field organization:
i/
i) crew organization
organization and
and description
description of
transportation procedures and
of duties;
duties;
and directives;
directives;
i~~)
ii
iii 3 camping lnstructionsj
camping instructions;
iv )
iv) proviSions
provisions for
for logistical
logistical support
support
d)
d) Fi eld procedures including
Field including detailed procedures
procedures on:
on:
sampling location;
sampling unit location;
ii establishment ofof sampling
sampling unit;
unit;
iii on sample
measurements on aample unit;
unit i
iv instruments and directives
directives for
for use;
usej
V) tree and
tree and other
other plot
plot measurements;
measurements;
ot her field measurements such
other such as growth, insect
8S growth, insect damage,
damage, mortality,
mortality, soil
soil
conditions, seed collection
and topographic conditions, collection aspects and information
on non-productive roles
roles of
of the
the forests;
forests;
vii ) design of forms
forms and recording
recording ofof observations
observations
v.
V. Compilation procedures
Compilation procedures
a) Detai l ed instructions on
Detailed on processing
processing of
of data
data from
from imagery
imagery interpretation
interpretation
and field
fie ld measurements:
measurements:
i fformulae
ormulae for estimates of means totals
totals and their
their sampling errors;
elTors;
ii r elati onships to
relationships to be
be used
used for
for converting
converting imagery
imagery or
or field
field measurements
measurements
expressions of
to desired expressions of quantity;
quantity; e.g. photo-volume
photo-volume tables,
tables,
i ndi vidual tree volume tables,
individual tables, etc.
etc.
b)
b) Calculat i on and
Calculation compilation methods:
and compilation methods:
i description of procedure,
procedure, e.g. desk calculation,
~.g. desk calculation, electronic
electronic computers,
computers. etc.;
etc ••
ii det ailed description of
detailed of all phases
phases of
of calculation
calculation from
from raw
raw data on
original forms to to final results
results (for ~lectronic computation,
(for electronic computation, description
of inputs,
i nputs, programmes,
programme8, and outputs).
outputs).
VI.
VI. Fi nal Report
Final Report
a) Outline (note
(no1e that
that the inventor~ plan,
the inventory plan, with
with some
80me modifications,
modificationB. can
can serve
serve
basia for
as a basis for the
the final
final report).
report).
EB1il:lated time
Estimated t ime for
for preparation..
preparation·.
bc Responoibi li tiea for
Responsibilities for preparation.
Method ofof reproduction.
reproduction.
e Number ofot copies
0 Distribution.
-- 12
12 --
CHI. PTEll
CFIP,PTER III
III
BASIC SAMPLING TEx:IIIIQUES

TECIINI UES
- 13--
- 13
CHAPTEll
CHAPT11 III
III
BASIC SAMPLDlG
SAMPLING TEI:lfIIQUES
TECBNIQUES
1.
1. Introdu~tion
Introduction
11
11 Sampling in
in forest
forest inventory
inventory
111
111 Sampling
Sampling isi8 a necessary
neeeasary technique
technique used
used in
in most
most forest
forest inventories for
inv~ntorie8 for
economic reasons..
economic reasons. Populations to be inventoried,
inventoried, e.g.
e.g. population ot
population of
or population
forest plot units, or population of
of treee
trees for
for the
the assessment
assessment of
of volume
volume tables
tables or
or of
of defect,
defect,
the estimation
or for the estimation of
of mensuration
mensuration parameters
parameters ininplantations.,
plantations, are
are usually
usually too
too larga
large to
to
enumerated.
be fully enumerated.
sampling procedures
Several sampling procedures may
may be
be used
used in
in the
the same
Bame forest
forest inventory
inventory inin different
different
the operation.
parts of the Their main,
main, but not exclusive,use is is for
for the
the estimation
estimation of the
forest areas
forest areas and
and of
of the meneuration parameters.
the menJ!luration parameters. speaking about the
In speaking the sampling
oampling design
deoign
of a forest inventory
inventory one
one generally
generally refers
refers to
to the
the disposition
disposition ofof the
the field
field samples.
samples.
statistical techniques
Although other statistical techniques may
may be
be used
used in
in aa forest
forest inventory,
inventory, an
an example
example
of which is multivariable analyais
analyeis -- regression
regression -- for
for aseesement
assessment of of volume
volume tables,
tables, this
this
Manual will
Manual will deal
deal only
only with
with sampling
sampling techniques.
techniques. Information on these
these other
other relevant
relevant
otatistical techniques will
statistical techniques will be
be found
found in
in statistical
statistical textbooks,
textbooko, soma
some of
of which
which are
are listed
l~sted
in the bibliograp~.
in the bibliography.
112
112 Objectivity in sampling.
Objectivity in sampling. Sampling muet
Sampling muot be
be objective
objective inin order
order not
not to
to
introduce a subjective
subjeotive bias in
in the
the sampling
sampling estimates.
estimates. A forest
A foreet
inventory uoing subjectively selected
ueing subjectively selected plote
plots (for
( for instance
inotance byby selection
selection based
base.d on
on the
the
of the
"experience" and a knowledge of the foreet
forest area
area of
of the
the designer)
designer) cannot
cannot give
give valid
valid
estimates &8 impossible to
as it is impossible to know
know the
the importance
importance and the sign
and the sign of
of bias
bias and
and to
to determine
determine
the sampling error of
of them.
thom. Objectivity is not synonymous with unbiased estimates estimates of
the parametere.
the parameters. One can deliberately
deliberately use
uoe aa biased
biaoed estimation
eotimation provided
provided that
that the
the bias
bias is
is
lower than a given
given limit.
limit. uRatio
"Ratio estimation"
estimation" isis a. estimation which proves
a biased type of estimation proves
very useful in many cases.
is objectivity
Nor is objectivity synonymous
synonymous with
with randomness.
randomness. Many systematic
systematiC designs are
objective and also give unbiased
unbiased estimates,
estimates, although
although in
in most
most caste
cases aa systematic
systomatic layout
layout
cannot be assimilated to aa random
random device.
device. The
The only trouble with
with samples
aampleo of
of this
this type
type is
io
that
that their non-randoroness prevents the
non-randomness prevents the user
uoer from
from applying
applying the
the etatistical
statistical sampling
oampling theory
theory
and getting unbiased estimates ofof the
the sampling
sampling errors.
errore.
113
113 Selection of
of the
the sampling
oampling design.
deoign. Theoretically thethe most
moot efficient
efficient
eampling design
sampling design is
is the
the one
one which
which provides
provides the
the most
moat precise
precise estimates
estimates
for
for aa given
given coot,
cost, or which coets
costs the
the least
least for
for aa given
given precision
preCision ofof the
the estimates.
eotimat... Under
the term "precision" one must consider
one must consider not
not only
only sampling
sampling errors
errors but
but also
also conntant and
constant and
variable biases (oee paragraph 24 of this chapter).
biases (see chapter). evaluation of
The evaluation of cost
cost should
should also
also
be the moat
most oomprehensive one.
comprehensive one. In ma~
many cases it is is very difficult to to perform
perform a complete
and precise
precis e study
otudy ofof efficiency
efficiency and
and to
to find
find out
out the
the most
moat efficient
efficient sampling
sampling design.
design.
Approximative calculations
calculations taking
taking into
into account
aooount only
only sampling error8 and
sampling errors b&eic cost
and basic cost figures
figures
point
point out
out the bes·t
best sampling deSign oimplified procedure.
desigr according to this simplified procedure.
But the selection of the sampling

Bampling design must
muot not rely only on thie
this partial
partial
calculati on based on the sampling theory and available cost figures.
calculation figureo. The incidence of
~rrorst which
the measurement errore, which generally
generally cannot
cannot be
be entered
entered in
in the
the efficiency
efficiency calculation,
calculation.
tnUflt
munt be r8d.uced
reduced to a minimum. that the
This means that the tanks
tasks in
in which
which junior
junior staff
staff are
are
involved -- especially
especially field
field work
work -- must
must be
be eaey
easy and
and simple,
simple, as
8S must
must be
be their
their control.
control.
-- 14
14 --
'lhesa
Theee requirements are very important
important and
and must
must be
be kept
kept in
in mind
mind when
when selecting
selecting the
the sampling
sampling
of the
designs(s) of the inventory.
inventory. All possible
All ssible measures
measures must
must be
be taken
taken to
to im rove the
improve the reliabilit
reliability
of the data even if
data, even if this
this leads
leads to
to aa slight
ali ht increase
increase of
of the
the sampling
sam Ii error
error and/or
and or
total costs.
total costs.
114
114 of the
Relative importance of the sampling
sampling techniques
techniques in
in forest inventorY.
forest inventory.
The
The last
last paragraph shows that the
the sampling
sampling methodology
methodology has toto be
considered together
together with
with practical
practical matters
matters in
in order
order to
to make
make the
the inventory
inventory resulte
results precise
precise
!!!!! reliable.
and reliable.
Furthermore, photointerpretation
Furthermore, photointerpretation andand forest
forest mensuration
mensuration techniques
techniques which
which are
are not
not --
only partly
or only partly -- related
related to
to the
the sampling
sampling theory
theory are
are fundamental
fundamental in in forest
forest inventory,
inventory, forfor
instance forest
instance forest classification,
classification, estimation
estimation ofof volumes
volumes ofof standing
standing trees,
trees, defect
defect assessment,
&aBaSHment,
etc.
etc. sampling techniques
Thus sampling techniques can
can be
be considered
considered as as only
only one
one among
among other
other tools
tools ofof forest
forest
inventory, and
inventory, and their
their importance
importance must
must not
not be
be overestimated.
overestimated. Forestry officers
Forestry offioere involved
involved inin
inventory work
inventory work muet
must have
have aa basic
basic knowledge
knowledge inin this
this field
field -- and that is
and that is why
wby one
one complete
cOllplete
chapter in
chapter in this
this Manual
Manual is
is devoted
devoted to
to sampling
sampling techniques.
techniques. Reliability and
Reliability and validity
validity ofof
inventory results
the inventory results are
are not
not only
only aa question
question ofof sampling
sampling procedure;
procedure; forest inventories
inventories
USing sophisticated
using sophisticated sampling
sampling designs
designs may
may give
give unreliable
unreliable andand useless
useless resulte
resulta while
while simple
simple
sampling designs
aampling designs may
may be
be aa characteristic
characteristic of of good
good and
and effective
effective forest
forest inventory
inventory operations.
operations.
12
12 Outline of the chapter
first priority
The first priority is
is to
to define
define the
the most
moat useful
useful statistical
statistical concepts
conoepts and describe
and describe
how they
how they have
have to
to be
be used
used in
in the
the field
field of
of forest
forest sampling.
sampling. mathematieal
Then the basic mathematical
and stati8tical teohniques will be given which are commonly used
statistical techniques UBed in sampling designs,
designe, such
such
&8 normal distribution
as normal distribution hypothesis,
hypothesis, variance
variance of
of compound
compound values,
values, ratio
ratio estimation
estimation and
and
optimization
optimization ofof a& design.
design. Finally 80me common classical
eome of the most common cl&8sic&l sampling
sampling designs
designs used
used
in forest
in torest inventory
inventory will
will be
be presented
presented with
with the
the corresponding
corresponding formulas
formulas for the estimation
for the estimation
of the ~ value of
mean value of aa given
given parameter
parameter per
per unit
unit and
and its
its sampling
Ban'lpling error.
error.
22 Statistical concepts
Statistical ( 1)
concepts(1)
21 Population
A population is
A population is an aggregate of units (or(or elements)
elements) ofof the
the same nature,
nature, the
the
definition of which
which has
has to
to be
be clearly
clearly expressed.
expressed. For instance,
For instance, aa forest
forest isis considered
considered
as of aa finite
as the aggregate of finite number
number of
of contiguous
contiguous plots
plots of
of equal
equal or
or unequal
unequal size,
size, oror as
as
the
the aggr.gate livine trees
aggregate of all the living trees within
within the
the forest
forest (this
(this definition
definition being
being useful
useful inin
the inventory
the inventory of plan~ations)j
of plantations); aa mapped zone is considered
considered asas the
the aggregate
aggregate ofof an
an infinite
infinite
when sampling
number of points, when sampling by
by dot
dot counts
counts is
is used
used for
for estimating
estimating its
its area.
area.
It to consider
It is important to consider the
the two
two following
following points:
points:
the
the population may have
have aa finite
finite or
or infinite
infinite number
number ofof units
units and
and in
in both
both cases
caaes
the
the definition
definition of aa unit
unit of the population must
must be sufficiently
sufficiently precise
precise to
to know
know
without ambiguity if a given
given unit
unit belongn
belongs or
or not
not to
to the
the population;
population;
the
the units
units are of the same
same nature
nature but
but are
are not
not necessarily
necessarily the
the same
same size:
size: for
instance each
each unit
unit may be aa forest
forest compartment,
compartment, the whole
whole population
population being
being aa
large forested area;
area; one unit may aleo be a variable part part (or
(or subplot)
subplot) of
of aa
plot
plot area,
area, if the
the plot areas
areas are
are distributed in aa partially forested
forested area
area
(in this latter case,
case, the
the population
population is
is the
the forested
forested part
part of
of the
the area).
area).
(1)
(1) The terM
term parameter will be used in the rIIIanual
manual to indicate any variate
variate of
of
aa sampled population which is to be estimated by the
the sampling procedure.
procedure.
- 15
15 -
The following remarks

reMarks can
csn be
be made
made regarding
regarding the
the concept
concept of
of population:
population:
(1) The term "population"

"population" has
has aa statistical
statistical meaning
mea.ning which
which isis more
more definite
definite than
than
in the common la~.
COMMon language. instance, there
For instance, there is
is only
only one
one population
population of
people living
Italian people living in
in Italy;
Italy; but it is i8 useful in demographic studies of
this population, to define various
this population, various statistical
statistical populations
populatioDs which
which have
have the
the
same overall size,
size, but the
the units
units of
of which
which have
have not
not the
the same
same attributes:
attributes! the the
of one
unit of one of
of these
these etatistical
statistical populations
populations may
may be
be the
the family,
family, another
another
population could
statistical population could be
be made
made up
up of
of groups
groups of
of people
people living
living in
in aa
building, etc.
specific building, etc.
(i1) Sometimes the

the term
term population
population is
is referred
referred toto the
the aggregate
aggregate of of the
the valuee
values of
of
one of the parameters
parameters to
to be
be estimated
estimated by the inventory
by the inventory over
over all
all the
the units
units
and not to
to the
the aggregate
aggregate of
of the
the unite
units themselves;
themselves; we thinkthink that,
that, unless
unless
otherwise specified, population
population must
must be
be understood
understood in in the
the sense
sense ofof aggregate
aggregate
the unite
of the units as
as sampling
sampling is
is done among
among the
the units
unite themselves
themselves and notnot among
among
values of
the values of the
the parameter.
parameter.
(iii) may happen

It may happen that
that the
the aggregate
aggregate ofof all
all the
the units
units cannot
cannot correspond
correspond to to the
the
population.
whole population. For instance, if if the
the units
units are
are circular
circular plots,
plots, there
there is
is
aggregating them
no way of aggregating them in
in order
order toto form
form the
the whole
whole population.
population. Although
Although
of circular
the use of circular plots
plots is
is common,
common, this
this problem
problem does
does not
not eeem
seem to
to have
have been
been
dealt with.
with. sampling intensities
For small sampling intensities andand aa relatively
relatively small
small size
size of
of
the plots, this
this problem
problem can
can be
be considered
considered of of minor
minor importance
importance and
and formulas
formulas
will be used as ifif there
there were
were aa possible
possible aggregation
aggregation ofof the
the units.
units.
(iv) The population to

to be sampled
sampled must
must be
be clearly
clearly defined,
defined, before
before any
any sampling
sampling
is designed.
procedure is designed. instance, if
For instance, if it
it ie
is an
an area,
area, the
the limits
limits of
of the
the
be known.
area must be known. Two
Two considerations are
are related to
to this
this statement:
statement:
(8)
(a) Sampling theory
Sampling theory does
does not
not provide
provide any
anY way to estimate
way to estimate aa parameter
parameter over
over
obtained an estimate
a population if one has obtained estimate of the same Bame parameter
parameter by
by
sampling only
sampling only in
in aa part
part of
of the
the population,
population, oror in
in aa different
different population.
population.
(b)
( b A diatinction must be made between
A distinction between the
the "overall
"overall population"
population" and
and the
the
"population of reference".
reference". Let
Let usus take an example to to clarify
clarify this
this
point. Being given
given a high
higb tropical
tropical forest
forest of of 100 100 000
000 ha ha which
which is
i8 the
the
"overall population" to to be
be inventoried,
inventoried, one one may
l'IIIay expect
expect aa precise
precise
the mean
esti~ate of the
estimate parameters per
~ean parameters per area
area unit
unit for for this
this whole
whole population
population
or for subdivisions
Bubdivisions ofof it
it ("blocks",
(tlblocks", "compartments",
flcompartments ft • "management
t'management units",
uni tat!,
etc.) which we will call
call "populations
Itpopulations of reference fl •
of reference". Thus there will
be various inventory
inventory optiona
options forfor the
the same
same "overall
lIoverall population"
populationtt andand for
for
Bame precision
the same precision onon aa given
given parameter,
parameter, according
according to to whether
whether this
this
requested over the
knowledge is requested the whole
whole population
population or or over
over sub-divieions
subdivisions
of it ("population
(npopulation of reference").
reference tt ) . Iftle
The definition of the "population
of reference course the
reference"tt is of course the one
one which
which is is important
important from from aa statistical
statistical
pOint of
point of view.
view. ~ia
This remark points
points outout thethe need
need to to state
state clearly
clearly atat
level are the results requested
which level requested in in aa forest
forest inventory.
inventory. Sometime.
Sometimes
decieion-;&kers
decision for the
makers ask for the survey
survey of of aa given forestforest area without
without
reference unit areas
defining the size of the reference areas for for which they need need &a
estimate of
precise estimate of the
the important
important parameters.
parameters. They have to define
define it,
it,
becauae sampling intensities
because the range of the sampling intensities of the forest forest inventory
is
is wide, from light intensity
wide, from intensity inventories
inventories if if they
they areare interested
interested inin anan
overall knowledge,
knowledge, toto very
very high
high intensities
intensities if if the the useful
useful sub-divisions
subdivisions
&re very
are very small.
small.
- 16
- 16 --
22
22 Distribution
Distribution
221
221 parameters in one unit of &
Different kinds of values of parameters a population
A given
A given parameter
parameter has
has one
one value
value inin each
each unit
unit ofof aa population.
population. instance, let
For instance, let
US the parameter
us assume that the parameter is
is the
the "number
"number ofof stems
stems of
of Shorea
Shorea albida
e.lbida of
of more
more than
than 10
10 cm
em
per hectare",
reference diameter per hectare", that
that the
the population
population isis aa forest
forest area,
area. the
the units
units ofof vhich
Which
are 0.1 plots.
0.1 ha plots. If in one unit there
there are
are two
two Shorea
Shore a albida
albida with
with aa reference
reference diameter
diam~ter
of more
of more than
than 10
10 cm,
em, the
the corresponding
corresponding value
value ofof the
the parameter
parameter for
for this
this unit
unit is
i8 20.
20. This
This
discrete values,
parameter has discrete values. because
because the
the corresponding it~B (stems)
corresponding items (stems) are
are not
not divisible.
divisible.
If, in
If, this population,
in this population, we
we consider
consider the
the parameter
parameter "gross
"gross volume
volume ofof the
the boles
boles of
of
Shores
Shorea albida with a reference diameter more than 10 cm em per hectare" -- the volume
volume ofof aa
being related
tree being related to
to its
its reference
reference diameter
diameter and
and height
height through
through aa volume
volume table
table -- the
the
values of this
this parameter
parameter corresponding
corresponding to
to the
the various
variouB units
llnits will
will be
be continuous,
continuous, because
because tht
th.
values which can be taken by the parameter
parameter are close to one another according to to the
the many
many
possible combinations of numbers of trees in a plot with various possiblepossible reference
reference
and heights.
diameters and heights.
The value in
in aa unit
.unit of
of the
the first
first parameter
parameter is
is determined
determined through
through aa count
count while
while that
that
from a count
of the second is obtained from count and measurements of specific characteristics
characteristics of of the
the
trees which
trees which are
are used
used toto estimate volumes through
estimate volumes through a regression
regression equation
equation (volume
(volume table).
table).
often aa paraMeter
Very often parameter of
of aa population
population is
i8 estimated
estimated by assigning each
by assigning each sampling
sampling unit
unit
to
to aa given class.
class. Let us suppose we we want
want to
to estimate
estimate from
from aa certain
certain number
number of of photo-
photo-
interpretation plots of equal
equal size
size the
the proportion
proportion (in
(in area)
area) of
of aa given
given forest
forest type
type within
within
a forest
a forest area
area (population).
(popUlation). each plot
To each plot we
we will
will assign
aBBien aa variable,
variable, the
the value
v!!Llu(! of
of which
which
for the
the plot
plot is:
is:
0o if
if the
the plot
plot is
is not,
not, or
or only
only for
for a minorpart,
a minor part, in the forest
forest type;
11 if the or for
the plot is entirely, or for. aa major
major part,
part, in
in the
the forest
forest type.
type.
The
The mean
mean value
value of this variable over
over all
all the
the sampling
sampling plots
plots (which
(which will
will he
be aa
positive v~lue between 00 and
value between and 1)
1) is
is an
an estimate
estimate of
of the
the proportion
proportion in
in area
area of
of this
this forest
forest
type
type within
within the
the whole forested area.
If
If we
we consider all the forest
forest types
types of
of this
this forest
forest area,
area, it
it is
is easy
easy to
to verify
verify that
that
the
the sum
sum of the relate~stim&ted
of the related estimated proportions
proportions isis equal
equal to
to 1 (and that
1 that the variance of this this
sum
sum is
is equal to 0, expected result
0, which is an expected result as,
as, whatever
whatever the
the sample,
sample, the
the sum
sum of
of these
these
estimated means is constant and
means is and equal
equal to
to 1).
1).
Most of the following considerations inin this

this chapter apply equally to to sampling
sampling for
for
estimation of parameters
parameters resulting
resulting from
from measurement,
measurement, count
count or
or assignment.
assignment. The way of
calculating the variance is
is the
the same
same for
for continuous
continuous parameters
parameters andand variates (0,1) but
variates (0,1) but the
the
resulting formulae are different, for
for they
they can
can be
be simplified
simplified inin the
the case
case of the variables
of the variables
{O,1}
(0,1) used for estimation
estimation of
of proportions.
proportions.
222
222 Distribution of the values of
of aa parameter
parameter. over
over aa whole
whole population
population
The value of the parameter to estimate in all the units

units of the population are
are
distributed in a certain
certain way.
way. Let
Let us
us assume the parameter can
can take
take only
only discrete
discrete values
in
in each
each unit
unit of the population, e.g.
e.g. the number
when it is the number of
of stems
stems of
of aa given
given species.
specie ••
-17-
- 17 -
If
If we
we consider all the
the units
unit. of
of the
the population,
population, we can represent
we can repre.ent the population by
~he population a chart
b~ a ohart
of points
pointe (fig. 1)
1) the ooordinate. of which
the 000rdinates are;
whioh arel
- on the m-axis the number

~ax1e the number of stems
of .tBMI of
of this
this species
'peoiel in
in one
one unit;
unit;
- on the p-axis
y-axis the
the number
number of unite
of units of
of the
the population
population having
having aa given
given
of stems
number of .tem. of
of this
this lpeoiee (or
species (or frequency)
frequenoy)
number number A
A
of unite of units
unite
31
27 w"./.
16 -.-
11
1\ ~,
I
c±-~2 --t3 -'= i-·L ~-F
i
3
0:-'--:--
0 1
' 4- --
4
i I __ _ ._~
number
number number
of eterna
of It"",e of .t"",.
stems
per unit
per unit per unit
unit
Fig.
Fig. 1
1
Ver" often
Very ofien such
euch aa graph
graph is
i. presented
preeented inin the
the form
form of
of aa histogram:
hietogram. for
for eaoh
each dieorete
discrete
value of
of the
the parameter
parameter there
there will
will be
be aa rectangle
rectangle based
baled on
on the
the correeponding
corresponding ordinate,
ordinate, the
the
height of
of which
which is
is given
given by
by the
the frequency
frequency related
related to
to this
thie ordinate.
ordinate.
In the case
caee of
of aa continuous
oontinuouo parameter,
parameter, we can gather
we can gather the
the information
information by
by classes of
01 . . 8818 of
parameter value.
value. In thil
In caee we
this case we will
will aleo
also get
get aa histogram;
histogram I the
the smaller
smaller the
the classes,
claesos, the the
narrower and more numerous will be the rectangles.
rectangles.
lie oan imagine

We can imagine that
that if the width
i f the ..idth of
of the
the classes
claeseo (and
(and of
of the
the corresponding
corresponding
rectanglee) deoreasel, the
rectangles) decreases, the representative
reprelentative points
point. will
will be
be °loser
oloeer to
to each
each other
other and
and their
their
y-ordinatee will also
y-ordinates will aleo decrease.
decreale. The distribution can
oan then
then be
be represented
repreeented by by aa curve
curve
which joins
joine the points
pointe (distribution
(diltributAon curve).
curVe).
One distribution
One dietribution for
for continuous
oontinuoUB variables
variable. is
i. very
very useful
UBeful in
in sampling
.ampling techniques.
teohniquee.
It
It is
is the normal distribution with a curve curve symmetrical
symmetrical inin relation
relation to
to the
the axis
axis of
of
~rdinate
x-ordinate equal toto the
the mean
mean value
value ofof the
the parameter.
parameter. lie
We will see that
that if the estimates
i t the e.timatoe
of the values
values of a a mean
mean obtained
obtained from
from all
all samples
eamplee of
of the
the same
eame type
type are distributed
distributed
"normall~" around the
"normally" the expected
expeoted value of of this
thil mean,
meant itit is poeeible to give
iB possible give the
the .ampling
sampling
error
error of this
this eltimate
estimate atat aa given
given probability
probability level.
level.
-18-
- 18 -
223
223 Characteriotic8 of
Characteristics of central
central value and die
value and di.peroion of the
ersion of the distribution
di.tribution ,
Two characteristics
Two characteristic. of
of the
the distribution
distribution of
of the
the values
value. of
of aa parameter
parameter over
over aa whole
whole
popult.tion are
population are of
of particular
particular interest
illtere.t for
for its
it. estimation.
estimation. ( ....Ullling the
They are (assuming the
population is
population i. finite):
finite):
a}
a) the mean value of
of the
the parameter
parameter per
per unit.
unit. If:
If:
x is tli.
is par...eter
the parameter
xi its value in
its value in the,
the. ith
ith unit
unit
• unit. in
the total number of units in the
the population
popult.tion
the mean
the mean 7X of
of the
the parameter per unit
parameter per uni twill be equal
will be equal to:
to:
11
N
~Xi
7 -- - . -
X
We can aleo write 7 -.

X z. p,x.,
p.~. , -
ii,~ 1: 1
EX%}
E(x)
where Pi'
where pi. i.
is the
the probabil1 ty for
probability for t,ne parameter x% to be equal to xi.,
te parameter %i" the
.um~, being extended to all the possible value. Xi' of
sumX,beingextendedtoallthepossiblevalueexi,of
1
thethe unit.of
units t~
of the
whole population;
population;
7X isi8 alao
also called the .~.oted
called th. value of
mpeoted value of the par....t.r %
the parameter in the
x in the population
population
..hich is
which EXx};
written E(x);
10 written
the ~ parameter over
total of the parameter over the
the whole
..hole population
population is
i. the
the sum
eum of
of the
the value.
values
of the
tile parameter
parameter for all the unit.: Jl
the units:
X
X •- t.:1xi NX
ti7
b}
b) the variance of the
th. value of the parameter in
the parameter in aa given
given unit
unit is
is
11
N _ 2
cr2 i~1
1.- 1
(x. - 1)2
1: (%i - X)
X 11
N
Thi. oharaot.riatio
This
per..... tool' around
gmrameter
w.
ohsracteristio is
around the
the mean
oan write
We can
mean value
value of
write also:
(Pi" xi'
xi. and
al.ol
-I,
of the
baving the
2E. having the same
11'22
i. aa 2esjeoLizytile_diereions
m.... vre ot the di.por.ion of
th. parameter.
par.... ter.
2
dUxx-= f,
ro pi
..... meaning
meaning as
i
or the value. the
values of the
(xi. -- X}2 -~, Pi,[ii'

Pi' (Xi'
... above)
i.
.
i .5i - E(x)7
- EXrjJ
3)2 ....X
2
The variano.
'nle variance 18
is aleo the expected value of the mauar2,of the 4.viattns
also lth!!;e!.,.!e~~.~o~t~ed~v~at;l~u~.~O~f~t~h~e",a~l!!:l~e!..£0:ir,...:;te:.~~~~~!.
b.t .... n the
between the valu •• of
values of the ....t.r iin
the parameter n .the. mulation a on and and the m.an ,and
the mean 9 and is i. written:
writt.nl
,R2 EL-x Eorff 2
'1X
-19-
- 19 -
The square
The square root
root of
of the
the varianoe
varianoe is
is the
the standard
standard deviation
deviation i.,
which is:
which
¡L (.. - y)2
'nle
The IItandard
standard deviation ie
i. not
not aa pure
pure number
nwnber and depends on the
depende on the syntem
lI;yllt... of
unit ••
me&Sur~ng unite.
measurtng
The coeffioient
ooefficient of variation C
v
Cv
di
--
i
.-fx
is a pure
h pure number
nWllber and is
is very
very useful
UIIeful
to ch&raoter;ze the variability of a parameter over the whole population.
ili_tLofattéLmL_tochtuacteiqzethevazam'overewiu)leulation.
If
If two
two parameters are to
parameters are to be
be estimated
.. timated in
in the
the same
same population
population x
x and y, we
:I. we
oan define
oan define a oro •• measure
a arose me..ure of
cf variation,
variation. called
called oovariance:
oovarianoe!
(xj. -
6
ft
n
XY
•. cov(x.:I)
cov(x,y) •
i.1
N
N
:Ii
yi 't
and Y being re.peotively
respectively thethe value
valueof
ofthe
theparameter :I
pa meter y in the
in the ith unit and the
mean value
mean value of
of y over
over the
the whole
whole population.
population.
The oOrrelation
The oorrelation coefficient
oo.ffioient t.t between
between :I and
y and x population defined
in the population
b:l the
by the equations
equation,
tt. °• cov(x.y)
cov(x,y)
(X· (Y
(Tx* G
will charaoterise
will oharacteri•• the
the crone
oro•• variation
variation of
of the
the two
two parameters
parameter. y and
y and x in the population
((tis
(, i. aa pure
pure number
number whereas n depends
axy
where.. (f depends on the uni ta chosen
units ..ttmating the
chocan for emtimating the
parameters x and yy).
).
224
224 ylbe
Value of aa p!£!!eter per area unit in one unit of the population
paramote_jezrareatirunilounitoftheation
•• we have
As we have seen
.een from
from the
the example
example in
in paragraph
paragraph 221 there is
221 there i. one
one value of the
the
parameter "nllllber of
parameter "number tree. of
of trees of aa given speCie. heotare" in
species per hectare" in each
each unit
unit of
of: aa foreat ar....
fore~ t area.
This parameter has a mean value over all the
'nti. the units
unit. of
of the
the whole
whole population,
population. which
whioh iei. the
mean
mean number
number ofof .tee. per hooters
stems per heotare of
of thie
thi8 species.
.paoies. In order to
In to avoid
avoid confusion
oonfUllion we
we
reoOl'lllftend
reoommend \l.8inc oaplet. expression
using the complete expre ••1on "mean value per
"lIean value per area uni t n to
area unit" to denote
denote the
the mean
melU1
value of the parameter per par unit
unit (of
(or the
the population)
poP1i1ation) referred
ref.rred toto the
the area
area unit.
unit. IIf ..11
f all
the unit.
the units of the the population
population have
have the
the same
..... area
area (size),
(Bize). the
the mean
mean value
value per
per ares
area unit
unit ieie
equal al.o
equal also to the mean of of tho
the values
valu.. per
per arca
area unit
unit in
in all
all the
the units
unite ofof the
the population*
population.
20-
- 20
23
23 Sanpl1ng
Sanpling
and/or
,.
As in
azoi/or ....
in most oaa..
NO.t oases the
lIZ'eci, it
measured, it is
the population
population to
i. feasible
f ... ible to
to have
to be
b. studied
have this
studi.d ie
thia work
is too
work done
too large
don. only
large to
on17 on
to be
on aa ••
b. ful17
fully enUMerat.d
enumerated
l.ction of unit.
selection units fro
from..
the whole
the population.
whole population. Such aa selection
•• l.otion isi. called
call.d sampling,
.aMpling, the
the selected
•• l.ot.d elements
elem.nt. are
are
the ...
the plin. units,
sampling unit., and the whole
and the whole set
.et of
of sampling
...pling units
unit. is
i. the
the sample.
.... pl.. Provided giv.n
given
proOecillZ' •• \Of
procedures •• l.otion ar
of selection aree followed, sampling techniques
followed, sampling t.ohniqu.s are
are usefu
useful::
i) to gett an estimate
•• timat. of
of the
the true
true values
values of
of the
the mean
mean and
and of
of the
the total,
total over
over the
the
whole popliIiiI717foror a& given
ven parameter,
ameter, from the values of this parameter
hll! parameter
in the sampling units;
t.;
11) to g.t an estimate~~~~;;~~!.~TI~y'(or
to get of the sampling error (or of
of the
the precision
pr.oia1on or
or of
of the
the
l~el, for
confidenciIllir57j at a given probability level, for the estimatedthe
estimated mean
mean or
or
total given by the sample.
Eotimating saMpling error

Eatimating the sampling .rror is
i. sometimes
som.ti... 8 very
very difficult
difficult and,
and, in
in certain
certain cases,
caees,
the formulae
the fOrMula. used
used are
are only
on17 approximate.
approximate. TIll.
This call. us. of simple
calls for the use 8imple sampling
s ... pling
designa whenever
designs whenev.r possible.
po.8ibl ••
SOM. conc.pt. have
Some concepts have to
to be
b. stated
8tat.d clearly
cl.arly in
in relation
relation to
to sampling.
SaMpling.
231
231 Size of
Sise of sample
.... pl.
Oiv.n
Given a .h.eize unit which 111&7
may be an element
el ... ent or
or anan individual
individual (such
(.uch ae
as aa tree),
tree), or
or aa
. . . . . IIZ' . . . nt unit
measurement unit (such
(such as
.. aa hectare)
hectar.) the
the size
8ize of of aa given
given population
population and
and any of
of ite
it. units
unite
..ust be
must b ...... urabl..
measurable. Th.
The unit. of the
units of the population
population may .. a7 be
b. of
of different
differ.nt sise:
.iz., this i. the
thiS ifg the
caee wh.r.
case where a forest
for •• t area
ar.a has curvilin.ar limita,
hao curvilinear li .. it., the units of which are .trips strips of .qual
equal
width but but of of unequal
un.qual length,
l.ngth, the
the size
8iz. being
being expressed,
expr.a •• d, as
as in
in many
many forest
fcr.at inventories,
inv.ntoriea,
terma of
in terms !!!!.
ot area.
Th••size
The i •• of
of sample
.ampl. ie the sum
i. the .um of
of the
the sizes
siz •• of
of the
the sampling
8ampling units.
units.
Th••sampling
The ampli", intensit
intlnaity (or
(or .... pling fraotion)
sampling fraction) is
is equal
.qual to
to the
the ratio
ratio of
of the
the faze
aiz.
of the samp
of .... pl. to
to the
the tota
total .i.e of the
sise of the population.
population. has NN unite
If the population haz unita of
of
.qual
equal .is.
size and ifif the
the .ampl. has b
sample hao ••n ..made
been ade up
up by
by .el.ction
selection of
of n n differ.nt
different .ampling
sampling
unit.,
units, th.n the sampling
then the .ampling fraction
traction ff i. equal to:
is equal tOI
n
f
f •e if
N
In this
In thi. oar.
cue (equal
(equal units)
unit.) D
n can b.
be 8aid to be
said to b. the
the size
.i •• of
of sample.
... pl ••
,A difficulty
difficult7 arises
ari ... when
wh.n the
the unit
unit is
i. aa point
point and
and therefore
th.refore has no dimensions.
hao no dim.naiona. ThisThi.
088. (mows
case wh.n one
00C\1J'8 when on. estimates
..t1aat.. thethe proportion
proportion ofof ares
ar.a in
in aa given
siven forest
fore.t type
t7P8 over the
the
whole inventoried
inventoried ares,
araa, using
uainc aa dot
dct grid
,rid laid
laid onon aa forest
foreet map
Nap or
or when
wh.n the
the forester
fore.ter i.
is
uainc
using a point
point sampling
...pl1ng ... thod (ase
method ( ... paragraph
paragraph 422.2).
422.2). 'nle
The .aMpling fraction in
sampling fraction in the
the firet
firet
088. will be
Game
vary
of
b••said
var" acoording
aooordinc to
ot h.ich",
aid to
to be negligible,
to the
h.icht). it
height, height)*
neclipbl., whilst
the relevant
if it
it i.
is the
whil.t in
r.levant oharacteristic
the heri.ont.l
in the
charaot.ri.tio of
the seoond
horizontal point
..cond cu.
of the
the trees
point ...
tr••• (basal
the sampling
Gage the ... pling intensity
(baaal ares,
pling ...
sampling
araa, diameter,
thod, the
method,
.quar.
int.naity will
will
di ...t.r, square
the ... pling
sampling
lIIt_ity of
intensity of trees
tre. ofot 56 ..am di ...hr will be exaotly
diameter .:r.aot17 equal
equal to to four
follZ' U...
times the
the ... pl1ng
sampling
int.naity
intensity ot tr•• of
of trees 28 am
ot 28 .. diameter.
di ...t.r. Generally, even
Generally, ev.n for
for the
the biggest
bi.... t or
Or highest
hirh•• t trees
tr•••
w .... fraction is
pl1nc fraction
this sampling i. _11 can be
and can
all and b. oonsidered
oOMid.reci negligible
n.gl1sibl. in in the
the .... pl1ng .rror
sampling error
calculaUon.
caloulation.
- 21
21 -
232
232 eamplinc error.
Precision and sampling error. The estimate.
e.ti~ate" of
of the
the mean
mean or the total ot
or the of a
parameter given by aa sample in
parameter given is generally
generally different
different from 'the true
from:the true oorr .. poDdi".
corresponding
value over
over the
the whole
whole population.
population. The sample will
will be
be more valuable as
~ore valuable .. the
the estimate
estiMate becomes
beoo. ..
more accurate,
accurate, which
which meann that the
~aana that the estimate
esti~ate isis closer
closer to
to the
the true
true value.
value. Thi.
This acour&07
accuracy
cannot be expressed in an ab.olute
absolute _y
way ..
as , in the following sentence,
sentenoe, "the
"the aocuracy
acour&07 of ot the
the
eatimate
estimate of the !lean
mean of thie
this parameter
perameter over the whole population is is ± + 3'4".
1>". can,
It can,
however, be
however, be expressed
expres.ed in
in aa probable
probable wa:K, and is
way, and is called
called precision or sampling error. In
In
the former
the example precision
to~er example preoision isis stated
stated as being equal to +3% at a given probability level.
as being
If we say
If say "at 0.95 probability
"at 0.95 probebility level",
level", this
thi. will
will indicate that for 5 of similar sam
drawn from the same lation the true mean will be within +3 interval from
estimated mean given by every semple. It in aleo expressed by saying that the probability
of the true mean being within the +3% confidence interval in 0.950 or, or, whioh in i. eqa1Y&lent,
oquivalento
that the probability ot
that the of the
the true mean being out.ide
true ~ean outside this
this interval i_ ie 0.05.
0.05. In this
In this oses,
oaae,
the 0.05
0.05 lleuures the risk
meaeures the riak we are
are prepared
prepared toto acoept
acoept of
of being
being wrong when we sey
wrong when .a.;, that 1IIe
the
."pling
sampling error
error in +3% aro.95
is ±3% probebility level.
at 0.95 probability level. Whatever the .~ij'I
Whatever the ssmpling, thethe -fl1ilf
samplial
error would
would be
be lIe&l116!$". and infinite
meaningless and infinite (or
(or the
the preoieion ;ail
precis on willbebe null)f1 f oneone at _~edstiiiiTed
to erpre •• it
ta_tspress it at
at aa 100%
1 probabilitz level.
probability level.
The aeleotion ot aa probability level
seleotion of level to to which
whioh the
the .... pling error
sampling arror of ot an estimate
e.tt.ate
oorresponds
corresponde ..u.t be made
must be lI&d.e by the
the user(s) ot the
usar(.) of the forest
forest inventory.
inventory. IIti is
ia not enough to
reque.t aa given
request given precision;
preoiaion; the probability
probabilit)' level
level must
III11IIt be
be opeoified.
speoified. preoia1on equal
J. precision
A equal
10'1> at 0.95
to + 10% probabilit)' level
0.95 probability ("19 out
level ("19 out of 20") is
of 20") is better
better than the esme
than the ....e precision
preci.ion at
o,QJ
0168 probabiUt)' level ("2
probability level ("2 out
out of 3"). We will see (paragraph
of 3"). 31) that in many
(p&l'&6l'&ph 31) aue.
II&IIT oases
the .eoond
seoond pr.oi.ion
precision ini. equivalent to +± 20% 0,95 probability
20'1> at 0,95 level. Amz_asakag
probebilit)' level. J.Bl ...plige
preci.iongiyen_xithout
2Evi8i0n given without aa refarenoe
reterence to
to aa probabilitz_level
probability level in madadal.
i. ae&l11ncl ••••
The
The 1I0St
most frequently used
uned probability levels
levels in
in sampling
sampling teohniquee are 0.95
teohniques are 0.95 and
(the re
0.68 (the ..on will
reason will be given
given in
in paragraph 31). 'fuese
parseraph 31). These two
two probability levels
level. are
.ometime.
sometimen referred to
to respectively
re.peotivel)' as 0.05 and 0.32.
as 0.05 0.32.
Supling errors are
Sampling errors are expressed
erpre •• ed not
not only
only in
in percentage
percentage ofof the
the estimated
•• timated result
re.ult but
bot
al.o in
also in the
the corresponding
oorre.ponding measuring
~ ... uring units.
unit.. In this
thie oaae it in
ease it i. also
al.o pontable
po•• ible to
to express
.rpr...
the
the "oonfidenoe lieit."
limits" at
at aa given
ven probability
robabilit level in thee~
level in unit.. 70r
Meet unite. For inotance, it
instance, if
the .... p ng
4Iing .stimate
estimate of of a .ean
a mean vo vo
ume","e
perper heotare
hectare is ia 40.0
40.0 ~ and
nr-5 the seepling
and the ... pli". error
error
± 5.0'1> at
+ 5.0% 0.95 probability
.t 0.95 probability level,
level, the
the confidence
oonfidanoe limite
limit. will
will les/
bel
40.0. 3
40.0e3 - 0.05 40.0.3 - 38.0.
0.05 xx 40.003 38.0m33 .- lower
lower oonfidenoto
oonfidenoe limit at 0.95
limit at 0.95 probability leeel
level
40.0. 3
40.0m3 ++ 0.05 3
0.05 xx 40.0m3
40.0. e- 42.0. 3
42.0m3 e- ~ oonfidenoe limit
upper oonfidence liett at 0.95 probability
at 0.95 probability level
level
tho
the oonfidenoe interval being
confidence interval (38.0
(38.0 - 42.0).
42.0).
The probability
The tor the
probability for the true
true value
value to
to be
be less
le •• than
than the
the lower
lower oonfidenoe
oonfideno. limit
lieit is
i.
equal to tor it
to the probability for it to be .ore
more than the upper oonfidenoe limit.
lieit. In case
In ot
oaae of
aa 0.95
0.95 probability level,
level, this
this .eanl that the
meane that the true
true value hao a 0.025
has a probability W
0.025 probability to be
be
1lase
... than the lower oonfidenc.
the lower oonfidenoe limit 0.025 probability
lieit and aa 0.025 probability to
to bbe• .ore than 1IIe
more than the ."ar
sever
oonfldenoe lieit.
oonfidenoe limit.
IIt"' may
IIa.T be uutul
amend to to refer
reter the
the estimate
e.tt.ate toto only
only one ot the
one of the confidenne
confid."". limits.
lieU ••
Where
Where the the estimate
.. tt.ate is
i. aa mean
.ean exploitable
.xploitable volume
voluae per
per hectare
h.otare in in aa forest,
tore.t, we ar. .are
.. are more
iart_ted
interested in the loweet love.t vol.e
volume to be expected at a.. siv.n
expeoted at probability level.
given probebility level. In thie
tbi.
oase ~e
oaa_ oonfidenoe limit
tke lower otonfidence limit at
at the
the probability
probability level
level i.is called the "rIl~le
callad 111. 1 able ~1~
51ELERE
"'}'!th"
ee
0.9 or 0.05),
(BJ:).
te" (R100. the probability
If the
the referenoe
0.05), the
probability level
r.teranee probability
level corresponding
probability level
eorre.poDdi". to
level for
ter this
this RKL
to this
this oordidence
will be
IiIIJ: will 0.9'15 (or
b. 0.975
LIB •
oonfidence limit-ii---
(or 0.025).
0.025).
0.95
'ftll
This •••
seams tbat this
anI that III! will
th1a JIME have 0;975
will bav. 0.975 probabil1ty
probability W to be
be uo.-.l-.l by 111.
exoeeded b;r tree .".lu.,
the "Vu value,
or 0.025
01' 0.025 probability to b. be hieber thi. true ....
higher than this lu••
value.
-
- 22 --
giv.n forest
In a given fore.t inventory,
inv.ntory, several
.ev.ral sampling a•• igoa may
.~pling designs ~ay bebe used,
used, one
on. for
for the
the
int.rpretation Ben.ing imagery
interpretation of the remote sensing imagery (area
(area estimation),
•• tiMation), oneone for
for the
the field
fi.ld work
work
((estimation
•• timation of number of stems),
.tem.), aa third
third for
for the
tho calculation
calculation of of volume
volume (using
(using aa sample
.ampl. of of
~oaaured trees
completely measured tre •• for
for elaboration
elaboration ofof volume
volume tablee),
tabl •• ), etc.,
.tc., and
and each
.ach will
will have
hove aa
different sampling .rror which
.~pling error which may
may be
b. related
r.lat.d toto the
the others.
othoro. Th. total
The total sampling .rror
!~pling error
i. a combination
is combination of these
th ••• partial
partial sampling .rror. and
.~pling errors and is
i. not
not the
the mere
m.r. addition
addition of
of them.
thea.
In mo.t i. difficult
cae •• , it is
most casee, difficult ifif not
not impossible
impo •• ibl. to
to entimate
.AtiNat. it it properly.
prop.rly. Thi.· call.,
This calls,
one.
once Nor., u •• of
more, for the use of simple
.imple inventory
inventory designs
d•• igno which
which provide
provide the
the user
us.r with
with reliable
r.liabl.
reeult. with
results with the
the requested
reque.ted precision.
prec~.ion.
233
233 oth.r conoept..
Other concepts. Th•••
The l.otion of the units
selection unit. of
of the .~pl. (or
the sample .~pling in
(or sampling in
narrow senile
the narrow nn.e of of this word) ~uot
this word) must b.
be mad.
made at rondo.,
rindo.: thi. 10 aa fundamental
this is f'undaIIental
.~pling theory.
requirement for the application of the sampling th.ory. For instanoe,
instano., there
th.r. is
i. no
no
cONpl.t.ly valid m.thod
completely a ••••• ing the .ampling
method of assessing sampling .rror
error of an •• ti~ate giv.n
estimate given by
by aa
.yotematic sampling
systematic de.ign, because
.~pling design, b.caus. the basic requir.m.nt
requirement of randomnese
randomn... i.
is gen.rally
generally
laoking.
lacking. Thi.
This do •• not m.an
does that the estimate
mean that •• tiMat. itself
it •• lf is not valid
i. not valid (see
( ••• paragraph
paragraph 422 of
422 of
chapt.r).
this chapter).
Probability of •• l.ction in sampling

selection .~pling
S~pling theory
Sampling th.ory can beb. applied in principle
principl. only if the composition
cONpo.ition and probability
probability
of •• l.ction of all po
selection •• ibl. .ample.
possible samples of a giv.n
given .sapling
sampling d •• ign fro.
design from the
the whole
whole population
population
i.
is known. practic. it
In practice it is
i •• ufficient to
sufficient to know
know the
the probability
probability of of incluxion
inclusion for
for the
tho
unit. them •• lv...
units themselves. probability of
The probability of selection
.el.ction ofof aa unit
unit is
i. the
the chance
chance that
that it
it has
haa ofof
b.ing
being drawn for inclueion
inclusion inin aa sample during the
.~ple during the constitution
con.titution of of the
the sample.
.ample. Thi.
This
probability is i •• xpr ••••d as
expressed .. aa figure
figure of
of less than one;
1 ••• than one; one,
on., or
or certainty,
c.rtainty, being
b.ing the
tft •• um
sum
of the sampling probabilities of all
the .~pling the unit.
all the units of the population.
population. The probability of
.el.cting
selecting aa giv.n
given type of 8ample
sample of nn unit.
units can b be........
assessedd from
from the
the probabilities
probabilities of
inclusion of each.ach sampling
.&mpling unit
unit in
in the
the sample.
.~pl ••
(.ampling with
Examples (sampling with replacement):
r.placem.nt):
a) In
In aa simple
simple random
random sampling of aa population of
of NN unit., whioh all
units, in which
unit. are selected
units •• lect.d with equal
.qual probability,
probability, the probability of •• l.ction
selection
of the
of the unit
unit ii isi8 equal
.qual to
to
N
1
1 1
1
Pi -" if with gipi - x

N x if -
. 1
b) probability proportional to the .i.o

a sampling with próbábility
In a Mi of
size Mi of each
.aoh
unit (called
(call.d PPS saMPliiii) we
PPS .ampling) w. will
will have:
hav.,
N
Mi with M0 b.ing tho sise
being the .i •• of the
- Mo whole population.
R.plac .... nt
Replacement
Wh.n the first

When firot unit
unit of
of aa sample
.~pl. has b •• n selected,
baa been •• l.oted, two
two alternatives
alt.rnatiY•• are
are possible:
po .. ibl.:
- to draw the seoond

noond unit from
frOll the
tho whole population including
inoluding the first
tirot
.~pling unit (sampling
sampling ( ... pling with
with replaoement);
roplac"od) I
- or to draw
drew the
tho .. oonli unit from
seoond frON the
tho population whioh does
do •• not include
inolude the
tirot sampling
first ...pling unit (sampling
(_p11ne without
vUhout replaoemont)
r.p1eo_eat)
(th.
(the prooodur.
procedure uood
ueed b.ing eaob drawing ot
being repeated after each of a ."pling
sampling unit,
unit, until
until tho
the full
full
... pl. is
sample i. oonstituted).
conotitut.d).
--23-
23 -
..... pling with

In sampling with replacement
replaceillent the
the same uni to may
'llIIe units IIIay be
be drawn
dra"" and
and included
inoluded in
in the
the sample
.... ple
lI:ore
more than once.
Mo.t the formulae

Most of the formulae used
Uled in in practice
practio. are
are valid
valid only
only forfor sampling
.... pling with
with replacement.
replacem.nt.
However, almost
However, allllo.t all samples
.... pl •• ar
are.. drawn without r.plao .... nt.
replacement. TId. approxiJoation is
This approximation i.
acceptable provided
provid.d that
that thethe number
number of of sampling
... pling units
unit. isi. relatively
r .. lativ.ly small
••0.11 in
in proportion
proportion to
to
th.. total
the total numb ..r of unit.
number imita in th the .. population (or thethe .tratulll
stratum if it it i.is aa .tratified
stratified ... pling --
sampling
see paragraph 411.4).
....
24 Bias and
Biu and lI.uur ...nt errors
measurement .rrol'll
241
241 Biu.
n,. concept
The
Bias. oono.pt of expected
.xpeotld value value (see
(.... paragrap4
par&!"&Pl1 223 223 of
of this
thi. chapter)
ohapt.r) can can
~ppli.d to the estimate
be applied to giv.n by a lsample.
e.tillat. given .... pl.. If~
If u.r
i. the
is th..... tillat .. of
estimate of aa
par..... ter given by
parameter by aa certain
c ..rtain type
type of
of simple,
..... pl .. , and,42j
and~j thethe estimate
e.tillat .. given
given by the sample
by the ..... pl .. jj
froll this
from this type
type of .ample,
sample, the
the expect .. d value
expected value ofil is: il: Of';:
E(A Iri)11)
wher" 71;j is
where 'If 18 th the pr~babi1i ty of the ....
.. probability pl.
sample ;IT j •.
jj (f1r 11)) sua
and the sum ~ 18
7. is ext.nd.d
extended
to all tfie
tne ..... pl •• of
samples of the
the ..... typ••
same type.
A
~ A
~
The ••
The tillate I"from
estimate" j~fr~OIIr~a:..,.:.I&II~t:il1-1e~o~f~t~h~i,,""~t~.~i,".~un'5!'b~i~u:;:.;:eTd~i:.:f~i~t;:.,:"e1-lx~;;:ct.:;ed""""Via'Tlu~e::....-:::E~~
a sample of this type is unbiased if its expected value E(/112
is• ...::equa~::;i~t::;o:.....:t:!:h:::e-=ao~tua~::;l~v~a=u:::e..Jf'....2Uh..
.!i::: equal to the actual value ,kof the parameter .tar overov .. r the
the whole
whol.. populations lat onl E(Ai_t_,/A
E • 1"-.
If it
it i.
is not so, the estimate '0,
e.timat .. is
i. biased
biaeed and the bias
biu is
io equal to
to th
the.. diff ..rence
difference
expeoted value of
between the expected of the
the estimate
e.tillate and the
the actual
actual value of the parameter
parameter of of the
the
whole population.
A
In
In thi. cu e I
this cases 1(,...).
r(tk) m ,,,!I-
II 4 4044 with the
the bias:
biul B •
B '" -
m p
n,e
The oono.pt
concept of bias relatel 0.1.0 to other estimates
relates also e.tillat •• given
giv.n by aa .&IOpl. and in
sample and in
eotillat .. of the sampling
particular to the estimate ... pliD« error.
"rror.
(1)
(1) L.. t us
Let ,uPPO'. that
UI suppose that theth.. oharacteristic/A-is
oharaoterioUc /4-10 the the mean
....an basal
bual area
ar ..a per heotar..
hectare .¡ g
of all
all tre ... of lIor.
trees more than 10 10 cm di ...ter in a given plantation,
001 diameter plantation, and consider
oonsid..r that
that ....
we
81tiaate
estimate "Ri from a certain
o.rtain type
typ. of a sample
... ple of
of trees.
tre8l. Let
Let UI u.".. that the
la assume the section
•• otion at
at
braut height of
breast height of all
all the
the trees
tr.. e. isi.circular,
oircular,lortrt
,but that
thatthe
the tape
tape Uled
used for
for .euuring
measuring th ..
the
di&lletero
diameters has
has .brunIc '&;yO 21
shrunk and says 21 cm wh.n the
011 when the diameter
di&ll.tar is actually 20
10 actually 20 on
011 and that there
is no other Po
i. ••1ble me
possible .. ura.ent error.
measurement
21 2
21 2
Each tr
Each .. e will be
tree be giv.n
given aa bual area ~t
basal &rea g' equal to(75)g
to(2li)g .• 1,1025
191025 g, g being
b.ing its
it.
actual
actual bual ar ..a.
basal area. The expected
The "xpeoted value E(l) of the .ean
value ECU bual area
mean basal area per
per hectare
hec,tare over
ov ..r all
all
th
the...... pl ... of that
samples that type
type will
will be:
bel i.
i·. 1,1025 7j. 7' .
Bar
Here.. the
th.. bias,
biu i.is equal tos
tOI
B • gt - g • (1,1025-1) •. 0.1025
7g (1,1025-1) g
0,1025 7
-- 24 --
(2) Let Ill! ..as"",. that

ue ameumo the characteriotic~
that the characteristiqA is otill the
is still the mean
.. eo.n basal are .. per
b ..... l area per
hectare 7 ~ of
ef all tr~el!l more than
817 trees -than 10
10 cm diftlleter in
0ftIJ diameter in aa given
given foremt
forel!!lt area.
area. The sample
The ill
aMple is
.,onaU tuted of nn .....
oonstituted pling unite
sampling unit. ofof uneq.ual
unequal size prob"bili ty.
size sampled with equal probability. There
There
ia
is no ~esaure~ent error.
meaeurement error.
A cOMmonly uned
A commonly used eetimate
ewtimate for
for g ia,
is
w~er.,
where: ii i.
ie the reference nunber .. sampling
number of a eampling unit
Il le the sura
10 to the
sum extended to the n .... pling unit.
eampling units of the .anople
sample
i~1
i.1
gi is
i. the total basal
bae"l area
area in
in the
the sampling
oaspling unit
unit ii
.i i. the area
si is of the
are .. of the eampling unit
.... pling unit i
i
i. called a.. ratio

It ie ratio estimate
.. t~ate and i ••
and is o~.t~e. used
sometimee in forest
lIl!ed in fore.t sampling
oampling becauee
beoauae it
it is
i. not
not
..I_yo
always po.Bible
possible toto have
have ".pling units of
sampling Ullit. of the ... e .ize.
the I mame ele.
1
e.t~te is
Thlo estimate
This biued and the
10 biased the bias 1>'" an
biu has an order
order of
of magnitude
.. agni tude of
of
1
71,
n
(3) A. has
As already been
hae already been ot ..ted (paragraph
stated (paragraph 112 112 of this
thi. chapter), bias .~
ohapter), a biae may rresult
••ult
from an
t'roII 1nOO1'1'60t mampling
an incorreot ..... pling design.
dedgn. inatanoe this
For instance occur. when
1ohi. occurs when the
the oAmple
.... pl. ia
i. constituted
oonatttutod
tho ao-called
of the """;"..Iled "representative"
"rep.·...ntatiT." sampling 1IIlit. chosen
... pliD« units b7 the
oho.... by tho forester
foreeter onon the
the basis
bad. ofof his
hi_
-exparieno. a and
"experience" knowlodce.
and knowledge. hother oaoe of
inother case of bias
biu duedue to
to the
the sampling lIay arise
.... pling may ariae when
wh.n some
• .".e
part.
parta of the population to be mampled """,pled are
are not
riot taken into amount
tllleen into acoount in the ..... pling design:
sampling de.ignl
thi. oooura
this for •• t inventory
occurs in forest iav.ntory when
when, for instance,
inatance, sampling
... pling units
unit. falling
falling in 1•••
in less
aooe.01ble areae are ayetematically
accessible areas .yot ... aUcally replaced b7 more
repl ..oed by ,"ore convenient
convenient units.
uni to.
Theae obow that

exaNpl~o show
These three examples th.. t bias ~~ have three originst
biae may origin••
Jleuurment errors;
measurement errora;
estimation
•• tiM"tion of
of the
thoparameter
par. . . terfrom
from the
the;sample;
.... ple;
.... pling procedure.
eampling procedure.
M.N
Bias due to
to the sampling
o_pling procedure
prooedure I. recognized and
.. l ....;yo reoognized
10 not always endpraotioall;y
practically
lepo •• ible to
imposseible to evalUAte.
evaluate. An eetimate
An eotlMate of
of the
the bias
bi .. canoan be be provided
provided in
in some
oo .. e biased
biaeed estimation
•• tiMation
prooedure ••
pr000dures.
242 Measurement errors.

leuur_ent errore. The measurement
The rweuurftlent errorsoan
errora canbebe.pli
split into three
t into
oomponenta,
components:
aa vonstant
oonatant biubite orer
OT@r the
the whole population (as(ae for instance
in.tano. in the cAse
caee ofof
measurements
.... urem.nt. h7bya adevice
deviceinin whioh
whichthe
the z.ro
zero graduation
graaustion does
doe. not correspond te
oorr •• pond to
the sere
••romeAeure);
... lIJIur.);
a variable oOftponent, in relation
Tariabl.component rolationtotothe
theeaspling unit
.ampling which
unit whiohmay
Ma;y be
be oorrelated
correlated
to ths
th.• exact
exaot value
".,luft of
ofthe
'themeasured
..... ured parameter
par".tor in the the oorresponding unit (for
oorrOlponding unit
instences
inatano., as .. in
in the
tbo case
0"6 deaoribed
d •• or1b.d in1n the
tho first
ftrotexample
.xaaple of ofthetheformer
fOrM.r
paragraph
~phl the
tho variable
variableoomponent
oeepon.nt of the the bias
biaeononthe
thediameter measurement
di .... tar .eaeur• • nt
is in
1. Inthie 0."equal
tblocase eqv.ltotoy% 5" ofof the
tltediameter);
di . .ehr);
- 25
- 25 --
a "fluctuating" component
a "fluctuating" component in
in aa given
given sampling.unit
lampUng . unit of
of mean
.. ean 00 (its
(it. variance
variance
estimated if
could be estimated if several
several measurement::
me .. ureMent. of the .ane
of the same parameter were taken
in the
in the given
given sampling
.sapling unit).
unit).
The meaourement error affects

measurement error affect. the
the reliability
reliability both
both of
of the
the estimate
e.timate of
of the
the mean
mean (the
(the
expected value ofof which
which is
i. different
different from
from the
the true
true value
value of
of the
the mean)
mean) and
and of
of the
the estimate
e.ti.ate
of the sampling
.aMpling error.
error. A•• uming thot
Assuming the .aMpling
that the sampling de.ign i. correct
design is oorrect and
and that
that the
the exaot
exact
'aMpling
sampling error calculation is i. done, the resulting estimate
the re.ulting e.tim.te cf
cf the
the sampling
... pling error
error is
i. aa
biaoed estimate
biased e.timate of
of the
the true
true sampling
.aapling error.
error.
33 Ba.io
Basic mathematical and
and statistical
.tati.tical teohni
teChnique.
es
31
31 Principle. of
Principles of sampling
.ampling error
error estimation
e.timation
311 Introduction.
Introduction. Let ue call~the true
us calliAthe true value
value of
of aa mean
mean of
of aa parameter
parameter over
over the
the
,.^whole
whole population, p. the
population, ia e.timate of
the estimate of this
thi. value given by
value given by aa certain
certain type
type of
of
.uipl. and)Aj
saMple e.timat. given
and,... j the estimate giv~n by the .ample j of
tho sample of this
thi. type.
type. f we take
IIf all the
talc. all tho
...
samples ofrthis tzpe,
pl •• ofthi. type, the corresponding
oorr•• ponding estimates
e.ttaate. will
will be
be distributed
di.tributed in in aa cerag7;117.
oertaIn way.
The di.tribution
The distributionofofthe thee.timate. ~j will have the following
estimatesA following characteristics:
oharaot.ri.tio.1
(a)
(a) oharacteriotic
characteristic of central value (",ean of the estimatefri
(mean "
e.ti",at.,P- j)
)
m •
wh.rel
where: Trij
TT' .tend.
stands for the
the probability
probability of
of drawing
drawing the
the sample
... ple jj (1'i'
(~Tr'j •. 1)
1
J
E .tando
stands for "expected value" (see
(.ee paragraph
paragraph 223)
223)
and
and Ij i.
in extended to
to all
all the
the .ample. of this
samples of thi. type.
type.
all the
If all the .ample.
samples hove
have the
the ...
amee probability
probability of
of being drawn (ira
being drawn (Trj .Tr
• if. ~1
where M
M i. the total
is the total number
number possible
po •• ible of
of samples
.ample. of
of aa eamo type), .am.
type), we
..e will
will hay*:
hav_:
.. • E{j"). . J(j
E(}44 ) o
We have seen
We have ••• n (paragraPh
(paragraph 241) thot if)'" io unbiaoed
241) that unbiased we will have:
WI will havel . .,/14
m .. )'"
(b)
(b) Charaoteri.tic
Characteristic of di.per.ion
dispersion (varianoe •• ti ..ate
(11..riaán.c.e2 of the estimate )
T2( ) - ELf-
(12(;'). . 1i Tri `,/-
gr;jl·~'TTjifj-!J2
E 49'4. - E(77172 rAAA
i I/
,
.... annot&tione)
(with the sane annotationa)
drawn (rr j Tr . j)
.;r.
lE2
If all tho ... pl .. hwy.
samples ha. . the .... probabllU7 of be111C
game probability being dr."" i)
...
we will have:
haves
Ij <1"-.1 - .)) 2
h
A
. i
- 26 --
-
Attention is
Attention i. called
called to
to the
the fa.ct
fact that the distribution
distribution which
which isia dealt
dealt with
with here
here in
ia
the diatribution
distribution of thethe eati~atea
estimates ti of JLj
of the ~ean value
the mean value of
of aa parameter
parameter over the whole
whole
population given
population given by
by all
all the
the samples
.ample. ofof aa certain
certain type,
type, but
but isi. not
not the
the distribution
diatribution ofof the
the
value. this parameter
values of this parameter over
over thie
thi. population.
population.
Example
Example:I Let ue con.ider aa foreat
ue consider forest atend
stand (poPUlation)
(population) ofof NN equal units
unit. of 0.25
hectare. Aa sample, we
As a sample, we select
.elect at rando~ with
at random with equal
equal probability
probability and
and without replaoe~ent
without replacement
n (n"
(n< N)N) units
unita ("sampling
("a""'2ling units")
unita") where
where we
we enumerate
enumerate the
the number
number y of of stems
ate,.. of
of aa given
given
.pe refer~nce diameter more
e le! with a referPnce
species ~ore than 10 cmC~ (this
(this is par~eter).
i. the parameter).
number of
The total number of possible-samples
po •• ible· .ample. of
of that
that type
type is
i. equal
equal to:
tOI
C N 1I (1 )
(1)
N
M
M • N n
NCn
ni
ni (N-n)!
(Nn)1
i. the total
which is total number
number of
of distinct
diatinct combinations
combination. of
of nn different units
unit. from
from the
the total
total
number N of the population units.
unita, All these
theae samples
aampl •• constitute
conatitute aa population
population of
of NCn
It i
N
elel1lent..
elements. Each different sample has
haa the same TTj • i f . 4 of
eame probability TTi being
of being
aelected (they have an
selected (they an equal chance
chance of
of being drawn,
drawn, which
which can
can be
calculated from the probabilities ~election of their
pr obabilities of selection their n luccelsive unite).
successive units).
The
The eatimate
estimate from the sample j
j mean value
of the mean value (per
(per unit)
unit) of
of y ial
is:
"
.J-lj n
t he sum
where the Bum ~
1i iis
s eextended
xtended to the
the n unit
unitss ii of the sample
of ."",ple j.
(a) There ar e
'Ther e are 14
M possible e8tim a te ~
estimates y
Yj ex~ected value of y
and the expected ii'
(a) :t:j im:
m E
E G.)
G.)
J J jJJMfYj
I1f
j
. ¡*.
J Yj
• M
t h. qum
the ~
",un 1= being to the
being extended to the M
N Ham ple.
Ramples j
j (all the S1imple.
(all th:>t type).
samples of that type).
J
If there
If there is
ia no bias due to
t o enumeration or measurement
",euurement errors,
errors t it i . eMY
1 t is easy to
to
prove that for ~s_type
prove sampline. the
this type of sampling, Yj" m, is
the expected value of Ti,m, equal
11 equal
the true
to the true value Y Y of the mean value r unit
value per unit of
of the ameter y (e.e
the parameter (nee
241 •
paragraph 241).
Thus
Thus y. i.
Yi is an unbiased estimate of 7 and this
unbia.ed e.timate Y
this type of sampling, which is
ia
called ~il1lpl. (or
called gimple unrestricted) random
(r unrestricted) random sampling,
sampli2&, is
is an unbiaaed
unbiased aampling deaign.
ampling design.
Y . N. is likewiae
likewise an unbiaaed eatimat. of
unbiased estimate of the
the total
total T of
Y of the
the parameter
parameter
over the whole population.
aver population.
(!li
1\ NI
N1 Me&na the
means the product
product of
of the
the first
firat N
N n~ber.:
numbers: NI
N1 • 11x2x3x4x...x(N-1)x
x 2 x 3 x 4 x ••• x (N-1) xN.
N.
-- 27
27 --
(b)
(b) The
The variance of the estimate
estimate v. (i,e.
Tr.(i.e. the charac
the 4;eri.ti c of
characteristic o f dispersion
diepe!rlJion
ofthevalues.for
of the value. Yj for the
the M !iiI•• iblesamples
M IAssible o_ple.ofofthat
thattylole)
type) is
ill
(y) E f - E Cij)_72 - 17/ ;!- (3,3 -
the
the sum JE being extend.d
sum21..
J
to the
extended to the M poo.ible samples.
M possible sample ••
Sampling theory .how. that V(Yj)

Samplingtheoryshowsthatv(.)for
Yj for .i~ple
simple random
random .amplingisi.equal
sampling equal to:
to:
(12
v(-yi) • -n (1 - .!!
N ))
where(J2 standll for
where(f2 ntands for the variance of the
the values
values of'
of the parameter over the
population of
whole population of NN units.
units.
-
Th. aamplin,g error at probability level 0'2~ on Yj.is
Thessziplingerroratprobabilityleve10.95on Yj i.equal
equal to:
to:
e 0a Gj ) . + 1,96 ~ m(Yj.l • + 1,96

J
-
1,96 ---
v-71-
n
1/7-17",-
-if
N
Vn
(j'
11
provided that nnio large enough.
is large enough.
o-
pr7---T is called the standard
i. atandard error
error and correspond., in
and corresponds, in case
c&le the
the
normal distribution hypothesis i.
diotribution hYpothesiB is verified, to the
verified, to the sampling
.ampling
probability level
error at probability level 0,68
0,68 (see
(.ee paragraph 31 2.1)
paragraph 312.1)
It iis
It • •shown
hown that
that an
an unbiaaed
unbiased eot11late
estimate of
of thio
thia ..... pling error
sampling error fro .. the
from the."",pl
ample ei
~t probability
(at probabilitylevel O,95} ia:
level-777'in:
e (G.)
-.)
Yj • + 11,96
96-·- /1 1 - i7nj
J ' { i/71
rl
2 of (Y(Y Yj)2
i --j)2
ff6 2
where •
s'
n - 11
is an unbiased
1. unbiued estimate
eatimate of from
from the aam pl e j.J
the sample
(th
(the• • um 4;~
sum being extended
being ext.nded to
to the
tho n unit.
units ii .... ple).
of the sample).
St.ilarly
Similarly an unbi ...d estimate
unbiased •• tt.at. of
or the
tho standard
.tandard error (at
(at probability
probability level
l.vol
10.
0,68) is:
(ij) - +
1/17-
'lhl. • •
This xaapl ••shows
example ho.... that
that sampling
.... pling theory
theory Rives,
giv... for given ,o_oxilag_amlo,
for aa given .... pling d.sign, the
tho
following estimates:
•• t11lat •••
•• tt;:t.. of the true mean

estimates •• an and total
total of
of the
tho parameter
par .... t.r for
for the
tho
who. population;
whole population;
••pro,t;t,. of the
li1~y leve
probability
• .apline error on the ••••
r.
lev.i. .
&t a given
t~t •• at
esnmitte of the sampling error on these estimates
biased
....n if there
Been
oaloulaUoni.
oaloulationm.
th.r. is
bi.. ecl estimates ~ be
•• it.ato. may
i. no bias
bi.. due to
b. preferred
pr.f.rred for
th... oases
In these
to the
tlls sampling
for the
tho sake of
oaro should
0 . . . . oare .hould be
be taken
.aIt.
."pling design
d.oisn or
or to
of convenience
to measurement
conv.ni.nc. or
tak.n to
to keep
keep the
.. e..ur • • nt
or simplicity
.t.plioiiy
the bias
bi. . .as. low
low
opora~iono,
operations,
in the
in the
.. possible.
as po. .1ble.
- 23 -
It should be kept in miA, rni ' !el, as

as has
has already
already been
beenpointed
pointed out,
out, that
that we we cannot
cannot have
hnve the
the
true values, but ohly
values t but or.ll esti;'l'lfltco;;
estimateI,, of both the the mean
mean (or
(or total)
totp.l) of the parameter
of the para-:'Ieter andand the
the
sMlpling error.
sampling error. Genernlly speaking, good
Generally speaking, e'Qod (unbiased
(unbiased or
or biased
binsed with
with a<l very
very small bins)
Sr.lp.ll bias)
eetimates
estimates of means and totals
totals are are notnot difficult
difficult to dete~ine.
to determine. 8~plir~ error
Acceptable sampling
estimate.
estimates (on these
these estimates) are more difficult difficult to
to calculate.
calculate. The followine paragraphs
followinp paragraphs
give some basic techniques used for for the
the estimation
estimation of the
the sampling
BNAplirC error.
error.
A
~
~timB.tion' of
Estimation
312 of the
the samplil18
sampling error
error on P
d"- from itl:>
j frO!l'l variance. No:mal
its varianceo,. Normal
distribution hypothesis.
distribution hypothesis. As has been
been seen
seen in the case
ill the caBe of
of simple randoJ'l'l ,
simple random
lampling, sampling
sampling, 18I1Ipling theory
theory gives
gives anall unbiased
unbiased estimate
estimate of
of the variance of
th~ variance of the
the estimatei4j,
estimllte)A-j'
provided that some requirements are observedob8erv~d (random
(rnndo~ selection,
selection, sampling
sampline over thethe whole
whole
population and not
population not only
only over
over aa part
part pfof it,
it, etc.).
etc.).
'Die proble... now is

The problem is to
to estimate
estiMate the
the sampling
sampliuff error
error at
at aa given
eiven probability
probability level
level from
fro ..
e.timate of this
the estimate this variance, which is,again
variance, which the characteristic
isagain the characteristic of of dispernion
dispernion of the
the
distribution of
distribution of all possible estimates~j
all posoible estimates" (the(thecharacteristic
characteristic of of central
central value beir~ ~,
value being m,
.qual to
equal to the
the true
true value'"
valuelL of of the
the parameter
parameter over
over the
the whole
whole population,
population, ifif there
there is
i8 no
no biao
bias
1n the
in the estimation).
•• timation).
312.'
312.1 Simple rando~
Simple random ft~plil~
mamplLa
thh type
In this type of
of sampling
sampling we
we will
will assume
&BSUMe that
thatthe
tiledistribution
distributionofofall ro.. ible.)4·
allpossible,PLj
•
A
corre.ponding to all samples

corresponding .ample. of the
the same
.....". size n (which
(which is
i. not
not the
the (Iistribution
distribution of thethi
param.ter over
parameter ov.r the population) isis a normal
normal distribution. ThIs assumption is
This assumption approxi~at.ly
is approximately
v.rified numbe. n of .a~pline
verified when the numbe; unitsi.isla~ge
sampling unit. enou&h: it is Usually
)am enough: Usuall! agreed
agr.ed that
that
nomal diatribution
normal is obtained when
of/"'; is
distribution OfdAj ..hen n"nil' 3004
301 1 J, whatever the . distribution
dhtribut on of the ot
oampied~DUlation.
sampled population. fhe lampli~
'the error on~j
sampling error on/A-
, at
at the
the probability level u il
probability level is proportional
to the ssquarl of its
uare root of it. variance:
variano.,
eU (ti)
=
tu
07)177
Variance VCrj)
,
'Die
Th e square
square root
root of
of the
the lIarianoe V(0. is oalled
1.) ie thl standard
called the ItandJlZ'd error.
.rror.
J
...M.1.1111.11.10.1PIIMMIK
(1)
(1) This agr....
Thil agr nt ofofoours.
ailment course is is BOMewhat
somewhat arbitrary,
arbitrary. Bampli~
inotance, if the sampling
For instance,
unitl
units are equal fixed-size
fixed-81u plotsplot. of forest area ar.a and thethe parameter
par8l1leter isAthe
isA the Hnumber
"n\llllber
of It.1
stems of a giv.n 8peOie. more than 10
given specie. 10 cmem diameter",
diameter", the
ths estimate)ai
eBUnlatep· of the the .
... an value
mean valul perp.r unit or this
unit oJ: thh parameter
param.ter maymay have
have aa more
more or
or lens
les. normal
normal aistribution
aiBtribution
whW
whID ... luted from
evaluated from only fifteen 0.4 ha sampling units, while the
s .... pl1ng unit., the diatribution
distribution
Of/"j 0&1l1I010 be
ofploamnot b. considered
oPll&id.red normal
normal when
wh.n the
the sample
e8l1lple is
iB constituted
constituted ofof sixty
Bixty 0.1
0.1 ha
plot..
plotle With this;
With thi. rreservation
...rvation in Mind, mind, thethl figure 30 May may bl
be ooneid.red
considered &Ian aa
good oriel'
SOod coda° of "II1;II1,. of the thl ,oint..... 81.1
minimum alee of of .....
am phin
a sple inascertaining whIther
&lolrtaininc whether
the
tbl diotributien
di.trtbutioD of ot
magnit1J j, is
1•a•normal distribution.
noraal di.tribution.
-29-
- 29 -
Th.
The avertc.
aver e value. of tt oorr
values of •• ponding to
oorresponding to different
difler.nt probability
probability levels
llVol. for
tor samples
lampl ••
with n/14
jIr; 330 aro
are given in thV
th: following table:
table,
Probabili
level
ty
Probability "Ri_t"
of orror
error
"Risk"of
'u(fj) 077
e(,.)// YVCjljJ )
uU .l.. t
01- u
u u
tu
0,50
0,50 11 in ·2
in.2 0,68
0,68
0,68 11 in 3 -hQQ
1,00
----
0,90 1 in
1 in 10 1,64
1,64
0,95 11 in 20 2,00
2,00
0.99
0,99 1 in 100 2,68
2,68
For other tu
For other tu valu •• oorresponding
values oorr •• pondinr to
to other
oth.r probability
probability levels
lov.l. and .p.oilio valu
and epeoifio •• of
values of n,
n,
one to 1'.1.1'
hal '0
one has tho 8tud.nt'.
refer to the Student's table and the lell_olzumálarkaglian.
tho 'lbl, or nOrMal di.tr1bu110n.
Th, .o.t useful

The two most r •• \Ilb, wh.n
ulltul reeults, when n~
A 30, ar"
30, Ewes
- at a probeility level 0,68 ("one °halloo in three of bei ") tho

the .... pling
sampling
error in)mi is aquel to the square root of its variance p , ••• th.l
ii.e. the
stIn4rd errorf
-- at
at aa probtbility
.rror
probrility level
inl'j 10
error in
0,95 ("on.
level 0.95
is approximat.l;,
ohano. in twenty
("one chance
twill' the
approximately twice
,went,. of
tho square root
root of .quar.
01 being
b.ing wrong")
01 the
wr0I14:") the
tho variance.
variano ••
tho sampling
.... pling
Wh.n 44C
When 9 < (n"",b.r.ot sampling
30 (numberof .... plinr unite
wdt. in
in the
til' sample
..... plo less
1... than
than 30),
30). the
the assumption
a.."",pUon
ot normal dietribution
of al.;ribution of)A1
o!}Aj is
1. no lancer acceptable.
no longer &\IO.p"bl.. Th.r. 12
There il generally
"n.r.llt no ~ of
no *my of
obtaining the
obtaining tho sampling
.... pling erro*
.rrot from
floOll the var1uoo 01
till variant,* of tho
the .. t*to,.....1 ' due
setimateiAl, duo to the
tho effect ot
.tt.ot of
tho inacouracy
the 191oouraoy ofot the estimate
•• tt.at. ofot ihe
tho variance tra. small
variano. from , ..11 eamplei.
.... pl.l. How.ver, if we can
However, oan
oono1der
ooneider that tho
the volu ot the
•• of
values ~.tor are more
tho parameter .ore oror less
1 ••• normally di.t~ibut.d in
noraally distributed in the
tf'
population, than
population, th.n we w. will
will etill
.Ull have
have thetho following
10110winr relation
r.lation between
b.t.... n eu
.u (iks)
C}'j) and
and V()"j)'
'u
iu (}j) .. :!: tu
tu01 (AT
lb (h)
tho
the tu valu
tu
•• being taken
values tlJe.n from
flo .. tho suitata.lcul.
the Stud,nt'. table.
ru, table is
This tablo il aa two-entry
t_",tl'7 table,
table, ODA
0 ... oorr .. poading toto the
tho probability
probability level,
lev.l, the
th.
othor to
other to the
thia manual.
this
,h. number
II&IIUal. It\ is
O(nO!J"'e.... of filial'''.
m;blJ' of "4
b enough
•
~~".
\0 lutcw tiMi in
io
oorresponding
nth ••
the
ru.
1.. , oonoept
Thie last oonoopt is
t.ple random
simple
18 notnot dealt
'''plinc. and
ro.ndOll sampling,
dealt with
with in
in many
and in "'&n¥
in
othor olassioal
other oludo&! designs,
4.. i(l1l, the
tho number
_bor of ot degrees
4. . . . ofOf freedom
heO<\.OII is
10 equal
equal to to n-i,
n-1, where
wII.ro nn
11 the
is th. number ot sampling
IIUIIbor of ' .. plinr units
wd" in 1n the
tho whole
wboll population
pop!llIUon (or (or in
in aa Gtratum
, t l'ltlD in
in stratified
.traUfiO<\.
sampling).
• .. pl1nr)·
- 30
- 30 --
table is
The following table is an
an excerpt
excerpt from
from the
the table
table of Student'~
of Student's t
t Belected
for selected
levels and
probability levels and sizes of sample:
sizeD of sample:
------
Probabili ty
Probability tJumber degr •• s of
Number of degrees of freedom
freedom
level
level
u 1
1 4
4 9
9 14
14 19
19 24
24 29
29
n = 22 nn .- 55 - 10
nn ., 10 - 15
nn-15 15 n -
• 20 25
nn .- 25 30
nn -. 30
0.50
0.50 1.00
1.00 0.74
0.74 0.70
0.70 0.69
0.69 0.69
0.69 0.69
0.69 0.68
0.68
0.68
0.68 1.80
1.80 1.14
1.14 1.05
1.05 1.03
1.03 1.01
1.01 1.01
1.01 1.00
1.00
0.90
0.90 6.31
6.31 2.13 1.83 1.76 1.73
1.73 1.71
1.71 1.70
1.70
0·95
0.95 1?71
12.71 2.78
2.78 2.26
2.26 2.14
2.14 2.09
2.09 2.06
2.06 2.05
2.05
0.99
0.99 63.66
63.66 4.60
4.60 3.25
3.25 2.98 2.86
2.86 2.80
2.80 2.76
2.76
These
These t-valu.s
t-values can be used,
used, in the case of Illall oamples (n '4:30),
omall """'pie" <. 30), only
only if
if the
the distribution
diotribution
population is
par~eter values over the population
of the parameter 1a roughly
roughly normal.
normal.
312.2 Other samplinr

sampling designs
Simple random sampling is

rando~ sampling is only
only one
one ofof aa very
v.ry large
large number
numb.r of
of possible
pO.libl. designs.
d •• igno. In
In
many forest
many fore.t inventories
inventori •• these
these other
oth.r sampl4ng
..... pl!ng designs
d.aignl havehave to
to be
b. umed
ue.d and
and there
th.r. is i. no simple
limpl.
as to
answer as to whether
whether the
the distribution
diatribution ofitk
of A can be
can be considered
oOnlidered as
.. a& normal
nomal distribution
distribution or
not.
not. Tht"l "normal approximation" will be more verified as
The &8 the number 8&mpling
n of sampling
unito becomes
units b.com.s larger,
larger, the
the desirable
desirable minimum
minimum value
value of of nn d.p.nding
depending on the
the distributlon of
the parameter over the whole population,
population, and of oourse oour•• on the type of the estimateA.,
.stimate)".,
itself aa function
itself f\U1ction of
of the
the type
type of
of sampling.
sampling. "normal approximation"
The "normal a roximaUon" is is renerally°
nerallyJ
accepted, but one
accepted, on. must
muet alwayg
elwaye check
ch.ck if
if this
this isi. reasonable.
r .... onabl.. The• table
table of
of normal
normal
will be used as
distribution will as indicated
indicat.d in in the
the first
fir.t part
part of
of paragraph 3121.
paragraph 3121. It may be
be
desirable in in some
Bome cases
ca••• to
to stratify
stratify the
the population
population into into several
several eub-populations
lub-popul ..tions ("strata"),
(".trata"),
desirable
within each of which the
closer to
and closer to the
the di.tribution
the normal
dietribution of
normal distribution.
distribution.
of tha
the •• ti.. at ••
estimatest) A
~~ be
may b. oonsidered
oonsidered more
lIor. "regular"
"r.gular"
32
32 compound values
Variance of compound value.
321
321 Introduction.
Introduction. L.t
Let u. us oonaidar
oonsider a random valulvalue y, y, which may
"'7 be the value
be the value of
of
a parameter
param.ter in one unit of a giv.n population, or the estimate
given population, e.tillate of the mean
mean
value per unit of a parameter over
ov.r a population
population from .... pl. jj of
from aa sample of aa oertain
o.rtain type.
t7Pe.
v.. lue may be c9ti~
This random value .. t.d, not directly
estimated, directl from ~e.. uremln'. within
fro .. measurements within tho
th.. li units,
sampling unit.,
but through oth.r
other random
random values
values which
which are
are th ..... v •• direot
themselves ..... ur.d within
directy measured with nth. lample
the sample
estimated from the sample.
alre~ estimated
or already sBmple.
Elmmple... An unbiaaed
Examples)- of . the mean
unbiased estimate of.the mlan value per
p.r unit of a m... urabl. parameter
measurable paramat.r
( •• g. baaal
(e.g. ar.a per unit,
basal area unit, taking into
into aocount
aooount all
all trees
tr.l. more than 10 om
than 10 om diameter
di.... t.r over
'7i
bark) inin aa simple
simple random
rando...... pl. is
sample ill
- Yi Y1 4* Y2 4. 9" t 711
Y ---;- • (1)
n
wh.r.
where i
i r.f.rs
referm to all the nn units ot the
unit. of thl sample.
.... pl ••
The estimate y1 isi.a afunction

The a.timet. functionof
ofthe
the random
randem values
valul' 71
yi dir.otly maesured
which are directly measured
tha sample.
in the ..... ple.
-- 3311 --
- Anunbiased
An Wlbiaeedestimate
estl!nnteofofthe
themean va.lueper
Meanvalue perunit
Wli tofofthe
thesaíne parem~ter y
same parameter for the
for the
~
whole (population) ofof two
two stands
stands (sub-populations
(sub-popul&tiono or or strata)
str&ta) sampled
sampled independently,
independehtly, is:
is'
S
1 - 2
y
-Y s Y1 + s 2 (2)
(2)
"h..r.. S
where and y.
S4 and y i correspond
corr .. spond respectively tó
to the
the total area of
tot&! area of the
the ith
ith st&nd &nd the
stand and the
e.ti .. at~ of theimean
estimatg the m.&n per
per unit
unit in
in this
this stand
stand (i
(i =• 11 or 2),
2), while
while SS is
is the
the sum
sum of
of the
th. areas:
oroa.,
5S .• 51 S +
+ 52-
S2.
Th
The e.tim.te 7y here
.. estimate her. is
i. aa function
function of
of the
th .. two
two eetimates
e.timate. 71 and 72.
Y1 and Y2'
Th.. unbi
The ..... d estimate
unbiased •• timat .. of
of the
th .. variance
vari.no .. of
of the
th.. value
value y.
y the parameter
of the par..... t.r in
in one unit
On. unit
i8 easy
is .. a.y to
to obtain.
obtain, ... timate the
So to estimate the variances
vltrianc.s of of the .ltimat.s 7
the eitimates y in (1) (1) and
aOll (2), ,,~
(2), we
n.. ed to know
need know the
th.. relations
r.latione between:
b.tw•• n:
the varianc. of aa mean

variance of m.an of
of values
valu.. s (formula (1) and
(formula (1)) MId the
the variance
vo,riane. or an
0 f an
individuel valu.;
individual value;
the varianc. w.ighted mean

variance of a weighted m.an (formula
{fornula (2))
(2» from
f rom the
the variancen
vari"nceo of
variouB means.
the varioun means.
Hore
More eenerally p~rarHrt.er, from
estima.tes of a mean of a;1. parameter,
generally the definitive estimates from samples
BN','pl"J9
other than
than thethe unrestricted
unrestricted random
random once,
ones, are functiorm of
are functions of other
other partial estimates.
p~rtial estimates. The
The
varianc.s
variances of theaethese definitive estimates
.sti!!lates (and
(and then
then of
of their
th .. ir sampling
sar.1plillC errors)
.rrors) can
can be
..estimated
stimat ..d from th .. variance.
from the of the
variances of the partial
partilil ones
ones through
through the the use
use ofof the
the following
follouing
r.l&tionship.,
relationships.
322
322 Variance. of
Variances of some
.om. functions
functions
322.1 Variance of aa product of a random variate and a constant

constant
?
We
We have V(ky)
V(ky) •= ..... (y)
kk2V(y) where y is the
in the random vflriat~ a.id
rnl!dont variate ;'\lld
k
k COHDtant.
is the constant.
For instance,
instance, if y7 18
is an estimate of the
the; mean value of
of aa parameter
pa.rameter per wdt it
p~r unit i1 ! n
(l
simple
simple random
random sample and Nth
N the.. total number
number of
of units
unit. of
of the
the population
population (which
(which in
ic
ouppo.ed
supposed to
to be
be known exactly), oorreopondine estimate of the total of the
exactly), the corresponding the parameter
parameter
over the whole population
population is:
iSI
and the varianc. will be:

variance of this total volume will be,
v(y)
V(Y)
.
• N2V(Y)
322,2
322.2 Variance of a sum independant,random values
.~ of independent,random value.
a)
a) Independenoe
Independence of two
two random value.
valuen
TWo random value.

Two inde~end.nt if their covariance is
values are independent i. zero
zero (see
(.e. paragraph 223
«3
for
for the definition of covariance).
covarianc .. ),
-- 32
32 -
-
b) r~plea
kIxamples of
of dependent
dependent random values
valuea
(i)
(i) Given a line
line (population)
( population ) of
of 1,000
1, 000 traes
tre ea (units)
( uni t s) tlong
•.long a" roadside
roadsid e we want to
we want to have
have
an estimate of
of the
the mean reference
reference diameter
diameter (DBH)
(DBH) per
per tree
tree by Means of
by means of aa systematic
Bystematic
sample of 50
sample of 50 trees,
tree8, one
one tree
tree every
every 20
20 trees,
tree.. The rank
The rftnk number
number of
of the
the firmt
first sample
sanple
tree
tree will
will be .elected ~ando m among the numbers
selected at random numbers from
from 1 to 20, for
to 20, for instance
instance 13,
1 13,
and the following eample
.ample trees
trees will
will be
be the
the 33rd,
33rd, the
the 53rd
53rd •••
... until the 993rd.
until the 993rd.
the mean DBH
The estimate of the DBH will
w111 be equal
equal to:
to!
(DBH)13 + (DBH)>>
(DBH)33 +
+ ... +
+
(iiiiii)
(DBH) (DBH)93
.
50
50
N
140re generally, if k
More generally, k . -
n
(N
(N be11l1:
being the total number
nUmber of
of units of of the
the population
population
and n the
and. the number
number of unita
units of the aample i, the
the sample), the estimate
e.t1mate of of the
the meall
mean of aa
parameter yy from
parameter from a
a systematic a&~p11ne can
ayate .. "t1c sampling can be
be expected
expected to
to be
be as
aa follows:
followa.
y. + y
i+k + + Y. (n-1)1c
yy •s with 0 k
There
There are
are k pa1rs
pairs of value. (Y1, Yi+k)
values (yi, yi+k) trom i1 • 1 to
from to i1 • k.
k. value. yi
The values
1 Y1
and Yi+k will
yi.1.1, notnot
will be be statisticallyindop~ndent
atatistically indepéndentifif the1r
their covu1anoe is not
covariance 11 not zero,
zero,
that is
i. to
to say if:
if.
1.1
(Yi-71) (Yi4k - 72)
coy
cov (yi, yi+k) • .. 0o
k
yi
where 71 " "1
and 72
Lik_wi.e
Likewise the valuea Yi and
values yi and Yi+2k m~ a l.o not
may also no t be
b• • tati.tioally independent
statistically independent if
OOT (Yi, Yi+2k)
coo (Yit Yi+2k) f 0,0, whioh
// meare t~t
whioh meana that ... n the
even the double
double interval (2k) between the
interval (2k) the
tre •• is not enough.
trees anough. the same
More generally, the .am. reasoning
re.. oni1l4: can
eM be
be applied
applied to
to any
pair of the random values y of the numerator
""",erator of
of y.
.,.
In tho .Dlllple of
the example of the
the roadside
roadside trees,
tr ... , this
thl8 independenoe ~ not
ind.pend.no. may not be be fulfilled
fulfilled if,
if,
for example,
eDlllple, the distance
dl8tanoe between
between two
two consecutive
oona.outiv• • ampl. tress
sample tr." is18 too
too small
.mall (possible
(po.sible
interaction between trees),
tree.), or or if th1a interval
i f this interval is /OCr. or
is more or lose
1 ... the
the same
..... e as
.. the
the "wavelength"
"wavelength"
of certain
o.rtain soil
.oi1 characteristics.
oharaeteri.tio ••
0)
o) Estimates frortapam not ind
aU",at •• from .... p1 •• are not enden i t the
lndep.nd.nt 'h.....
sam pl th.....h .. are de
•• themselves
les dependent.
endent.
Let WI
us · ..-In conaider the two stands
again consider at&Nb from example
trOlft the .... pl. (iven
pv.n in paragraph
p&rt.«"aph 321,
321, and
l.t us wppo
lst WI •• that sampling
suppose ... plinc is
18 not
not independent
independent in ln these two strata*
th", two .trata, this
thia means
m.aM that
that the
the
n\llber
number anii/ar
and/or ..the
he oOllpoait1on
composition of all
all "h,
the oont"'platlC!
contemplated _plea in tho
ples in tha secon4
.eoon4 stratum
.tratum is
10
dapandant
dependent on thethe selected
.el.ctlC! sample
.ample in
ln tho
the first .tra~-(or yl0
flrat strattem-(or • ..r
vice •• ).{1) It is
verea).0) i. easy
ea.y
(1) Thl.
This oould
could be the case if, in
OMe if, in order
order toto avoid "00 expensive
. .old too .xpenaive aa forest
foroat inventory,
inventory, itit
4eoidlC! for
were decided for the
the second
.econd stratum
.tratUM to to select
•• leotonly ~ those
onlytrova tho.e with
with aa small
ama11 proportion
proportion
of sample
• .-pl, plot. aooe•• when
plots with difficult aocess wh.n the a~pl • from
..h. sample .trom the
the first
firat stratum
.tratum already
alre&d,y
r.laUvely large
baa a relatively
has lerce number
""",ber of
of such
.l1ch plots.
plo.... is o1:rYioua
It 1.
It th1a case
obvious in this 0.... that
that the
number an!
nuaber oo.po.1tion of
and the oomposition of all
all possible
po •• ibl . .samples
. .pl.. in
in the
th. second
,.oond stratum
.tratum will
will depend
depend
on
on the sample
'lb ..... pl ••• r~rat stratum.
l,oted in the first
selected .tratum.
- 33
- 33 --
to de~on.tr&te
to this case
demonstrate that in this CS8e Yi
Y1 and Y2 (estimate. 12
(eetimates of
of the
the mean.of
mean of aa parameter
parameter y
reepectively in
respectively in the
the firat
firet and
and second
Becond strata) ar~ statistically
.trate) are atatiaticallyde:Pendent a.tiM.t •• , which
dependent estimates,
meane their covariance
means that their covariance iais not
not zero:
zero:
(yi, y2) j G
(51j
J7k. - 1) G
1.J -I 572k
Y
2k - 2) .0
;'0
ml x M2
where 11
71 and 12 are
2
~e the true
tru! value~ of the means per
values of per unit in
in respectively
respegtively the
the first
fir.t and
second strata,
.trate, Y1j and ya:
yli Y2k' are respectively the estimates Y, from the sample
estimate. of 71 aample jj
firat stratum and of 72
in the first Y2 from the sample
.ample k in the second
second stratum.
stratum.
M1
M1 and ~2
M2 n~~bers of possible samples
are the numbers sample. of the
the given !ype. th! strata
ypes in the .tra1a 1 and
2, the sum
2, oum L being extended
being extended to
to all
all the
the M1
M1 xx M2 cro •• products
M2 cross product. (y
(YH - Y1) (Y2k - Y2)°
Y1) (Y2k Y ).
2
j ,k
d)
d) It the variance of
It can be demonstrated that the of the
the sum
sum of
of independent
independent random
random
ie the
values is the sum
sum of
of the
the variances of
of these
theee values.
value ••
If
rf Y
y • ~ Yi'
:y., the
theY Y
. being independent,
i independent,
ii 1
V(y)
v( y) ~ Z v(yi
V(y.)
i '
322.3 of the
Variance of the estimate
estimate of
of aa mean
mean from simple random
fro~ a& simple random
s~ple for an infinite population
sample population
Y1 Y2 ". Yn
have
We have 7y m Yi are independent
and the yi
By application
By application of
of the
the two
two former
former theorems we will
theorems we will have:
have r
vV (Y)
() •-!2
*2 5fJ (Y1) + V (Y2) + •••
(Y1) 0-* ++VV (yn)J
V (Y2) (Yrd..7
Ar2
All the
All the nn variacms
variances
p between bracktts
between bracket. are
are equ
equal to the
al to the variance v .(y) of
variance (T2(y) of the
value. of
values of the
the parameter over the
par~eter over the whole
whole population and we
population and we will have the
will have ver7 important
the very important
re.u.l t:
result:
v(7) Cr2(y)
T2(Tr) -
The varianoe of
variance of th~ estimate
the e.tt.at. of
of the
the mean
Mean in
in sim
.i.ple random sam
le random ... pling
li i. eequal1 to
is to the
the
the value
of the
variance of value the parameter
of the
of parameter over
over the
the who
whole popUlation divided
e population divided by the number
by the number of
of
in the
sampling units in the .ample.
sample.
Con.equently .ampling error

Consequently the sampling error on
on the
the estimate
e.tim.te of
of the
the mean
Mean (which
(which is
i8 proportional
proportional
to
to the
the square root of the variance when
when n/N
n/N is .Mall), will
i8 small), will be
be inversely proport1dnal
inver.ely proportional
to the
to the square root of the number of the sampling units.
the sampling unite.
- 34
- 34 --
Case of finite populations

populations
The
The fformer
ormer resul te are
results are ve'.lid
valid for
for infinite
infinite pogula.tions
poplations oror for
for finite populations when
finite populations
the sampling
the l'3ampling fraction (or
(or sampling
aa.rnpling intensity) iT is
intensity) ff == 7 is relatively
relatively small (R&Y 5%).
gnlall (Ray
In
In the
the case of finite
finite populations,
populations, the sampling theory _howl that
theory shows that in
in fact
fact we have:
have:
0-2
CY)
- -=
ef2t
(f2 f •• \
~ (1- (1- n)
!!) - ~
V (1-0
(1-f)
n II n (nY)
and
and (f(y))
C"( - -LILL
The
The terms ~f1-f are called the "finite
terms 1-f and 1/7:37 "finite population
population corrections"
correctiona" and
a.nd may be
be
neGlected
neglected if sr.'Iall.
i6 small.
ff is
1'he ~ . ltroduction of
The lAtroductiOn of these
theae terms
terms can
can be ju.tified a! posteriori:
be justified p211"teriori: if the sampling
.lJ'ftpling
bbecomes co~plete census,
ecomes aa complete cena us, standard
standard error
error (or
{or sampling
sampling error) Muat be
error} must be equal
equal to
to O. O. Thia
This
result
result can bebe obtained from thethe above
above formula
formula as,
as, in
in this case, ff =~ 1.
this case, 1.
322.4 of a• weighted
Variance of weighted linear
linear expression
expreasion of
of random
random values
values
If we have:
have: y
y = aiyi +
+ a2y2 + + al:7p = aiyi
(a , a2
(al, a ...
••• a being positive or negative
negative constants)
constants)
1 2 p
the application of
the of theorems from
from 322.1
322.1 and
and 322.2
322.2 gives:
givee:
V(y) = a12 V(y1) + a22 V(y2) + ... + a

P
2
V(y )
P
=
s .1
i 1a2
i=1
1""
.
1
i
2 V(y.)
a. V(v
- i)1
c~.e of the
In the case the second
second example
example of
of paragraph
paragraph 321we
321we will
will have:
have:
S 2 S 22
V(y)
V(Y) = ~ V(Y
512
V(Y1)l
x
+
2 ,-
s2
-2- -\
)
V(Y2
E 4-
sS2 1
S
This theorem is 80metimee called

is sometimes called "theorem
"theorem of
of propagation
propagation of
of errors"
errora" and
and is
ia used
uaed for
for
ra.ndol'll sampling.
stratified random sMlpling.
322.5 V8.riance of
Variance of products
productR and
and ratios
ratios of
of two
two independent
independent random
randol'll values
values
Let xx and
Let and y. two independent
be two
y . be independent random
random values,
VAlue •• the
the variances
variance. of
of which
which are Imall
are small
ill comparison with the
in the squares
squares of
of their
their respective
respective values.
valuee. We will have the
the approximate
formulae:
v(~) _ y2
V(XY) - x 2 V(Y)
V(x) ++ x2
Y2 V(x) V(y)
V(~)
v(¡) = (~)2
( ,)2 [V:~l
YLE/
x2
+ V;~]
V(y)
y 2
- 35
- 35 --
322.6
322.6 Variance of functions of dependent
functiolls of dependent random
random valuea
values
If Y1' y2,
yl, Y2' ...
••• yyp are dependent random value. a , a2
values and al, ••• a
a ... neentive
positive or necative
1 2 p
conatants, variance of
constants, the variance y:
~f y:
p
y
Y =
&1 1 +
Y
alyi + a2y2
a~2 +
+ +
+ ay
a ppYpp = .~ a.y.
,~1 &iYi
1=1 i
will be:
will be: V(y) X aai.
= 3.7E1
,~1
P
1
2 11(yi)
V(Yi) +
+ 23j
2 a.a, V(yi,
aiaj V(yi,
1 J
yj)
Yj )
where the cum ..l., is extended

extended to
to all
all the
the different cOf'l1binatiollS of
different possible combinations i and j I
l1J
:Itwheretheal.m..is
i j,
j bei ng different from

frol'!\ ii,I and V(y Yj) is the covariance
j being and '1it
V(y,., y.) covariance between
betrlee!l y.
Yi and
and Y
Yj.
..
11
Ifa=a2=-...=aandthe.are
If &1l : a : ••• = a = p and the
2
the Y1
Yvalues
i
ofvalues
are the the same
of the parameter ininthe
S?~e parameter the
p
P P
p equal size
consecutive equal size sampling
sampling units
units of
of aa systematic
systematic sample,
sample, y iO,
ia, in this case, the
cO\~e, the
estimate
estimate of the
the mean per Wlit
unit from this sample and
and can
can be
be written
Hritten 7.
y. Its
Its vt'.riance
variance
PP 2
2
V(Y)4 V(Y) =
- ~ a.
a. V(yY1. ), for
v( . for the covariances
covarianceB V(y., y.)
j
1=1
1=1, 1 1
which
which meke
make up the
the additional
additional tern
tenn will,
will, in most cases,
casl!'s, not
not be
be eaual
equal to
to O.
O.
be said
can be
it can
More generally, it said that
that Ule
the application
application of of the
the formula
formula of
of random
random
sampling for
for the
the estimate
estimate of the
the variance
variance of the
the estima.ted
estimated mean
mean isis not
not valid
valid inin ma.ny
many
systematic sampling designs forfor many
many parameters.
parameterc. systematic foreat
In a systematic foreot inventory,
inventory. the the
uidistance between neighbouring
equidistance
fI nei hbourin sampling
Bam lin units
units will
will have
have to
to be
be sufficiently
3ufficieJlti long
Ion inin
order to avoid any
a osi tive (or
positive or negative)
ne ative covariance
covaril!lllce (or
or "correlation")
"correla-tior:" between
between the
the
respective values of a given
eiven parameter,
parameter, if
if one w~nt8 to
one want& to apply
apply the
the relation
relation
V(Y)
V(y)
'
vcr).!ill
p
Product
Product and ratio of two dependent random
random values
values
ca.e, provided
In this case, provided that
that the
the variances
variances are
are small
small in
in comparison
comparison with
with the
the squares
&qu~. reR
of the respective
respective random
random values,
values, the
theformula,l,
formulae of
of paragraph 322 .5 become:
paragraph 322.5
2
v(~) =•
V(x-) Y V(x)
y2 V(x) +
+ xx22 V(y)
V(y) + (x , y)
2xy V (x, y)
V (ol)
(i)
x = *2
x[7
(.l)2
2jc- x2
+ .'LW
V(y)
2
Y
2 VV (x, Y)
2
xy
(~ y]
V (x, y) being the
V (x, the covariance between x and y.
y.
33 Ratio legitimates
Ratio e.ti~&t ••
The
The precieion
precision of
of the
the eetimate
estimate of
of the
the mean
mean ofof aa parameter
parameter y is ie increased
increaeed if wewe can
can
relate it to
relate it to another parameter x,x, which isie known exactly
exactly for
for the
the population,
population, or
or is
is known
known
~ore precieely from
more precisely a large
fro~ a large sample.
eample. On the other hand,
hand, one
one may
may be
be interested
interested in
in knowing
not the single parameter y but
not but rather a combination
co~bination of of it
it with
with one
one or
or more other
other
parMetere.
parameters. foreet inventory
In forest inventory if
if we
we have
have sampling
eatftpling units
units of
of different
different size,
Bizet we
we will
will
- 36
36 -
know two
have to know two random
randoM values
values in
in each
each sampling unit:
8ftmplir~ unit:
,
the value Yyi found in the unit for
for the
the parameter
parameter Y
y it.elf;
itself;
i
.
The reque.ted
the -area
Area
requested estimate
xi
x
a.tim.t. will
will be
of thi. unit •
this unit.
be essentially
e •• entially an
an estimate
e.tim.te of
of the
the mean
mean value
value ofof the
the parameter
parameter
yy per area unit (not per
per sampling
a8lnpling unit),
unit), which
which in
in fact
fact corresponds
corresponds toto the
the ratio
rt\tio
l. of the
Y of thetWo parametera.
two parameters.
x
Because in many
ma.ny forest
fore.t inventories,
inventories, sampling wJita will
samp1ine units not have
will not the same
h,RVI'! the same size,
size t the
the
use of an auxiliary
awciU.&rY váriate
variate xx related in general
Gelleral to
to the
the size
size of
of the
the sampling
aampline unit
urI! t appears
appeare
to be necessary in,many
in manI cases.
e&8ea. the relationship
The model of the relationship between
bebleen yy and 2:.. us ed is,
used
essent i ally, aa linear
essentially, linear one:
One:
y =
Y + bx
a + (1I1inear regression
("linear e::Jtimates II)
reeression estimates")
and often
and often y . bx ("ratio estimates")
The
The firiit model is acceptable if the relationship
first model rela.tionship between
between thethe two paral':1eter::J is
two parameiero it
strong and may be satisfactorily
satisfactorily represented
represented by by aa. straight
straight line.
line. It
It is equivalent to to
say that the Correlation
corre1e.tion coefficient
coefficient must
must be
be asas close
close to
to 1 as as po::a>ible.
1 posible. For efficient
efficien t
the second
use of the second model
!':'Iodel it
it is
is necessary,
necessary, inin addition,
a.<.l.di tion. for
for the
the line
li ne to
to go through the
(jO through the
oriei.n;
origin; in other words
words when x and y y tend to to a0 together. This particularly the
This is particularly the
ce.ge varia.tes "area
case of the variates "area of
of aa sampling
samp1ine unit"
uni til and "any usual
and "any usual forest
forect parameter":
pararneter l l : Hhen
when
the area" tendo to be 0,
area.tends OJ the forest parameters
parameters tend tend also
also to
to be
be C. O.
That ia \.,h;;t
That is are used
why ratio estimates are used in
in forest
foreRt sampling.
sam;elinff·
Two types
type. of ratio eatimates
ea"timateB are
are commonly used in
COMmonly used in simple random sampling
eimple random uampling and
and they
they are:
are:
n
. - 2: "i
Y-
i_1
it. i.1 1
R
R = X n
Ifratio
"ratio of
of the
the means"
x
~ Xix4
i-1
i.1
n
1 71
and
and r n
n i ; Xl
i=1 ,1\ 'I "mean ofof the
.H the ratios"
Paragraph 322.6 indicates howhow to

to obtain an acceptable
obtain an o.ccepta.ble estimate
estimate of
of the
the variance
varianr.e of rt,
of R,
provided that
provided that the
the variances
variano .. are
are small in comparison
comparison with
with the
the squares
equares of
of the
the respective
respective
estimates 3
e.tim.tee i and y. y.
34 OptimizatloJ1) ln
Optimizatio41) in de81gn
design
OptiMi~tion
341 of aa sampling
Optimization of sampling design.
deaign. The mo.t samplinc design
most efficient sampling de.ien is
i. the
the
one that epecific coat
that for a specific coat gives
give. the .~allest error
the smallest error for
for the
the parameter
parameter to
to be
be
estimated or for an acoepted
acoepted error
error is
ie the
the least
leaat expensive.
expensive.
(1)
(1) OptiMiz&tion i8 uoed
Optimization is .enee of setting
used in the sense .etting out and .election
selection
Most efficient or
of the most or optimum
optimUM design.
de.ign.
-- 3(
37 --
341.1 Problema related

Probleme related to
to optimization.
utimization.
Definition of
of efficiency
efficiency is
is easy,
easy, however
however to
to find
find the
the most
moet efficient
efficient design l much
design iis such
because of a number
more complicated because number of
of problems,
problem8, some which are:
80me of which are:
a) For
For practical reasons all the possible
practical rea80ns po88ible sampling designs are
lampling delignl are not
not con8idered
considered when
when
selecting the deeign
design to
to be
be used.
used. Some characteristics
Some characteristics of
of the
the contemplated
contemplated design are
delign are
granted.
taken for granted. In the
In the case of field
cale of field sampling
sampling the
the area
area of
of the
the units
units at
at each
each stage,
.tags,
the
the number of stages
atages and the stTatification are
the stratification ,are fixed
fixed prior
prior to
to optimization.
optimization. Thil is
This i8
u.ually on previous
usually based on previous experience.
experience. It
It mUftt
must be
be emphasized that thia
emphasized that thin leads
lead. to
to partial
partial
rather than absolute optimization. There is such an "optimum" deSign for
"optinnU'll" design for each
BILCh set
let of
predetermined characteristics.
characteristics. In
In many
many textbooks
textbooks and manuals the
the calculation of
calcul~tion of
optimization is
is restricted to the estimation
estimation of the optimum number
number of sampling units
units at
at
each stage baeed
baaed on
on aa simple
simple cost
cost formulation.
fo~ulation.
b) A complete estimation
A complete estimation of
of the
the error
error should
should take
take into
into conaideration
consideration not
not only
only the
the
sampling
saMpling error
error but a180
also bia.es (eee paragraph
biases and measurement errors (mee paragraph 24).
24). These latter
latter
if not
are generally difficult if not impossible
impossible to
to determine.
determine. In most
In most cases
caGes efficiency
efficiency studies
.tudie.
deal only with sampling
sampling errors
errore and
and they
they are
are valid
valid insofar
insofar as
as the
the measurement
measurement errors
errore are
reduced to a minimum. Elimination or
or reduction
reduction of
of measurement
measurement errors
error. is
is often
often more
more
important
important than the exact optimization of the sampling design.
design.
c) A occurring in
A third problem occurring in the
the determination
determination of of the
the optimal
optimal sampling
sampling design
deeign
is related to
is to parameters.
parameters. A sampling design
A sampling deSign ie
i8 optimal for for the
the estimation
estimation of a given
parameter (may,
paaameter (eay, gross over 60
grOBS volume over cm diameter
60 cm diameter of of aa commercial
commercial species)
epecies) but not .forfor any
other one (say,
(say, gross volume over
over 60 em diameter
60 cm diameter of of aa group
group of co~ercial species).
of commercial apeciel). When
When
deeigning
designing the inventory it is is therefore
therefore essential
eS8ential to to select
select the
the most important
important parameter
and to look for the most
most efficient
efficient design
design for
for the
the estimation
estimation ofof this
this parameter.
parameter. Very
Very
often it
it is
is difficult to
to single
single out
out the
the most
most important
important parameter
parameter from
from those
thoee itit is
is
nece.sary estimate.
necessary to estimate. Even
EVen when one species
species only ie is very important,
important, as as in
in the
the case
case of
of
Okoum~ tropical pine
Okoum4 in Gabon or Pine in tropical pine forests,
forests, there
there may
may be
be various
various other
other useful
parameters. In addition toto the
the volume
volume of the · exploitable
of the exploit~ble trees
trees of
of the
the particular
particular species,
.pecies,
it
it i8
is important toto know
know precisely,
precisely, for
for management
management purposes,
purposes, the
the number
number ofof'stems
stems in
1n the
diameter classes.
lower diameter clasBes. In any case tha
the inventory
inventory officer must mu.t avoid
avoid aa sampling
s~pling design
baaed ·on
based o n irrelevant
irrelevant parameters.
parameters. One such case
case is where the
i. where the selection
selection of of "the
"the gross
gross
volume of all species
specie. over
over 10 em diameter"
10 cm diameter" has
haa been
been used
used as buic parameter
&8 a& basic parameter for
for
inventory in
designing an inventory in aa tropical
tropical forest
forest where
where fewfew species
epeeies are
are utilized.
utilized. Thi. is
This i.
generally not valid butbut it
it has
haa been
been done
done frequently.
f.requently.
d) In a sampling design,
de.ign, thethe sampling
.&l'l'Jpling error
error on aa given
given parameter
parameter depends
depend. on,
on,
things, the
~ong other things,
among the variability
variability of of this
this parameter
parameter in
in the
the units
unit. of
of the
the sampled
sampled
population. For optimizing the
the design,
design, oneone mumt
must have
have aa prior
prior estimate
estimate of
of this
this variability.
variability.
Thi.
This knowledge
knowledge can be obtained from
from former
former inventories,
inventorieB, however
however inin many cases
cases there is
no
no pos.ible of information
possible source of information andand aa 'small
small preliminary
preliminary sampli~ is needed to have an
sampling is
estimate of the variance,'
variances and
and coefficients
coefficients of of variation
variation which
which are included in the
sampling error formula.
formula. This inventory is
This small pilot inventory i8 also
alao necessary
necessary for estimating
eltimating
coat
cost figures
figures which will be umed
uaed for thethe optimization
optimization of the the sampling
sampling design.
design.
-- 38
38 --
341.2
341.2 l'! athematieal formulation
Mathematical fomulation of an optimization
optimization
exprese the
Let us express the precision
precision of a given
given sampling
sampling by the standard
by the standard error of the
estimate, SEt
estimate, of the
SE, of the parameter
parameter which
Which has
has been
been selected
selected as
as the
the most
mo.t important,
important, and the the coat
cost
of it
it by C.
C. SE and C
SE and function. of
C are functions of varioua
variouo characteristics
eharaeteriotieo of
of the
the design,
dooign, such
ouch
aB the
as the size
Bize of
of aa sampling
sampling unit
unit and
and the
the number
number of
of sampling
sampling units
units or
or the
the sampling
aampling intensity
intensity
iin
n the case of aa simple
simple random
random sampling.
sampling. Let uo
us call these
these characteristics
characteristics x1f.x2
x , ' x ... Xp_
••• xp
1 2
2 a.. p
He have:
We have: SE =• (x , x2,
SE (xl, x , ••• x )
xp)
1
C
C = C
C (x 1, x
(xl, x2,' ... %p)
2 ••• xp)
a) Let US ouppo.e that

us uppose that the
the total
total cost
coat of
of the
the inventory
inventory is
io already
already fixed
fixed and
and equal
equal to Co.
\-le in this
We will have in this case
case to
to minimize the
the standard
atandud error
error SEe
SE. we must
So we have:
must have:
SE (x 1 , x2,
SE (x1, x 2 , ...
••• xp)
X ) -- minimum
minimum
p
with
with C (x , xx2,
C (x1,
2
••• xp)
, ... xp ) = Co
1
It is
It i. demonstrated that
that the
the suitable
ouitable values (x )O' (x2)0
value. (x1)0, (x )0 ... (xp)o of
••• (xp)0 of the
the 1 2
characteristics x,r xx2,
xl, ' ••• xp
.. xp
2 will be determined by resolving
re.olving the following
system of p + 1 equations with the + 11
p + unknowns
unknowns xxl, x21 ..
1 ' %2' ••• Xpt " :
a SE c
o
xl "5-7
1
aSE +A èC_ o0
172
asE + .1\ac . o
xp ox
p
C(x1, x2, ... x) - Co
ISE
..and
nd ac standing
standing fo r the
for the partial
partialderivatives
derivativesofof SE
SE and C
C reapect to the
with respect
èx. ox i characteristic Xi.x..
b) Let
Let us given precision
us suppose that a given prec1810n of
of the
the estimate
eatimate of
of the 'parameter
the parameter at
at aa given
given
probability level
level is wanted.
i8 wanted. In
In this
this caae
case the standard
atandard error will
will be fixed
fixed and
and
equal to
to aa given
given value
value (SE).
(SE)o.
In this case we have to minimize the coat
cost C C and
thia ia expressed
this is expre8sed by:
by: 0
minimum
(xl, x2, '°' xp)
with SE (x1, x2, ... xp) - (SE)

(SE)oo
( 1)
(1)
The .ut table value. (x' 1)0 (x' 2)0 ••• (x' p)O
The suitable values (x'1 )0 (x'2 )0 p )o
will be
be dehminod by
determined by resolving
reoolving the
the sane
s.",e
oyotom
system of equationo, laot equation of
equations, the last of the
the system
oyet ... being 'replacod
being replaced byby the
the equation
equation (1).
(1).
It
It Can
can be firot pp equation.
be noted that the first equations are the oane and that the
same tho solutions
.olution!
(x 1 )o' (x 2 )0 ••• (xp)o are
(x1)0, (x2)0 ... (xp)0 tho same
linked by the oame (p-1)
(p-1) equationo.
equations.
-
- 39
39 --
c)
c) application.
Numerical application.
Let us consider all the

the possible simple random field
field sampling
sampling designs
designs (usinc area
element. as sampling
clemente sampling units) for
for the
the estimation
eetimation of
of a given
given parameter over a forested
foreated
area to be inventoried.
inventoried. us assume
Let UB that we
asume that we have
have found
found empirically
empiricallY from pilot
from aa pilot
fo~er inventories
inventory and/or former inventories that
that the
the standard
standard error e8ti~&te
error SE of the estimate
of this
this parameter
paramet~r can be expressed approximately
approxi~ately by the following
by the following relation:
relation:
SE
a log
loG' s8 + b
{M
11-7;
B
s beine the area of the sampling
being sampling unit of
of a sample
sample
log ss being the napierian logarithm of s
s
n being
n beingthe
the number
number of
of the
the sampling
sampling units
unitG of
of the
the sample
sample
a
a and
and bb beinG coefficients
being coefficients
Let us that the

UB assume that the total
total cost
coat C
C of this
this sampling
8ampling is
is satisfactorily
satisfactorily expressed
expre~8ed
the following
by the following formula:
formula:
C •
= d..
OP +fn
+ff n +
+ e(5'n.
ns
,J,
01,being
being the
the fixed coat
fixed cost independent of the size
oize of the .&mplill&'
sampling
t3
/g being the cost of
of access
accees to
to one
one sampling
sampling unit
unit
lbeing costofofenumeration
thecost
peing the enumeration per
per .rea
area unit
unit
If the
If the total
total cost
coat of
of the
the inventory
inventory is
is known
known and
and equal
equal to
to Co, the optimal
COt the optimal area
area of
of aa
aampling unit
sampling unit 8so0 and
and the optimal number of sampling units
unite no will
will be the solution
lolution no
vf the following
of followine system ofof equations:
equations:
-
SE
+
)\ ac . o
)s ?) e
SE C
-7,--- + . oo
d n I) n
0( + /3 n + ns = Co
Eliminating from
from the
the two
two first
first equntions
equations we have
~ SE
6SE aSE )C (2)
= oo (2)
To
. .
a In n bs
derivatio~ by
If we replace these derivationA b~ their
their right expree8ions in
right expressions in formula
formula (2)
(2) and
and simplify,'
simplify,'
we find out that the solution
oolution so (optimal value of
0 0 (optimal of the
the size
oize of
of the
tho sampling
oampling unit) i.
unit) is
ouch
such that it fills
fillo the
tho following equation:
equation,
b
log 8so
0
- (2 A so
+ 22 -- --
a
)
a )
= o
•s can be
be determined a
graphical way:
determinad by a graphical way: it it 1_ a-ordinate of
is the s-ordinate of the
the point
point where
where
tge reapreaentative curve
te respresentative curve of
of the function
function yy log.
_ log
= cro •• ea the
s crosses the straight
atraight line
line
repreoontative
representative of of
the the function,2 If
function 21"
e +
+ Yg-
y e/30
, 2 _- .2
2
b
a a
--40-
40 -
correspondinG optimal
The corresponding--; value
optimal valueofofn ,n,HOno,
' isiseasily
easily calculated from the
calculated froM the relat ion
relation
+ /2 no + n
0
s
0
Co
Co or
Or n
0
-
Co
342
342 Optimization of
Optimization of an
an inventory
inventory design.
desicn. defini tic n of
The definition of the
the optimum
optil'!'Il.un inventory
inventory
identi ca l to
design is identinal to that
tha.t of
of a8. sampling
8ar.\pling design
design given
eiveIl in
i n paragraph
paraeraph 341. 341. The
optimization of
problems of optimization of an
an inventory
inventory design
design areare similar
similar toto those
those quoted
quoted for for aa sampling
sampling
desi&'l'l but are more difficult to
design to solve
solve because
because anan inventory
i nventory design
design often
often consists
consists of of a a.
aeries of several
series Beveral sampling
l!Iampling designs,
del!lign8, e.g.
e.g. one
one for
for the
the estimation
ee"timation ofof the
the areas,
areas, another
another for for
the
the field
field estimation of the mean number of stems .te~. per diameter clasecIa.. and a& third for the the
... elament of the volumes of
assessment of trees
trees through
through volume
volume tables.
table.. The mOlt
most efficient inventoryinventory
dellgn might not be a combination
design combination of of various
variouG optimal
optimal sampling
lampline designs.
del!liene. It cancan be be
imagined
imagined that
that itit might
might be better to calculate the the appropriate
a.ppropriate volumes from from measurements
meaaurements
taken
taken on on standin!;
standing treeatrees within
Hithin the sampling
sampli ng units rather than than build up volume tables tables from
from
• selection of sample
a s 9J'!\ple trees.
trees. T'nic
This would eliminate the the need
need for
for the
the third
third sampling
sampline design.desicn.
In the
the same
same example it it ~i~ht be more
might he More efficient to to estimate
estimate areas fromfrom the
the field
field sample
rather than estimate them them through
through thethe interpretation
interpretation of of aerial
Rerinol photographs.
photographs. In fIIost
most
cases
cases it it is
is too
too difficult to make an exhaustive efficiency efficiency study
study prior
prior to to selecting
selecting an
irrventory design.
outline for the inventory deaien. This is often done on the the basis
bas ie of a rough estimation
estination
of the general cost and and precision
precision involved
ilwolved butbut also considerinG such
~IBo considering such factors
factors as as
avail~bl~ -
documentation available - aerial
aerial photographs,
photographs, maps,
maps, volume
volume tables,
tables, etc.-
etc.- the
the skillskill ofof the the
workers , the transportation
workers, transportation facilities
facilities and and others.
others. the general
Once the general structure
structure of of the
the
inventory design h~,B has been decided,
deC ided, efficiency
efficiency studies
studies are
are made
made for
for each
each ofof the
the sampling
samplinc
deniens.
designs. 'Ihough
Though this method is is not
not theoretically
theoretically the the best,
best, it
it cannot
cannot bebe avoided
avoided in in
most cases.
most ca.aes.
4
4 oampling designs
Classical sampling designS
41
41 ',. Cl.... ification ol'
Classification o r" sampling
sampling designs
411
411 Characteristico of sampling
Characteristics of sampling designa.
dooign.. A sampling design is
A sampling is defined
definod by a
of characteristics
combination of characteristics which
which correspond
correspond to
to the
the following
following items:
item.:
411.1 Nature of the units

unite of the
the population
population
forested area
The same forested &rea can can be
be considered
considered asu aa population
population ofof either !!:!t!, plots
either trees, plots (of
(of
areas). points
the same or different areas), point. oror~.lines. i~portant to
It is very important to specify fro~ the
specify from the
i. to
beginning what is to bebe considered
considered as aIR aa unit
unit of
of the
the population,
population, since
since the
the ultimate
ultimate sampling
saJnpline
unit. are selected from
units from these
these units.units. In particular,
particular, if
if the
the forested
foreated area
area is
is cons.dered
cons .dered
of units
as a population of Wl.1tB of of "'<l'al
,-11.al size, unit area
size, the unit area is
is to
to be
be specified.
specified. Whell
When one
want. to characteri7e
wants th .... ,r:, ..Lability
cha.racteri re th. lability of aa given parameter,
parameter, one should always
alwaYl' give
give the
the
coefficient
coefficient of variu(
variodor i on,,sen\ se" paragraph
paragraph 223 223 of
of this
this chapter)
chapter) with
with the
tho mention
montion ofof the
the area
area of'
of'
the unit to
to which
which this ('(. "ff ~cient referee
th~a cf.-ff,cient refers. The variability
variability of of two
two parameters
parAmeters cannot
cannot
be oonpared if their
be compared their CO ,.! fic;entsofofvariation
co(ricents variationrefer
refertototwo
twodifferent
different areas
areas of
of the
the units.
units.
411.2 U.e
Use of an auxiliary parameter
oertain circumstances,
Under certain Circumstances, asas in
in the
the case
case of
of units
units of
of different
different size,
size. and
and to
to
iaprove the precision
improve preCision of
of the
the estimates,
estimatea, the
the parameters
parameters are
are combined
combined with
with another
another one,
one,
auxiliary variate.
called auxiliary variate. The
The eotimation
estimation of this
this auxiliary variate may not
not bo
be an
en
objeotiT8 of the inventory
objeotive inventory but
but its
it. use
u.e as
.. an
an intermediate
intermediate parameter
parameter is
is necessary
necessary and
~nd
--41
41 -
-
Genera lly advant

generally ageous .
advantageous. Two
Two main cases can be considered:
consider.ed:
an additional sampling
sampling is
is performed
performed in
in order
order to
to obtain
obtain an
an estimate
estimate of
of the
the
auxiliary this is
auxiliary variate: this is the caee
case of the sampling
sampling design
design called sampling
called double sampling
(or two-ph3.~e
(or sampling),
two-phase sampling);
is no
there is no special
speCial (or
(or additional)sampling:
additional)sampllng: in in the
the framework
framework of
of the
the normal
normal
sampling design
sampling deSign the
the auxiliary
auxiliary variate
variate isis recorded
recorded together
together with
with the
the parameters
parameters to
to
be estimated. This
This is the case of 8~pling
is the designs for
sampling designs for ratio
ratio (or
(or regression)
regression)
estimates, the
the total of
of the
the auxiliary
auxi l iary parameter
pRremeter over
over the
the whole
whole parameter
parameter being
being
known.
4411.3
11.3 Number of
of stages
stage.
If
If the
the sampling is
is done
done directly among the
the wlits
units of the population,
population, the
the sampling
sampling i.
is
call ed a one-stage sampling.
called sampling.
It may happen that

It may that for
for the sake
sake of convenience,
convenience, the population is is considered
considered at
at the
the
first
first stage as a population
population ofof groups
groupe of
of units;
uni til; a sampling
sampling is
is then
then done
done among
among these
these groups
groupa:
(called
(called primary units).
units) . At the
the second
second stage,
stage, aa sampling
sampling of
of units
units (secondary
(secondary units)
unita) is
i.
do ne within each group selected
done .elocted during the first
firot stage.
otago. The
The whole o~pling operation
whole sampling operation isio
called a two-stage
two-itage sampling.
laMpling. Thil
This delign
design mUit oonfUied with
must not be confused with cluster ampling
clUiter ... plinr (.e.
(see
paragraph 412).
paragraph-TT).
other included. and more

Other intermediate stages may be included, More generally these samplings
samplings are
are
calied
called multi-stag
multi-stage•• ~pling designs.
sampling designs. The
The size
size of an intermediate unit will be defined by
the
the number ofof units it contains.
units of the next stage it contains.
In fforestry,
In ores try, there are many examples
there are examples of two-stage aampl1ng
sampling deSigns, some of
designs, 8o~e of thr~e
three-
stage and probably very fewfew with larger number
Ni th aa larger number of
of stages.
stage ••
411.4 Other characteristics

oharacteri.tics
to any otago
The following characteristics are relative to aampling design.
stage of a sampling d.oign.
Stratification
In order to reduce the variability of a parameter

parroweter within
within the whole population and
SaMpling error
consequently the sampling error of the estimate,
of the estiMate, it ia generally
it is generally most
most appropriate
appropriate to divide
divide
homogeneouo (with
the population into more homogeneous (with respect
reopeet to
to this
thi. parameter)
parameter) sub-populations
sub-population. or
strata and
strata and to
to make
make aa aeparate
separatesampling withineach
samplingthin each stratum.
Itratua. oorresponding
In this case the corresponding
said to
stage of the design is said to be
be stratified.
stratified. Stratification is
is sometimes
semetimes effected
effected by
by
existing and
taking into consideration an existing and useful
useful sub-division
sub-division of
of the
the population:
population: this isis
the population
the case when the population is11 aa forested
forested area already subdivided
area already Bubdivided in
in geographical natural
natural
unit. (catc~ent areas,
units (catchment areas, basins).
The stratification may be done prior

prior to
to selection of of the
the sample
sample (this
(this isis the
the true
true
"stratification aa priori")
stratification or "stratification priori") or
or.!!!!.!: selection of
after selection of the
the sample
s8lllple (in
(in this
this
case
case it
it is
is called "stratification a posteriori").
called "etratification poeteriori").
In aa two-stage sampling,
sANpling, stratification
atratiflcstion may in the
~sy occur in the first
firat stage,
stage, where groupe
groupe
of units called "primary
"prilllary units" are distributed
units It are distributed among
among different
different strata,
IItrata t or
or in
in the
the eecond
8~cond
stage, or in
stage, in both
both stages.
stageR.
sXBtematic selection
Rando~ or systematic
Random selection
S~pling i. applicable in
Sampling theory is in principle,
prinCiple, only
only when
when sampling
sompling is
is made at random by
using one of the numerous
numerous possible
possible devices.
dev1oee. For instance,
For instance, in
in an plantation
plantation with
with aa constant
constant
.pacing of trees,
spacing treee, a simple random sampling
sampling design
design may
may be
be obtained
obtained through
through the
the selection
selection of
-- 42
42 --
numbers
numbers from a a table
table of
of random
random numbers
numbers after
after having
having numbered
numbered all
all the
the trece
trees of
of the
the
plantation. (1 )
plantation.(1)
Sometimes, for practical

Sometimes, for prBctical reasons
reasons or
or for
for reasons
reaaons directly
directly related
related toto the
the emtimation
estimation
(for the
of the parameters (for the mapping
mappina of
of forest
forest types
types in
in the
the case som~ forest
case of some foreat inventoriem)
inventorie_)
it
it is
is more
more convenient
convenient to
to use
use syetematic sampling at
systematic sampling at one
one or
or all
all the
the stages
stages of
of the
the sampling
sampling
,lesign.
design. inventory a line
If we have to inventory line of
of trees
trees (units),
(unit.), a systematic
systematio sampling willwill
consist of the selection of one treetree every
every pp trees (the sampling
trees (the intensity being
sampling inteneity being ff • 1/ );
);
if ".
we have to
to. inventory a forested
forested area
area we
we may
may distribute
d1.tribute the
the sample
.ample according
according toto aa p
grid laid on the map,
map, each point .of
of the grid being the
the centre
centre of
of aa sampling
.ampling unit.
unit.
Although sampling theory
Although sampling theory does
does not
not · provide
provide users
u.er. with
with aa completely
completely satisfactory
.ati.factory
estimate of
estima-te of the
the sampling
sampling error
error in
in .ystematic
systematic sampling designs,
designe, itit is
1s possible
pos.ible to
to get
get
acceptable ones
acceptable one. by
by using
using certain
certain devices,
device., some
some of
of which sr. listed
which are li.ted in paragraph 423
in paragraph of
423 of
this chapter.
this chapter.
Selection with
with or
or without
without replacement
replacement
As already said in paragraph 233, most of the
most of the sampling
.ampling designs
d•• igns are
are considered
con.id.red '~ith
"with
replacement" although
replacement" although they
they are
are in
in fact
fact "without
"without replacement"
r.plao ....nt" as
as the
the same
.am. unit
unit is
i8 not
not
considered twice as
considered twice as aa sampling
samp11ng unit
unit (or
(or in
in other
oth.r words,
words, asas the
the sampling
sampling unite
units in
in aa given
given
all different
sample are all different units).
units). All sampling designs
All sampling design. listed
listed in
in paragraph 42 are
paragraph 42 are
consider.d as
considered as if
if they
they were
were with
with replacement.
replacement. Thi.
This approximation
approximation isis more
more acoeptable
acoeptabl. asas
the
the sampling fraction (number
sampling fraction (number of
of sampling
sampling units
units with
with respect
respect to
to total
total number
number of
of units)
units)
ge~s FJmaller.
gets smaller.
Selection with equal

equal or
or unequal
unequal probabilities
probabilities
At aa given
given stage
stage of
of aa sampling
sampling deeign,
design, unite
units may
may be
be selected
sel.cted with
with equal
equal or
or unequal
unequal
probabilities (see pnragraph 233).
(see paragraph In some sampling
sampling designs
deoigns units
unit. are
are selected
.elected with
>lith
probabilities proportional to their size .(pps).
probabilities.yroportional (PPS). This sometimes provee
prove. to be very
very
efficient. Thi • . is
This i. the
the case
case of
of two-stags
two-stage forest
fore.t sampling
sampling designe
design. in
in which
which the
the units
unit. at
at
the
the first
first otage ("primary units") are
stags .Pprimary are selected
•• lected with
with probabilities
probabilities proportional
proportional to
to their
their
ar.a
area ·of forest.(~)
of forest.(2)
Equal
Ebrual or
or unequal
unequal .ize
size of the unite
unite
L.t us
Let us assume that aa rectangular
.. sum. that reotancular forested
fore. ted area
area to
to be inYentoried if
b. inventoried i. divided
arbitrarily in
in equal
equal square
.quare blocks
blooks of, .ay,
of, say, 1 km 2•
km2. Let us
Let us oonsider
oon.ider that
that the
the population
population
is the
is the whole area,
area, including
inoluding the
the non-forested
non-forest.d parts.
parts. this case
In this ca.e the
the units
units aan be the
can be the
entire blocks
block. and will be of of equal
equal size.
.i.e. However, if
However, if we
we consider
consider that
that the
the population
population is
is
r~stricted to the
restricted to the forested
forested par-te
parts of
of the
the area,
area, the units will be the forested
fore. ted part
part of
of
eech
each blook
block and will not be b. the
the oame
same size
caoes these
In both cases these blocks
blocks can
can be
be selected
se1eoted with
with either
either equal or unequal
.~l ' or unequal probabilities
probabilities
oaee of unequal sized
(for instance in the case sized blooks
b100k. probabilities
probabi1itie. might
might be
ba proportional
proportional to
to
size.).
the sizes). B100ks
Blocks may be
be the ulti~ate units
the ultimate unit. (in
(in which
whioh case
O&8e the
the sampling
.ampling design
de.ign will
will be
be
(1) le.s than

If there are less than 1,000
1,000 rows
rowa and
and 1,000
1,000 columna
ooh..ns in
in the
the whole
whole population,
population, each
e!lOh
by aa 6-digit
tree might be numbered by number, 33 digits for the number
6-digit number, number of
of its
its row
row and
and
33 digita ita line.
digits for the number of its line.
(2) !!he
The use of the expression
expresa10n "PPS
"PPS sampling"
sampling" for
for "point
"point iampling"
.... pling" in
in whieh
whi6h trees
tree. are
are
seleoted eaoh point by
selected at each by the
the prism
prism or
or the
the Bitterlich
Bitterlich Relaskop
Relaakop (i.e.
(i.e. proporiionally
proportiolm11y
to their basal area) is not
not correot
correot as
as the
the sampling unit. are
sampling unite are the
the points
point.
th_elve.
themselves (or ev.ntually
eventually c1uatere
clusters of points)
points) and
and not
n6t the
the trees"
trees;
- 43
- 43 --
a one-stage sampling design)

design) or they may be the
the primary units
units of a two-stage sampling
being for
second~xy units being
design with secondary for example
example plots
plots of equal
equal area.
area.
1 or
Equal or une al number
unequal number of
of sampling
sam Ii units per
r unit of the prior
rior stage
st e
mult i-stage sampling designs)
(multi-etage designs
Irhere
There may be aa different number of secondary units unit in aa
units selected per primary unit
tNo-stage sampling
two-stage sampling design.
design. '-When
/hen the
the primary units
units are
are of equal size,
size, the sampling
intensity in the second stage (i.e.(i.e. the
the ratio of the number of secondary units selected
in a primary unit to the total number of secondary units per per primary
primary unit) may vary from
from
unit to
to unit. l-Ihen the
When the primary wlits are
prmary ludts are of
of unequal
Wlequal aize,
uize, the
the number
number of
of secondary units
units
selected may be proportional to the size of the primary units (and (and in
in this case the
sampling intensity at the second stage remains
remains constant).
412
412 Clusters and record
record units.
units. Generally the term cluster is
is used to
to define
define aa
sampling unit which is in fact
fact a group of smaller units.
units. is
The cluster is
the
the statistical unit
unit whereas the smaller ones
oneB are only record units. Information is
Information is
collected separately in each record unit and is ia then merged with information fro~ the
information from
other record
record units
units to
to constitute the information related to
to the
the sampling unit (cluster).
(Cluster).
The
The record units are not the
the statistical
statistical unite.
units. case should
In no case should cluster
cluster sampling
sampling be
be
with two-stage
understood as being synonymous with two-stage sampling.
sampling. More generally stages of of a
sampling design and clustering are two different concepts which can co-exist
co-exiot asas it is
io
easy to
to build
build up aa Multi-otage a~pling deaign
multi-stag* sampling design wherein the sampling
... plir.g units
unit • •
att different
.t.........
stages oluateroo.
are olumters.
42
42 Cludcd
Classical .... pling dede
sampling designs uaed
used in
in for..t..,.
forestry
421
421 Introduction. Below are lieted so~e classicel
li.ted some sampling designs
classical sampling desi6Ps used in forestry.
foreetry.
They are
are not
not inventory
inventory des; gns.
desios. These will be dealt with in Chapter 7. As
As
we have already asen,
seen, a forest inventory
inventory design
design is
is generally
6enerally aa combination
combination of
of sampling
sampling
designs_
designs.
sampling designe
All the eampling designs listed
listed below,
below, like
like any aampline design,
any sampling design, may
mayor may not
or may not use
11,30
cluster sampling.
sampling. have seen
As we have seen in
in the
the last
last paragraph,
paragraph, clustering
clustering is
io aa sub-division
sub-division
of the sampling unit into smaller units.
units. etB6" of the
any stag*
It can be applied at any the sampling
.ampling
and it does formulae.
doee not influenoe the respective formulas.
each sampling
For each sampling design,
deSign, two
two formulae
fOrMulae will
will be
be given:
given:
the
the expression
expre •• ion of the ,~b::.::B:;t7:e:::o-!-t7.i::"7a'i
of the beet estimate t.:::e~=-r~~~p"::f:::~":'01'if:,:a~~;.:
of the 42Ala value of a parameter :::::e::t::e~r:-ri0::v::e~r=t~h~e
... over the
lation or
whole POP lation er sam
Gam lii unit
unit of the last et, ("ultimate "ultillatesampling
samp ing unit") unit")
n caae of equa
CAP e 0 e size
ze o0 thea. these 8e or
Or per esize oaae of
ize un tt in case of une unequal ual size; 8izef
expre.sion of the
the expression the best
best estimate
eatimate ofof the
the variance
varianoe ofof this
thio estimate
estimate of
of the
the mean:
mean:
as Been in
&II we have seen paragraph 3312 t
in paragraph thee oorr •• ponding
oorrespond .lIIpling error
ng sampling orror at
at aa given
given
probabili 10.1 level is
probability 11 proportional toto the
the square
.quare root
root of
of the
tho varianoe provided
provided
that
that the
the ... umption of normal distribution
assumption di.tribut10n is io acceptable.
acceptable.
Estimation of a proportion:
0 rt onl The proportion of units of a population
population having a given
T;~~~::;"~"";:i""lUI~tran~o~o~pr~oportion
charaoierimtic (for instance proportion of of units
unit. of
of aa forested
fore. ted area
aroa belonging
belonging to
to aa given
given
fore.t typo) oan
forest type) oon.idorod as
can be oonsidered u the
the mean
IIBan value
valuo per
per unit
unit of
of aa particular
particular parameter,
parMeter, the
tho
órily
only value.
values ofof which
which are
are 11 if thetho unit hashal the characteristic
charaot.riotio and hao not.
and O0 if it has not.
Ni
5;0-general
general foi'Sillae apply for thi. par_eter
forneu-7-757-te7re.zaa but be
but can be expro.. ~
canexpressed .orosimply.
more .iMply. ifbo
The
oorresponding .i.plifi~
oorro.pondinc formulas will
simplified forwulal will be
bo livon
given for
for tho
the .o.t do.isn-.
uaual designa.
ost usual Per the
For tho
othor
other dolisn- thoy will b.
designa they be easily •• tabU.hod by
ouily established by Iceopine .. ind that
keeping in mind that the corresponding
tho oorr .. pondi ....
par_.ter
parameter can have only the two values
tho two valuea 0 or or 1.1.
-4
- 44 -
11 ;)2
422 Randorr. s81'\l)liry; designs
Random sampling deS ignS (not
(not systematic).
systematic). h'~ble includes
follo'·'in&, table
The following i ncluden the
the
r!l.nd
random om samDling
sQI"I:J1ing designs
des igns considered
conG idered in
in this
this paramrann.
pI'IX CI.gr2'.-ph. f ir,ureu refer
l.Pllc figures
The re fer to
to
the
the relevant
relevant sub-pararrraphs.
subparagraphs.
Type of
Type of Number of of the
Size of the Size of
Size of Stra.tification
Stratification Stratification
3arnplirlg
sampling stageo
stages units at the
the the u.nits
the units of the units
unite of the
of the units
unite
first stage
stege at the
the of the first
of f irst thl'! second
at the
seconrl
second st:'1Ce
stage st"ge
stage
(tstace
tne e
unstratified
.111 .. 1
.111.1
ctratificd
stratified
prior to to
sN'IIpli ng
sampling
.111. 21
.111.21
equal s ize
equal size
(equal st r ?t i f i ~cl
stratified
probabili tie.)
probabilities) after
.111 s ar:tpling
samplin,,,;
.111. 2~
.111.22
one stage nfo
nk n/"
11/ n
.11
.11.
unstratified
unstratified
.l l ;! .1
.112.1
area elements
or trees
strati
s f i ecl
tratified
(or po ints
(or points
!,rior to
prior to
or lines for
or lines
sampli:1':;
sampli n-
estimation ofof
..112.).1
112. 2 1
proportions)
proportions) s'ize
W'lequal size
unequal
(equal
422 .1
422.1 strt'. ti fied
stratified
pr obabilities
probabilities
aft er
after
.11 2
. 112
c~.r:tpling
sampling
.'1 2. 2?
.112.22
unstrat ified
unstratified
.1 21.111
.121.111
unstratified
unstratified
equal size .1 21. 11
.121.11
stratified
(equal equal
.121.11
.121.1122
probabili ti es )
probabilities) size
..121
12 1 .121.1
~tra. ti f i~d
stratified un.st ratified
unstratified
..121.12
121.1 2 .1 21.1 2 1
.121.121
ttfO
two stages
stratified.1.
otratifiec.
(wi th
(with "am.
same
..121.122
121.12;>
number of
secondary
WleC!ue.l
unequal WlBtra ti f ied
unstratified unstra tified
unstratified
WlitB per
units per
.1 ;> 1. 2
size .121.2
primary
unit)
.12
12
unequal at ze
size equal
equal unstratified unstratified
(probability size
size
proportional
to aize)
size) .122
point
point or (no
no lpecial deoign otudied;
special design only indication
studied; only of some
indication of important
some important
line
line 18IIIpling
sampling characteristics of
characterill1iioa of thia
this type Bampling)
tyTe of sampling)
.2
.2
- 115 -
z1.5
422.1
422.1 Units .~ area
area elements
elements or
or trees
trees (or
(or points
points or
or lines
line. for
for estimation
estimation
of proportions)
Sampling using
Sampling using angle
angle gauges,
gauges, wedge
wedge prisms
prisms or
or Spiegel
Spiegel Relaakope
·Relaskope is
is excluded
exoluded from
from
this ClasB of
this class of design
deBign (for
(for these
these designs
designs see
Bee paragraph
paragraph 423.2 "Point or
423.2 "POint or line
line sampling
ea'ftpl1ng
designs").
designe").
422.11 st9;e sampling

One stage desigE2
:Jampling deSignS
We will
We \<ill consider
consider only
only the
t.he designs
pe.iens in
in which
which units
uni to are
are selected
selected with
with equal
egual probabilitt.
probabil1 ti.
The
The symbols used are
symbols used are listed
listed below:
beiowl
f sampling intensity (or

intensity (or sampling
sampling fraction):
fraction)1 (f.
(f i) W) nh
f
h
fh
sampling intensity (or
(or sampling
sampling fraction)
fraction) in
in the
the stratum
stratum h (fh 17)
h index of a stratum
indox
i index of
index of aa unit
unit
(hi
(hi index of
of aa unit
unit (i)
(i) in
in aa stratum
stratum (h))
(h)}
L total number
total number of otrata
strata (h. to L)
(h . 1 to 1L)
n number of
of units
unit. in
in the
the sample
sample
nh
number of units the s""'ple
units in the sample of stratum h
total number
number of units in the
units in the population
h total number
nunber of
of units
units in
in the
the stratum
stratum h
estimate of
of aa nroportion
proportion PP from the sample
fro~ the sample
estima.te the mean value
estimate of the per size
vp.lue per un1 t of
size unit of the p~r8l1'leter
the parameter y ("ratio
(nratio of
R1
the
the means" estimate) !nth
with a measUro
measure of size x
x as an auxiliary par'J1\~ter .•
auxiliary parameter
2
in the
the stratum
stratum h
sh estimated variance
variance of the parameter
nh
- yh)
2
y in h
sh2 1
nh
v exact value of a variance of
of aa given
given estimate
estimate
v estimated value from
from aa sample ~f aa variance
sample pf variance of
of aa given
c1ven estimate
estimate
x
To auxiliary parameter
parameter (measure
(measure of
of size)
ei.e) in
in sampling
sampling with
with ratio eftti~ ..te
ratio estimate
xi
value of
value of xx in the
the ith unit
unit
value of xx in the
in the ith unit of
unit of the
the stratum
etratum h n
xhi
x estimate of the
the me&n
mean value per unit of x x , xx .• 1% xi Xi 1 Z
s
n 1.01.' nh
eetimate of the mean value per unit of

estimate xx in
in the
the stratum
.tratum h:
hI xh n- 2- lE
nh 1.1 xhi
N
xX total value of
total of x over
over the
the whole population:x X.•
wholepopulation, fltxt
X. total value of
of x
x .tratum hI
over the whole stratum ht Xh
1.1xhi
N
N
7 exact mean
exact mean per
per unit
unit of
of x
x over the whole
whole population:
population: f.1
7X.. ~ i.1xXi
1 1r
n Fx
-- 46 --
parameter to
parameter to be
be estimated
e.Umated
value of
value of - yy in the ith ""it
in the unit
th
value of yy in the ith
i unit of
of the
the stratum
stratum h
h
n
-
y eAtimate of the
estimate of the mean
mean value
value per
per unit of y ininthe
unit of the population:
populations - y • _-n1 i.1
. n
Ey.
2= Y'1
1
e.timate of
estimate of the
the mean
mean of
of y
y in
in the
the .tratUM
stratum hi
ht yh ; i.lyfi
1 I
nh
422.111
422.111 Units of
Units of equal
equal size
oize
422.111.1 UMtratified
Unstratified random S!!!!l~ling (or
rando.. sampling (or "unrestricted
''unrestricted random
randO!!l sampling"
."",pling" or
or
"aim pIe random sampling")
"simple sampling?)
This
This sampling design
de.ign has
haa already
already been
been explained
explained in
in paragraph
paragraph 311.
311. Let un
US recall
recall
corresponding formulae
the correspondine formulae:I
it
e.timate of
estimate of the
the mean
.. ean per
per unit:
unit: 7 (i)
estimate of the variance of 7:
v(-.1-f (T 4)2
.-
v(y) 1-t'
Y) n
it(7i 4)2
1
(71' -
1
wl
(2)
'1\10
Two reml!!LI'klll
remarks:
it(ycy)2 liy 2 4:2 2 A71)2
If
If ff 1is
••small
Mall (for inat~oe lesa
(for instanoe than 0.01
Ie •• than 0.01 • 1 peroent) 1-f
1-f ia
i. approximately
epproxiMately
equal to
to 1 and we
we haves
haYes
(yi-7)2 (2'
(2'))
n(n-i)
IIIt!"Uon of
Detisetion of a !!'OporUon P (of
proportion p (ot' lIDit. having a given
units barilllf linn obaraoter1.Ub).
characterietiö).
thh case
In thie
In cue wv
.. have
haTe yj
71 or 00 ~1IIf
• 1 01' un1 t
• •ther the unit
",0 Whethsr
&wording to i
i has tho given
hal the riyen
characteristic or not.
oharaoteri.tio or not.
Ditimat of the proportion Pt
I P
P- ~
7:
a
I
wh.re
where a
a i. the
is tho number
nuMb.r of
ot' units
lIDit. in
in the
tho sample
.eapl. which
whioh havo the given
haY. the oharaoterl.~io.
riYen characteristic.
- 47 --
-
Estimate
Estimate of the variance of
of p:
p:
v(p) . (1-f) Pri(1-fr) (1-)42;121 (4

(4))
If r nn
.
1.7 1e eet:
we set:
is small we vip)
v(p)
_ r
. 2
(1,?)
(1-p (4'
(4'))
"'N n-
n-1
Rema rk: In
Remark: In the case of the estimation
the ope eatima.tion ( I f a proportion rela.ted
e. proportion related toto aa ch!lr:l t.~tC'ri ::·: ·tic Lhich
chractcritic can ..
d ,d ch cat
be attributed to
be to aa point
point itself
it.elf (and
(and not
not to
to aa plot
plot around
around the
the point)
point) the units m~
the unit. may be the the
points.
points. This i. the
This is the case
ease where
where the
the estimation
estimation of of the
the area
area of
of aa given
given forest
for •• t type
type i. is
on photographs
carried out on photographa orOr maps.
mapa. In
In this
this case NN is0".
i. infinite and ff is
infinite and i_ practically
practically
equal to
equal to zero
zero and
and formula
formula (4')
(4') is
is the
the right
right one.
422 .111 .2
422.111.2 Stratified random
random sampling
sam Cling
422 .111 .21
422.111.21 Stratification ~ to
Stratification prior. to "ampline
namplins
The
The sizee
siseo Nh
Nh of the
the varioua strata are
various strata are exactly known
known andand the
the sampling
sampling is
is made
independently in
independently in each
enoh etratum.
stratum. INIMEN.11
L
EBtimate of the
Eatimate the mean
meen per
per unit
I
Yst - h.1 hy h
N
-
(5 )
(5)
EBtimate of
Eatiraate of the
the variance of
variance.of 2
1-f
t
T Nh h 2
(6)
v(7,st) hl".1 r (6)
.1. nh °h
Thi.
This formula can ~e wri Hen in
written in different
different forme
fo%'llls and
and may
may be
be simplified
Simplified if tho samplins
it' the o&mplin"
fraction fh
fh
- No
g- i n constant whatever
in what over the
the stratum.
atratum.
h
422.111.22
422.111.22 Stratification ~
after oampling
sampling
The sizea Nh
The aizes Nh of
of the
the varioua .trata can
various strata oan be
bo determined
determined exactly
exaotly or
or fairly
fairly accurately,
aoourately,
but there
but there is
is only
only one sampling for the the whole population (and
whole population (Rnd not
not an
an independent
indopendent aamrling
samrling
in eaoh
each stratum)
stratum) and the
the sampling unit. are classified
units are claa.ifiad into
into otrata
otrata after
after they
they have
have been
beon
.ampled.
sampled. This
This 10
is tho o.. e of
the case of aa forest
foro.t inventory
inventory in
in whioht
whiohl -
.trai;U/I dsizea
strai,um ... are
are known
known by
by photointerpretationj
photointerpretationt
only one
ono .ampling i. done
sampling is for tha
done tor the whole to be
area to
whole ants be inventoried;
inventoried I
tho
the foot that aa unit
faot that unit belongs to aa given
bolene- to liven atratum
atratu. is
i. not knownor
not known or not
invo.tigatod before
investigated beforo data
data recording
reoordinr inin the
the field.
field.
z8
- 48 -
h=1 h
EBtime.te of the
Estimate the mean per
per unit
un! t ( 7 )
Yet N
EBtimate of
Estimate of the
the varianoe of yet
variance of l.t -'
v(yet- ) - --1f
l-f
n
L
h.1 N
N
h
"h
sh
2
+ "2
n
2
n
zL
h.1
1_
N
\
h
(Il )
(8)
L
(where nn =
a h~l
Z ~
)1.1
i. the
m is
n
the total
total number
number of
of sampling
.amplinr, units
unit a and
and f = = p whatever
'rlha.tever hh is,
is,
in this
as in this case
case there
there is
ia only
only one
one sampling
sampling and
and thun
thulJ only
only one
one sampling
Gaznpling fraction).
fraction).
2
entimilted variances
If the estimated variances sh the different
within the different strata
stra ta are
are not
not too
too different
different
sh
and iif
and f the
the """'pIe is large
sample is large the
the .econd tern of
second term V(71
V G'at)) is "mall.
is small. ThiG estimate
This estimate is then
is then
at
not
not very different from
from the
the one
one for
for stratification
stratification prior
prior to s~~r.line given
to sampling give n by fo~ul~ (6).
by formula (6).
Formula (8))
Formula (8 assumes that
asures that there
thereisi. nono systematic
systematic error
errorinin the
the estimation
estimation of
of Nh.
Nh •
422.11
422.1122 Units of unequal size
.ize (ratio
(ratio estimate)
estimate)
If the statistical
statistical units
units of
of aa forested
forested area inv~ntori ec1. are
areatotobebeinventorierl ~trip:::; or
a.Tr. strips or line
line
plots
plots,t they will be in !'!'lost csses of different size for one or severa.l
most cases several of the following
of the following
reasons:
irregular
irregular shape of the
the forested
forested area;
area;
irregular contour of the
the different
different strata
stra.ta within
withi n the
the area;
~cai
different sizes
sizes of
of the
the horizontal
horizontal projections
projection. of
of the
the units
units (theee
(thep,e
projections being in
in fact
fact the
the units)
units) due
due to
to different
different terrain
terrain features
features from
from
one unit to another.
another,
In such case8
cases a judicious
judicious approach is is to consider ~t~h~e_s~'~'z~e~(~ar~e~a~l~o~f~e~a~c~h~u~n~i~t-;a;s~a~n
to consider the size (area) of nach unit as an
auxiliary yarameter ar,d
auxi liary parameter and toto estimate the :,:m:::.~an:;"fv!:D.:;:lu~.::,o:::,:.f::,t!;ho-.~,!",rr.am::::,e~t:.:e::r~,:.=r:::::s'ti".:z"e,;sun~ii:t_as=:;t"hn'e
el t ima te the mean value of the parameter per size unit as the
ratio
ratio of
of the
the parameter it.elf over
. ameter itself over this
this auxilia
auxi iary parameteT arameter (mee paragraphs 3322.6
se. paragraphs 2. and and 33).
422.112.1 Without
Without stratifioation
stratification
.i11.1yy,i·
,.
Eotimate of the
Estimate of
("ratiO
the mean
("ratio of the
mean value
value per
the means")
per size
.i.e unit:
unit: R,
fi
1 --
~lxi
iml
n
.L
x
( 9 )
11 xi
A
Eot1mate
Estimate of the variance of R,I
the varianoe R
.701 .1.1.=1,,1
~--~----------------------------~
A
v(R,)
v(R1 ) •
,
2--
,_£
1f
i yY 22 A2 ±X
(i4-F4163ci
n 2
's2
2 R
n
(10)
o)
(717) «(;1 i + Rl1
(
n(n-l) =1
12
72 1
49 --
-- 49
n
the sample
If the sBJ!\ple estimate
esti,.ate per
per sampling
sampling unit 10
un1 t ie i .f.lxi , then , (10)m~ be
(i0)my be written
written as
..
II
follows:
followa:
2 1= 2
x
• ~ 1-f t"; x
2
Rl ~ , (------ N
v(Ri)
v(R 1 ) -= ;2 1-f
n\n-l
n n-1)) ` -2
(1o1))
(10'
1 -2 x y
Y x
IMportant remark:
Important remark: The ratio estimate
eotimate R1
Rl is
is a biased
biaeed estimate
estimate but the
the bias
bi .. will bft
be . .
the
the more negligible as:
more negligible 9.8,
- the
the number n of sampling units is i8 larger;
larger;
- the regression between
the between y andand xx isis better represented by
better represented by aa straight
otraight line
line
through
through the
the orib\n
oribin (this
(this is
is generally
generally well
well verified
verified If is a vol~e
lf y io volume or
n~ber of stems
number of .tams and
and if
if xx iois the
the &rea
area of the
the unit).ll)
unit).(1)
422.112.2
422.112.2 With stratification
.tratifioation
422.112.21
422.112.21 Stratification prior to
Stratification prior to ... plinc
samplinK
If. the numbers
If the "h of sampling
II\lIftber. nh ."",pling unite
unit. in
in the
the strata are large
.trata are large enough
enough and the
it the
and if
ratio. ~ in the variouB strata are different enough, it io demonstrated that the beet
ratios Rh in the various strata are different enough, it is demonstrated that the beat
estimate.
estimates of thethe ratio
ratio and
and of
of the
the variance
variance of
of the
the estimate
eetimate are
are the
the following:
following:
~timate of the mean Eer

Eatimate per size unit Xh
L Xh
(".eperate
("separate ratio estimate"):
e.ti..ate") I R1 s Z.1 I- -h
(11 )
X ''1/1
xh
Estimate of the variance of R18
Nh2 ah 2
,
v(R119) - =7 hri 2
1-fh
ht(hh_l/ (50bl + R-
1h1=0 -hi - 2R1h (12)
X
422.112.22 Stratification after sampliPg

sampling
422.112.22
If the variances of
of the
the R1h
Rlh are
.
are approximately
approximately the
the same
o..,.e in
in all
all strata,
etrata, and
and if
if the
the
s"",ple is
sample i. large
large enough,
enough, formula
formula (12) may be
(12) may be applied¡
applied I if not,
not, formula
formula (8) hae to
(8) has to be
be
adapted to
adapted to the
the case
caee of
of this
thi. ratio
ratio estimate.
estimate •
•Rd 4k707)
~rv?'"
(1) In any we have:
C9.8e we
BllJ' case have, .1bias
1 biae R,,1 ~yv(Rl) xx 1777
'~
A
whare: V(R
17(141
i
) ito thethee:met
) ie of HI
variance of
exactvarianoe R - (_tiM&ted-
(estimated by v(Rd
1
V(R1 )
v(i).
1/Ft) = !frl . i. the exact otandard of iZ. (standard
error of (.tandard· deviation of
of xx
rn
V7-
is the exact
.standard error
. by Vir ).
divided by rn ).
-- 50
50 --
422.12 Two-stage sampling

Twostag* oampline designs
design!
We will comider
\~e onlythe
consid~ronly thedesigns
designs ininwhich
whichthe
the same
same number
number of
of secondary
oecondary units
u..,it. are
are
selected per primary
primary unit.
All the
All the estimated
estimated means:
means in
in the follOwing are means
fo~ulae are
following formulae Means per
per secondary
secondary unit.
unit.
The symbol. used are
aymbols used are listed
lioted below:
belowl
f1
sampling intenoitY'at the first
intensitrat the firot stag*:
aiagel f1
fi • J pri~ary units)
(equal primary unita)
f2
asmpling intenaity at
sampling intensity at the
the seoond
aeoond stage:
otagel
f2 i (equal primary
(equal priMary unit.
units and same
aame
aampling intensity
sampling intenoity at
at the
the
aeoond stage
second atage in
in all primary
all primary
sampling units)
sampling units)
sampling intensity at the second .tage
stage in the .tratlln!
stratum ki
ki of the
of the primary
primary
12k1
unit ii
unit
h index of
of a etratum
.tratum (stratification
(stratification of
of primary
primary units)
units)
i index of
of aa primary
primary unit
unit
j index of
of aa secondary
secondary unit
unit
(ij
(ij index of
of a.
a. secondary
secondary unit
unit in a primary
priMary unit)
unit)
ki
ki index of a stratum (stratification
(stratification of
of secondary
secondary units)
units) within
within the
the primary
primary
unit ii
L primary units (h
total number of strata for primary (h • 11 to
to L)
L)
L
L.'I tota.l number
total number of
of strata
strata for
for secondary
secondary units
uni to within
wi thin the
the primary
primary unit
unit i
i
i
(ki =• 1 to
(ki 1 to L1')
Li I )
m units in the sample of each primary

number of secondary unite primary unit
unit
~i .econdary units in the sample of stratum
number of secondary strattun ki
ki in the primary unit ii
mki
II. of secondary units in one primary
total number of prilllary unit
~\:i seoondary units in stratum
total number of secondary ki
ki in the
the primary
primary unit
unit ii
n number of primary
numher prilllary units in the sample
"h
nh
pri",ary units in the sample of the stratum
number of primary etratum h
N total number
total number of
of primary
prilllary units
unito in
in the
the population
population
llh
Nh
prilllary units
total number of primary uni to in
in the stratum
otrat"", h
h
estima te of
estimate P from
of aa proportion P aample
frOIll the whole sample
Pi estilllate of a proportion
estimate proportion P frolll oample of primary
from the sample primary unit
unit ii
estimate of the varianoe the parameter
variance of the paraMeter y in the stratum
atratlln! ki
ki tho
in the
ski2
primary unit
primary uni t ii
• ~(Ykij7ki)2
2(Ykij - Yki)2
ki '"Jci- 1
mki 1
x auxiliary parameter
paraMeter (measure
(lIIe..ure of size)
oize) in sampling
oampling with ratio estimation
th th
>tj
rij
value of xx in the
the jth
j uoondary unit
secondary unit of
of the
the ith
i primary
prillar;,. unit
unit
- 51
51 -
Xi •• timate of the
estimate the mean value
value per eecondary
secondary unit
unit of
of X
x in
in the primary unit
the primary unit il
is
_ 1 Il.
x •a - .~xij
xi;
i m J.1
m
•
X exact mean value per
per seoondary
secondary unit of x
x over th'l whole
over the poP\llation
whole population
estimated
parameter to be estimated
value of 1y in
in the th ssecondary
the jjth eoondary unit
unit of the
of ith primary
the ith primary unit
unit
.th th
value of yY in the
the Jjth secondary unit of the iith primary
of the .
primary unit
unit of
of the
the stratum
str •.tum hh
of Y
value of in the
y in
.th
the Jjth secondary
secondary unit
unit of
of the
the stratum
stratum ki
ki in the
in ith
the ith
primary unit
primary unit
1i
yi estimate of
estimate of the
the mean
mean value
value per
per secondary
secondary unit
unitof
of y in the
in the primary
primary unit
unit i:
i:
=n j.1Yij
yki estimate
estimate of
of the
the mean
mean value
value per
per seoondary
secondary unit
unitof
of yy in stratum
stratum ki
(primary unit i):
i):
= Tiki J.1
estimate of
estimate of the
the mean
mean value
value per
per secondary
secondary unit
unit of
of 1y primary unit
in primary unit i
i
within primary
(with stratification within primary units):
unite)1
L.
YNSi·
YNSi '
z:
L.'I
ki.1 -W-
ki.1
Mld-
mki
1ki
M Yki
-
•
Y estimate of
estimate of the
the mean
mean value
value per
per secondary
secondary unit
unit of
of y in stratum hi
h:
h
yh
Yh "nhm i.1
• estimate
estimate of
of the
the mean
mean value
value per
per .eoondar,r unit at
secondary unit over the
of yy over the primary
primarY unite
unit.
YNSh
37/Ch
of
of stratum
stratum hh (with Itratifioation within the
stratification within the primary
primary units):
units):
711Sh nh 1.141Ci
5~ -
--5P-
422.121 Primary
Primary units
units of
of equal size
In the designs listed

listed below, the
the primary
primary units
units are
are selected
selected with
I-lith equal
equal probabilities.
probabilitie ••
422.121.1 Secondary units

units of equal size
422.121.11 No stratification
strstification of
of primary
primary units
unit.
\
stratification of
of secondary
secondary units
units within
within primary
primary unite.
units.
Estimate
Elti.at. Of theof the
.. eall valuerniatázaltun:
per second!U7 un! t:
Zy
n
i.1 i 1.1
I.nI !i:m
v
j.'Yij
i.1 .1.1-ij
=
n
=
mn
mn
(13
(13))
EStimate
Estimate of
of the
the veriance of 5:
variance of Y:
n 2
~lGCY) - -7
Y )?
v(y) -,1
1-f1
v(5) = n- 12(Tr-5)2
n-1 + '
. f (1-f )
1
nm
run
2 zn 2%
m (y ..
m (y.
.1""1
1=1 j=1
it
n
.
3.4
rn-1)
n(m-1)
- -
)2
i (14)
(14)
.
EBtiMation
Estimation of
of aa proportion
In this
this caee
case the values of the parameter y in the secondary
secondar;;' units
uni tD are
are equal
equnl to
to
o0 or 11 (y ij •. 1 or 0).
(yij The
The above formulae may
may be simplified.
n
Estimate of
EStiMate of the
the proportion
proportion P .") p.
(mean value
value of
of y per secondary unit): 1';'1 P.~
p=-
n
(13'))
(13'
aa.
i
(where
(where Pi
is
is the estimate of the proportion for the primary unit
pi i: pi = a-, ai being
of the
the number of units in the sample of the primary
primary unit ii for which
>lhich 1 )~
yii . 1).
EStimate of the
Estimate the variance of
of p
1-f(p.-p)2 (1-f, ) n »1'i(l-

.(1-p.)
1' i)
';'(p)
v(P) . --
=
n
1 i1
n-1
. 1 f1
nm i~
5-
f71
' 1
n(r.1-1 )
n(m-1)
i (14'
(14'))
If the secondary units

unit. are yoints,
points, then
then the
the number
number M of secondary units
M wlits per
per primary
primary
unit is
is infinite and f,f =• o0
2
422.121.112 Stratification of secondary

Stratification of secondary units
unite within
within primary
prir.lary units
units (prior
(prior to
to sampling)
s"mpline)
EBtiMate
Ebtimate of the .. ean value per secondary unit
mean
L
L I1
11 n ;.t - -
~1
1
7NS •- iin i-1 kt.1

(15
(15))
kI=1 M Yki = ñ ft4.1YNSi
- 53
53 --
a
Estimate of
EStimate of the
the variance
variance of
of Y
NS
IsNS
v(yNS)
i~(YNSi -
1-f1
=-- 411Si
1-f1
n
n n-1 n-1ski .
YNS)2
7NS
12
f1
WK. i=1 ki=1
L '
i2
m2
1-f2k1
mki
2
(16)
(16)
Formula (16)
(16) is
is similar
similar to (14) and
to (14) and reduces
reduces to
to this
this latter
latter when
when there
there is
i. no
no stratification
stratification
within
within the primary units.
the primary units. The - nature and the
The-nature the number
number of
of the
the strata
strata may
may not
not bebe the
the same in
in-
the various primary
primary units.
unite.
422.121.12 Stratification of primary

Stratification of pri.ary units
units (prior
(prior to
to sampling).
sampling).
422.121.121
No stratification of
of secondary
secondary units
units within
within primary
primary units.
units.
Estimate of
of the
the mean
mean value
value per
12er secondary
l!Iecondary unit:
unit:
a
L Nh
Nh i'i:E
i~1 j=1Yhij
i=1 jc1Yhij th=1Nh
Nh a
ys = h~ iI
líZ1 N ° n mm
n.
h
ha1 iI
N Yh
3rrh
(17 )
the variance of
Estimate of the of YS
irBs
L N
(18 )
v6 S) Ii1(17111)2 v(37h)
v(h) ) being
v{Y being obtained
obtained by
by formula
formula (14)
(14) wherein
wherein the
the primary
primary unite
unit. taken
taken into
into consideration
consideration
are h those which belong
are those belong to
to stratum h. h.
422.121-.122
422.121.122 Stratification of secondary
secondary units
unit. within
within primary
primary units
units
(prior
(prior to
to .rumpling)
sampling) .
Let us refer
Let us refer the
the index
index hh to the stratification
stratification of
of the
the primary
primary units
units and
and the
the index
index k
to the
the stratification of of -the secondary units
the secondary units within
within the
the primary
primary units.
units. These two
These two
stratifications must
must not
not overlap.
overlap. sa~pling design
In a forestry sampling design the
the stratification
stratification of of
primary units
units may be
be aa geographical
geographical stratification
stratification (by
(by catchment
catchment area) or aa br~ad
area) or bmad
vegetation classification,
classification, while the the stratification
stratification of
of the
the secondary
secondary units within eacheach
primary unit
pri~ary unit may
may be
be aa stratification by density and height of the dominant
dominant tree.
trees
("condition
("condition claeses").
clases').
Estimate
EStimate of
of the
themean value per secondary unitl
mearlva.b....pIeersetcorunt
•
yss
r
• b!i
N
h
L
;SS h:1 N
YNSh
(19
(19))
YNS being calculated by formula

fornul!> (15)
(15) applied to
to the
the unite
unit. of
of the
the stratum h.
h.
h
-511
54 -
El3ti Mtlt e of
Estimate of the
thPvari
----
a nce ofof y
variance YS"
ao"
v) 03
L
h=1 N
N
(2)2 vONS ) (20)
(20)
V{YNS ) beinG calculat ed by

calculated by formula
fo rmul a (16)
( 16 ) applied
applied to
to the
the units
units of s~r"tUJ!l
of stratum h.
"
1NShbeing
h
1.122 . 121 . ?
422.121.2 Scordnry
Seco units o of_e2_,___un
ndo..ry unite f unequal
cruel size
size
h : this
In th i s case,
ca.se I ratio
r?t i o estimation used as
is used
e 8 tim<1t i o n is as in one-stage sampling
i n one-stage sampling designs, the size
deSigns, the size
of aa secondary
s r' co ndary unit
uni t being
bei ng the
th e auxiliary
auxiliary parameter.
pnrameter. will consider
We will coneider only
only the
the case
case where
where
the r~ is
there if; no stratification
str atificat i on either of nrimary uni ts or
primary urits of secondary units.
or of
Estimate
Tht ima t e of the
t hemean
mean value
valu e per size unit
("ratio
( "ra tio ofor thethe m=7-
means ll
)
i=1Yi i-1 j=1

(21 )
R2 n
.Z7.
1=1 i
ZXx
i=1 j=1 ij
~ ti ma t e
Estimate t he variance
of the v a ri anc e of
of Ro
R2
.
v (ll~ )
1
1-
1-ff
1 /:L-
n
2 + R2
n
• 2 z:-2
xi -
n
z:- • yiJ
V(112) = ~
1E,5 n(n-
n(n11) 1) i =1Yi
fit3r-i2 i_1
il*22 it;i2 2R2
2R2 i_,x i
(22)
11
+ 77
f )
f 1 (1 --fo)
f
1 2 n
E m
.~ .1:
.. f(y.. •
/:(.rij-YJ ++ RR22 .
2
2
(xtr-xt ) - 22
2~
n2
^
• (Yi - (
.rif"i) -)J
xi r Xl
+~ nm ,w1 J.l
iu1 j.1 n{ra-l
n(r7-1))
X "'"
422 .1 22
422.122 Primary unit
unitss of unequal
Wleqy.nl size
size
,Ie conBider only

We will consider the case
onl y the caBe of the primary
of the pri.. "!7 units
unit. being .elected with"
selected with a
~obabi
xrobabilityl' ty proportional
próportional to to their
their sizeB. withoutany
sizes,without anvDrior
priorBtratifieetion of the primary
s_rt2Iifiatión_211_21_,Wma
W1 i t s or
units or ooff the
the secondary units and
seconday units and with Becondar:r units
with secondary unit. of
of equal
e;rrl size.
aize. WI recall
Let WS
tha
that t we
we a.eBUTftC t hat there
assume that there is the same
io the Bame nuMber
maber ofof secondary _amp
secondary sampling Wlita per
unite per primary W'lit.
primm unit. inc
ii.Btirl\a"te
Estimate of of the mean value per
per secondary
secondary unit:
Wlit:
•
YPI'S
3r.PFS
1
7 im17i . -"'"11
nm jtYii (23)
'The
The fformula
omula is
i . tthe
he BMe
same as (1 3) which give.
as (13) 6eti....te y
gives the estimate 3; for"
for two-.te.ge sampling
a two-stage .""'pHng with
equal
equal pruary
primary un it • •selected
units elected with
with equal
equal probabilit1e.
probabilities (unve1ghted
(unweighted .... ple mean
ample •• an per
8secondary
.condary unit).
unit ) .
- 55
55 -
variance of
Estimate of the variance of •
ypys
lpps
v6pFs) -° 7171r77
n{n-l)
1
T) i-'t (ii ;pps) 2 (24)
(24)
TOe
The simplicity of formulae
formulae (23)
( 23) and
and (24)
(24) and
and the
the usual
usual efficiency
efficiency of
of this
this design
design
make it particularly
ma.ke it particularly interesting.
interestfng.
422.
422.22 Point
Po i nt(or
(orline) sampling desi~
line) sampling designs
sampli~ is
This type of sampling is used
used in
in the
the field
field work
work of
of aa forest
forest inventory.
inventory. The ultimate
The
units are
units are points
points (or
(or lines)
lines) and
and are
are not
not characterized
characterized byby aa given
eiven area
area or
or by
by aa tree.
tree. At
At
each
each point the trees
point the trees (trees
(trees are
are not
not the
the oampling
oempling units)
units) are
are selected
selected with
with aa probability
probability
proportional to
proportional to one
one characteristic
charncteristic which
which is:
is:
its basal area

its ar ea in "hori zo ntal point
i n "horizontal samplinglt
point sampling"
its nhorizontal line
its diameter in "horizontal line sampling"
samplingt1
the
the square its height in "vertical
square of its point s8lIIpling"
Itv-ertical point sampling"
its t,eight
its 'lyertic.:al line
in "vertical
height in line sampling".
sampling",
In other
other words
words for
for each
each tree
tree there
there is
1s aa corresponding
corresponding area
area of
of plot
plot proportional
proportional to
to this
this
characteristic and
characteristic and the
the bigger
bigger this
this characteristic,
characteristic, the
the larger
larger the
the plot.
plot. is for
It is for this
this
type of
reason that this type of design
design is
is sometimes
sometimes called
called "polyareal
"polyareal plot
plot sampling".
sampling",
'lhese
These designo
designo - in
in particular the "horizontal
particular the IIhorizontal point
point sampling"
sMpling" - have
ha.ve developed very
fast
fast in the last twenty
twenty years
year. in
in forestry,
forestry, first
first in
in North
North America
America (using
(using angle
angle gauges
gauges or
or
pris~8), anA then in other temperate zones
prisms), and zones (especially in in EUrope with the
%rope with Spl~gel
the Spiegel
Relaskop). fores~8 is
Their use in tropical forests i. hampered
hampered by by limiting
limiting practical
practical factors,
factor8, such
such
as
as the
the opacity of the
the undergrowth and the various heights
heights of buttresses.
buttresses. In addition,
these
these deSigns
designo do
do not directly a repreaentative picture of the forest
not give directly forest at
at each
each po int b~cauGe
point because
-the
the trees
trees are
are not
not selected with the eamesame probability:
probability: this this shortcoming is more serious
serious in
mixed tropical
tropical forests
forests where
where itit may
may be
be interesting
interesting toto know
know the
the distribution
distribution ofof the
the species
species
aand
nd diameter
diameter classes
classes at each sampling location.
location. However, it has been
However, been successfully
succeSSfully used
in some
sOme cases and
and may
may be
be recommended
recommended inin the
the tropics
tropics inin homogeneous
homogeneous stands
stands (pine
(pine foresto
rorestE
or plantations).
plantatiOns).
Except
Except for
for this difference in the
differenoe in the nature
nature ofof the
the sampling
sampling units,
units, allall the
the designs
designs
described above are applicable. In particular,
particular, if the lines
lines have
have different
different lengths,
lengths, itit
is
is worthwhile USing estimate with
ueing a ratio estimate with the
the length
length of
of the
the line
line as
as an
a n auxiliary par~eter.
AB case of
As in the case of area
area elements
elements cr
cr trees,
trees, clustering
clustering may
may be
be used
used with
with any
any type
type of
of design.
design.
Ther~fore
Therefore it is to resume the
is not necessary to the designe
deBigns listed
listed above,
above, and we
we will
will only
only
~eDtion
mention what is to be changed in
in the
the formulae.
formulae.
- parameter in
Value of the parameter in one
one point
point (or
(or in
in one
one line)
line)
Let up take
Let US take the case of a horizontal point sampling
88l11pling design.
design. The point ii being thethe
ultiMate oampling unit,
ultimate sampling the value
unit, the :1
irallat_n_ar the or
the parameter
parameter y: perperarea
area unit
unit in
in this
thio unit
unit is
i8
equal tot
F ) + ••• + 11,p1 (r- )
tOI
F F
F pF )N
vAr---)Yi,p1
N
(p ) (/ ( N
71 71,1 M---)
~ ,
1,1
7i,2
~1,2
+ ..
**e·+;rt,k
Yi,k
~ ilk i,pi 1,pi
- 56 -
where:
where: pi
pi is the total
is total number
number of trees
trees selected in
in point
point ii
y. the v~lue
y. k if the value of
of the
the parameter
parameter yy for
lor the
the kth selected
selected tree
tree of
of the
the point
point i
i
1,k
(if Y is aa number of sterne,
i!; steme, Yi,k N111 be eeual to 11 ~'rhatever
equal to k is).
.
1, y yi,k will whatever is).
BA area of
is the basal area the kth selected
of the selected tree
tree of
of the
the point
point ii
i,k
F is the basal area
area factor
factor (equal
(equal to
to F = 10,000 oin2~,
10,000 sin2
e
in s~e ~etres
square metres
(basal area) per h9cte..re,
(basal Cl.rea) wheorei!l e i2
hectare, wherein e G~Uuf9'C ancle).
i:: the gauge C'.nc1e}.
fomulne are
Similar formulae are applicable
applicable to
to the
the three
three other
other designs
deeirrns in
in which
which thethe basal
baoal areps
aret'.s of
of the
the
trees are replaced
trees replnced by the relevant
by the relevant charecteristice,
char",cteristic::'!, diameter,
diameter, square of height
~C!ui?r~ of heiC!:t or
or heicht,
hei~ht,
correspondine value
and corresponding or the factor
v?lue 01: C...ctor F.F.
- tlu."!lber
!lumber of of Wlits sampling inte!1~itieG
units -- sa.'1\plLl(; intennities
Strictly speaking,
Strictly Gpenkinc, as as the ~l() pulation (and/or
the nopulation (and/or the
the strata, and/or the intermediate
GtrFl.t{t, t and/or intermediate
uni to) in
units) in sfl. forested arc~" the
forested area, the sizes
s izes of of the
the units
W'li ts are
are toto be nenstlr~d in
be measured in areas.
areBS. Bu
Butt as
as an
uni t has no
unit no defined
defined area
area (there
(there are
are as many areas
E',S many areas as value:i of
aR valuen of thethe characteristic)
characteristic) thethe
total number of ultimate
total ultir.•ate units
unito in
i 'l the
tho population
population (or(or in
ill any
e.ny division of it) it) cannot
cannot be
be
de fined precisely.
defined Provided that the total total number
nunber ofof trees
trees eelected
selecterl in
in all
all the units is
the units is
re l atively small compared
relatively compared to to the
the total nt~ber of
total number of trees
trees ofof the
the population
population (or
(or of the
subdivision of
related subdivision of it),
it),
sampling intensity
the sampling intensity at
at the
the ultimate stage
stage will
will be considered
sufficiently low
sufficiently low to be made equal
equal to 0;
the last
the number of ultimate units at the last stage
stage per
per intermediate
intermediate unitunit
of the
of the former
former stage
stage is
is so
so large
large that
that its
its inverse
inverse can
ce.n be
be made
Plade equal
equal to
to 0.
O.
A very thorough analysis

A ane,lysis of the noint
of the point and line sampling
and line samplin;; principles
principles is Given in "Forest
is given
lIensurat ion" by
Mensuration" by B.
B. Busch,
Rusch, Ch.
Ch. I.
I. Miller
Miller and
"nd Th. ~.,. Beern
Th. 11. (pot;e 254-291).
Beers (pace
423 Systematic sampling

sampling designs
designs
423.1
423.1 General considerations
cousidera tiona
samplin;; designs
By systematic sampling designs we ~ean all
we mean all nampling
oanplint; designe
dc.i""" at
"t one,
one, several
.everal or all
all
stages
stagss at which aa selection
selection of
of sampling
s"-,,,pline units
units is
is made
mede according
eccordine to
to aa systematic
systematic pattern,
po.ttern,
i.e. by selecting only a first unit
i.e. un! t at random,
random, the location oe the other sampling
location of sanp1inc units
automat i cally deduced
being automatically (leduced from
fron this
this first
first selection.
selection.
AT13' design
Any deSign which
whioh includes
inoludes aa systematic selection of
systematic selection of the
the units
units in
io not strictly
according to
to sampling
sempline theory for the following ressonn:
re~.onol
Only one unit is is selected

.elected at random,
ran(lom, the other
other units are not independently
(in terms
selected (in teMls of statictics
statistics itit is
is said
said that
that each
ee.ch one
one does not
not correspond
oorrespond
to aa "degree
Udegree of freedom") i in this case the
of freedom"); the variance
variance cannot
cannot be estimated.
estimated.
This can be understood alsoa180 if
if we compare
compare the
the whole
whole systematic
systematiC sample as as aa
cluster.
cluster. \·'e
We have seen that the cluster can only be considered
considered asas aa sampling
sampling
unit (not
(not the
the constitutive
constitutive units)
unite) and
and no
no variance
var!ance can
can be
be calculated
calcul ated from
from the
the
of the
value of the parameter
parameter in
in only
only one
on. unit.
unit.
- 57
57 --
- Once the first

first unit
unit isis selected
selected the
the other
other units,
unit_, which
which do
do not
not belong
belong to
to the
the
.ample, lave
future sample, haTe aa zero-probability
zero-probability ofof being
being selected
.elected and
and the
the other
other units
unit.
of the sample have
have aa probability
probability of
of being
being selected
selected equal
equal to
to 1.
1. In other
In other
>lords most of
words of the
the units
units of
of the
the population
population are
are definitely
definitely excluded
excluded from
frOM the
the
selection because ofof the
the prearranged
prearranged pattern
pattern ofof this
this systematic
systematic design.
design.
This is
10 contrary to
to aa basic
basic principle
prinCiple of
of the
the sampling
sampling theory.
theory.
In addition to
t o these
these considerations,
conSiderations, itit must
must be
be pointed
pointed out
out that
that any calculation of
any calculation of
the variance of
of the
the mean ie complicated
me2~ is complicated by
by the
the fact
fact that
that there
there may
may be
be dependence
dependence ofof the
the
of the
values of the parameter
parameter in
in couples
coup<es of
of neighbouring
neighbouring units.
units. In thie
In this case
CBe. the
the estimate
eetiMate ofof
the
the variance
variance of the estimated mean is
of the is not
not simply related to to the
the variance
variance ofof the
the value
value ofof
the parameter in one unit (see 322.3) and the
(see paragraph 322.3) the calculation of an estiMat.d
estimated
of the
variance of the mean
mean becomes
becomes practic,lly impossible.
practic~lly impossible.
deSigns listed
All random designs listed in
in paragraph
paragraph 422, with
with the
the exception
exception of the two-stage
two-stage
deSign with
sampling design lnth unequal
unequal probabilities,
probabilities, have
have one
one or
or more
more corresponding
corresponding systematic
systematic ones:
oneSI
particular, several nossibilities
in particular, possibilities of exist, corresponding to
of, systematic designs exist, to each
each
two-stage random design,
design, whether the
the syetematic
systematic selection is is made at the first
first stage,
stage, at
at
stage or
the second stage or at
at both
both stages.
staees.
42 3. 2
423.2 Amendments to the formulae for random designs
423.21
423.21 Estimation Meana
EStimation of the means
The
The esti,...te of the
estimate the llean
mean Talue
value of a
a parameter
Jl&l'"",eter per
per unit (or
(or per
per dZ8 unit) in
size unit) i'l aa
systematic design
systematic design is, inis,
most in most
cases, cases,
given sMle expr.ssion as for the corresponding
by the givenbthesansforthecorreendin
r a ndom design.
random design. given in
So the formulae given in paragraph
paragraph 422
422 are
are generally
generally applicable.
applicable.
HOt- is necessary
l ever, caution is
However, necessary in
in the
the estimation
estimation of
of the
the mean
mean value
value of some parameters.
of some parameters.
IIf
f there is is a periodic
periodi c trend in the values of of aa parameter
parameter and
and ifif the systematic design has
has
the s!!JIle "wavelength", the
the same the estimate
estimate of
of the
the mean
mean might
might have
have aa rather
rather important
important bias.
bias. This
happen, for
may happen, for instance,
instance, if
if the
the topography
topography isis roughly
roughly aa succession
succession of of parallel
parallel ridges and
valleys and if
valleyn i f the
the systematic
so~tematic layout of the
la~out of the sampling
sampling units
units isis such
such that
that units
units appear
appear mainly
ridees (or
on the ridges ( or in
i n the
the valleys),the
valley.), the mean
mean value
value of
of the
the parameter
parameter will
will be
be overestimated
overestimated (or
underestimated ).
underestimated).
s uch troublesome
avo i d such
In order to avoid troubl e some coincidences,
cOincidences, one
one would have to
would have t o check
,c heck ver
carefull that
carefully the distances between
tl~t the between sampling
sam li units are
units are not
not equal
e a1 or aa multi
multi lele of the
the
"wavelell.f(th" of any periodic trend in the population.
"wavelength" population.
423.22
423.22 EStimation
Estimation of the variances of
of the
the estimated
estimated means
means
423.221
423.221 per ..... tera"
"Rand0lll parameters"
"Random
!be
The di.tribution the Talu
distribution of the •• of a given
values given parameter
par.... eter in the units
unite of a population may
b. "at
be "at randomut
random", which
which means
meano that
that there
th.re is
is aa very
very little
11 ttl. oror zero
z.ro correlation
correlation between
betw.en the
values of a parameter inin two different units
t\iO different Wli ts whatever
whatever the the distance
distance between
bet"Ieen these
theBe two
two units
(the
(the corresponding
corresponding covarianoes
covariances are
are equal
equal to 322.2).
to 0 -- see paragraph 322.2). This is the
This is the case
case
of some parameters
parameters related to species with aa very
very little
little occurrence
occurrenoe in
in some mixed tropical
tropical
foreots
forests (the distribution of which is comparable to to Poisson'e
Poisson's distribution).
the variances
For such parameters the varianoe ofof the
the estimated
eatimated means
meana can
can be
be determined by the
determined by
formula
formula for the corresponding
oorresponding random
rand"", design.
-- 58
58 --
423. 222
423.222 other parameters
All other parameters
statisticians have
Many statisticians have studied
studied thethe problem
problem and,
and, although
although there
there isis no
no completely
completely
s atisfLt.ctory estimation
satisfactory es timation of of the
the variances
variances given
given by the sampling
by the theory, some
samp1ine theory, Bome calculations
calculations
give reas
give onably reliable estimates.
reasonably estimates. h'e
We will give
eive below
belol" some
some of
of the
the more
more usual
UBUc."\l ones.
ones.
the sake
For the sake of
of simplicity
sir.lplici ty we
we will
>lill limit
limit ourselves
ourselves toto the
the one-st
one-stagee siMple syste ..atic
simple systematic
design. Extension of
atension of this
this case
case can
can be
be made
made easily
easily for
for the
the stratified
stratified and
and/or two-stage
or two-s age
systematic designs.
systematic designs.
423.222.1 Units of
Units of equal
equal size
size
First method:
First ..ethod: Stratifioation with
Stratification with overlapping
overlappingstrata
stratawith
withtwo
twosampling unit.
... plingunit',
a)
a) Let us
Let only one
UB suppose we have only one line line of of sampling
sam li units units (plots (plots or or trees
trees along along aa line)
line)
or that
that the
the sample
sample consists
consists of
of equal_para
e era lel lel and and equidistant
e distant sampling sam lin units units
((strips
stri ps or
or li nes of plot-record
linesof ':::un:';:1t?s~.=~A':n':::='es":'t~,"·
plot-record units). An estimationm~a":;t'"'i~o;:n~o;f'::t;hc-e:"":v:::er~i':an::;c~e""'i~.:::=
of the variance is:
n-1
1-f 1(Y.
= 1+1 - Y- )2
v() - (24)
(24)
t-rhere
where y7 is
is the
the semple
sample mean (estimate of the mean value per Wli
unitt of the
the parameter
parameter
n is the
is number of
th~ number of sampling
sampling units
units
x
Yi+1'
yi+1, y ere the
yi. are the values of
of the
the parameter
parameter respectively
respectively in
in the
the (i+1)th
(i+1)th
1 and i th sampling
and i'r sampling units
units
n
f ITn
f = -
= N is
is the sampling
sampling intensity
intensity (N
(II total
total number
number of
of units
unit. in
in the
the nopulation)
,opulation)
'Dlis i s established
This formula is established by
by considering that the
considering that the whole
whole population
population is
is divided
dividerl in
(n-1) ~trata, each containing
(n-1) strata, containina two neia-hbouring sampling
tHO neighbouring sampling units
units and
and each
each sampling
samplinG unit
belonginG to two
belonging to tHO overlapping
overlapp1n(: strata,
strah, with
,;ith the
the exception
exce!>tion of
of the
the first
first and
and last
last
sanpline units.
sampling units.
b) If >Ie
If have several
we have several parallel
parallel and
and equidistant
equidistant linos
lines of
of sampling
s""'pling units
wli ts it
1t is
is worth
worth
considering another
considering another stratification
stratification of
of the
the lines:
lines: each
each line
line will
will belong
belong to
to aa strata
strata
the sise
the size of
of which
Hhich is
is proportional
proportional to
to the
the number
number of
of sampling
samplin(: units
units along
along the
the line.
line.
~e formulae
The formulae will
will be-
be:..'- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . ,
II ~
nh
-
y
Y
•
3r
N
h=1 N Yh m
h - J: in
h.1 N
h=1 N
Nh
Nh ?
i.1
Yih
-'h
~
nh
~ h~1 i~Ylh
h= 1 i.
n
ih
(25)
where
where m
II is
in the number
number of
of lines
lines
number of
Nh is the total number of units in the stratum h (correenonding
(corresponding to
to line
line h)
h)
N is
N is the total number
the total number of
of units
units in
in the p~pulation (area
the population (area inventoried)
inventoried)
- 59
59 -
Po
h
may be estimated
h may p.s timated by -- (where
by7- (Nherenh"hand
andn nare
arerespectively
respectivolythe
the number
number of
of sampling
ea:npli!llj
n
m~1"h
N
tU1i t s e.long
units e. l o:'![; the
the line h and the total nUJ'ftber of
tot~l number of sampling
s;;o.:tplinc units:
units:
n • 41in_ )
m=1 4--n
<Ul d. y
:"-.111 and :'Ill aro ' 1y the
respec t 1ve
L'.!'C respectively t.leIV2.
l uc of
value 0..." yy '
in
1n th
the 1' th aamp
e .thi '
sampling , t 0of
1'I nC unl
unit f
li ne
line hh and the
the estimated
e::; timated r,'Iec..n
mean value of yy unitt in
per un1 in lino
lino h:
h:
nh
1 1E
Yh = 71: i-1Yih
n
IIn
n e:lch ntratw:1 the
each stratum the variance
vari":1ce
vG canbebe
v(Y11)) can estimated
estimated by the(24)fowhere
by the formula mula fi (24) lIhere f, n
h
und the
and ~ ifference c (yi+1
the differences. yi) ~e
(y, +1 - y,) are rrestricted
e3trict ed to the stratum
s tratum and the estimated
estimated variance
variance
1 1
of
of Ywill
Hill be:
T/ be :
N 2 2
111N2 44 nh
v(r-) =
:z: h
fit1-7-
h-1 N2 v(5h) " -7- V(h) ( 26)
(26)
N-
method -- stratification
Second method stratification with non-o verlappin~ strata
with non-overlapping strata with
with 44 sampling units
(for
(for two-dimensional samples of of areas
areas only
only with
with aa square
equare or
or
re c tangular pattern).
rectangular pattern).
Instead of considering strata

s'trata containing two
two sampling
sampling unite,
unite I we
\-Ie consider strata
containing four
four sampling units lin~ and the two
(two units on a given line
unite (two two corresponding ones
ones
the next parallel
on the parallel line).
line). If we take no overlapping
overlapping strata
strata we
we will
will have:
have,
,
n'
1-f n 2 n -27
2
v(3) --
v{Y}
1-f 1
rz..y 2 _ 4Yy 7
n 3n'
3n' L i-1 i
L ~ j ....J
_
where
where.is is mean
Yj the the mean value
value of the
of the parameterininthe
parameter the stratum
etratum j
j
n' of strata:
is the number of strata: n' # ~
n' II
4
the B~e meaning
the other symbols having the same ~eanine as
as above.
above.
423.222. 2
423.222.2 unequal size
Units of unequal Bize
We will limit oureelves to to the

the came
caae ofof one
one line
line ofof unequal
une 1 sampling
SaM lin units unite oror of
of
e
equidistant parallel sampling units unit. of of unequal
une .be (for
1 size for instance
in.tanoe strips
.trip" of of same
.ame width
~b~u'ft'7iF::=:=~"'f==':T==~~wi'5'ilr.lr=-:,,~p':p';l-::l"7th~e:=:i:i:~:-=-lIethod
but of unequal length). We will auly
the first method of • tr.. t1 ii co. ti on with
0 f stratification wi tb
~~~~~~~~~~~t~wo~~un~i~t~
overlapping strata of two units, •• and
and will
will consider
conaider the area xx of
tho area of a a unit
unit as .. the
tho
- 60
- 60 --
EEtil"llate
Ebtimate of the
the mean value
value of the parameter per size (art"!a)
arameter ,er area unit:
R
R1, ,,s1"
gym
-yi
.i!'Y 1=1 i
(~8
(28))
i!'Xix
1=1
. · ("Me (9»
a. (y))
(ame as
EstiMate of the
EStimate the variance of
of this
this estimate:
estiMate:
42 n-1
v
V (ii, ) __1_ 1 1-f
n-1
(v - y.), 22 + ;2
R
n-1
lE
% .. 2
Y. )1
( "i+' - "i
,ays
(R1,sys) - -2
X
X
2n(n-1) i=1''1+1 Yi' Th
1,sys i=1
sys i.1 1+1
11:10
- 2R1 ,sys 1.1 0".1+1 - X .) (Y-1+1 Y-)

i
7
-J
siMilar to
(where the symbols are similar to the
the one
one used
used in paracrapn ~ ~ 2.,V I.
in paracraph
- 61 -
CI!.I.PTER
CHATTER IV
1WI0TE
FtENOTE SFNSING
SENSING AND HAPPING FOR
AND MAPPING FOR AREA
AR&
ESTlMA Tlctl
EBTIMATION IN FOREST INVENTORY
FORMT INVEl/'roRY
-- 62
62 --
CHAPTm
CHAPTER IV
IV
REJlOTE
REMOTE SENSING AND !lAPPING FOR AREA
MAPPING FOR ARa ESTIMATION
IiSTlIlATlCJi
IN
IN FORFST
FOREST INVENroRI
INVENTORY
11 Introduction
Moet foreet inventories aim

Most forest aiM, at providing
providiD« satisfactory
satiefactory estimates
eetimatee of total
total value.
values of
of
par~eters of the
parameters of the foreets
forest. (mainly'
(mainly volu.ee
volumes of wood) over
over the
the whole
whole inventoried
inventoried ares
area and/or
and/or
over parts of it. These total values
These total are obtained
values are obtained througk
throuth estimation
eeti.ation of
of the
the corresponding
oorre.pondiD«
area and estimation of the
estiMation of the mean values per
Mean values per area
area unit
unit of
of these
these parameters.
par...tera.
Both areas
areas and
and !lean
mean values
valuee of
of the
the parueters
parameters perper area
area unit
unit .ay
may be
be .eU.ated
stimated throU«h
through
use of aerial photographs (and
(and .. aps ) and/or field measuremente
maps) lIeasureooents and observations,
obeervations, theee
these
estillationa beiD« made
estimations being Made by
by complete
complete census
census or
or by sampliD«.
by sampling.
We
We will
will not consider in in this
thi. edition
edition the
the case ca.e of
of the
the estimation
eetillation of
of the
the mean
lIean valuee
value.
per area unit
unit of the parameters made completely or partially through throU«h u.e
use of aerial
aerial
photographs
photographs (or any other remote sensing senaiD« data),
data), since such techniques
teohnique. are
are .ostly
mostly re.tricted
restricted
to
to .0Me
some fairly unifOrM
uniform temperate forestsfore.ts and plantations
plantations and and are
are for
for the
the time
time beinr
being ofof
little
little relevance
relevance for countries.
for tropical countries. Difficulty
Difficulty of of species
species identification
identification fromfroll
aerial photographs
phot0«rapha in
in thethe tropics, 100s8 correlation
tropiCS, loose correlation between
between crown
crown characteristics
characteristios and and bole
bole
di';enaions, i .. po •• ibility of defect assessment
dimensions, and the impossibility as.eesment from froll aerial
aerial photographs
photosraph. severely
severely
liMit. the applicability
limits the applicability of of photogrammetric
photosrammetric measurements
1I . . .urements ininsurveys
.urveys of
of tropical
tropical forests.
forests.
However,
However, some
some literature
literature is is quoted
quoted in
in Appendix
Appendix nwhich ehould be
awhich should be consulted
consulted inin case such
such
methods
methods appear feasible in the tropics tropiCS (for
(for instance in in plantations).
plantations).
As
As 'indicated
'indicated by
by the
the title,
title, thi.
this chapter
chapter i.
is li.ited
limited to
to the
the u.e
use of remote
remote sensing
sensing
estimation of
and map data for the estimation of area,
area, although
although not
not all
all area
area information
information is
i. obtained
frOO! these
from the.e data. It is sometimes partially or even even entirely
entirely provided
provided by field
field
measureMents and
measuremente and observations.
observationo.
Conventional aerial photographs

photosraphs have in thethe past
past been
been the
the only remote
r8:ll0te sensinr
sensing tool
tool
used in forest inventory,
inventory, and
and will
will certainly
certainly remain
reoain the
the most
most important
important one
one for
for aa long
long time.
time.
The fi .... t part of this chapter
first restrict the
chap~er will restrict the study
study ofof remote
rMote sensing
senaiD« in forest
forest inventory
to that of conventional aerial photographs,
photographs, but sub-chapter
sub-chapter 66 will be devoted to a
present applioations
description and present applications toto forest
forest inientory
i~entory of of the
the new
new remote senain« tools.
r~ote sensing tools.
as.u.e in
We will assume in this
this chapter tha~ prod
chapter that ~Od topographic
toposraphio (or
(or only ~lan1.etric) mapping
only nlanimetric) mappinr
over the whole area exists suitablel 1 scale,
exiets at aa suitablell7 .ca1e, permitting
perllittinr the
the reduction
re uctlon toto aa
ne,ligible value of the
negligible the error
error on
on the
the estimate
estimate ofof the
the total
total area
area to
to be
b. inventoried.
inventoried. If
If
case, and if
this is not the case, if the
the inventory
inventory toto be
be made
made is
is not
not aa broad reconnaiesance
b~ad reconnaissance
.urvey doe. not apply to
survey or does to aa relatively
relatively small
sllall area
area which
which can
can be
be topographically
toposraphically surveyed
on the sround, first ob'ective
ground, the first objective ofof the
the inventor
inventory should be to have this thie ma
lIapping
i done
done
from the existing
from existi"! remote sensing
senaih! imagery
iMasery by
by a cartographic
cartosraphic institute
institute using
usih! plotters
plott ere of the
firot order.
first vill not
We will not study
study this
thi. technique
technique nornor the
the topographical
topo«raphioal survey
eurvey methods
Methode which
are well
well desoribed Manuals and textbooks.
described in relevant manuals textbook••
case this topographic

In ease topo«raphic mapping
Mappi"! is
i8 not
not possible
po.sible for
for finanoial
finanoial or
or other reasons
reaaona it
.uat that the
must be pointed out that the resulting
resultih! error
error over
over the
the total
total area
area will
vill increase
increaae the
the errors
error.
.etimatea of
on the estimates of the
the total
total volumes (or
(or totals
totals of
of other
other parameters).
p.rametere).
(1)
(1) "Suitable" in relation to the
the size of the area
area to
to be
be inventoried
inventoried and
the intensity of the inventory
inventory work.
-- 63
63 --
22 land-use classifications
Forest and land-use classifications
21
21 Various kinds of classifications
classificatione
Given a forested area toto be inventoried, results of

inv~ntoriedt results of the
the inventory
inventory unually
usually have
have to
to
be given not only
only for
for the
the whole
whole area,
area, but
but also
also for
for parts
parts of
of it.
it. When dividing
When dividing the
the
area several
inventoried area several simultaneoue
simul taneoUB criteria
cri taria may be used.
May be used. Broad.ly speaking
Broadly they are
Bpeaking they are
the following:
Criteria of vegetation/environment relationships taking

vegetation/e nvironment relationshi22 taking into
into account
account
environmental factors
factors such as
as climate,
climate, altitude
altitude and
and soils.
Boile. The corresponding
The c~rresponding
classification dOBS
does not
not generally indicate the existing
generallyinc existins laud-use, but is is
for land
useful for land and
and forest
forest management:
management; decisions on whether to to maintain the
forest or
or clear it for
clear it for agriculture,
agriculture, on
on location
location and
and species
species for
for reforestation,
reforestation,
on silvicultural treatments,
treatments, etc.
etc. can
can be
be made
made with
with greater
greater confidence
confidence from
fran!
information gathered
«athered through
through this
this classification.
classification.
Criterion of
Criterion of present
present land
land use:
use: criterion defines the
this criterion the most
most important
important
clASsification as it separates the
classification the forests
forests from other land uses and vegetation
l~ld uses vegetation
types.
types. In this
this classification the
the forest
forest areas
aress are
are broken
broken down
down into
into very
very
broad and universally accepted
accepted classes.
classes.
Cri teria of
Criteria of forest
forest management:
management: heading we
under this heading we include
include all
all the
the facters
factClrs
which are of direct relevance for
for forest as:
forest management such as:
- ownership and tenure;

ownership and tenure; for iT'.stance, if
for instance, if there
there are publicly and
are publicly and privately
privately
owned forests in
in the
the inventoried
inventoried area
area it
it is
is almost
almost certain
certain that
that it
it will
will
be necessary to
to give
give separate
separate results
results for
for each
eaoh type
type of
of forest.
forest. The same
occurs if there are forests und~r concessions
forests under concessions which need to to be separated
separated
from forests;
from the other foreste;
adnIinistration:
administration: result.
resulte 10"'3"
may have toto be
be given
«ivon by
by administrative
administr..tiv9 units
units
(districts,
(districts, counties,
counties, regions,
regions, departments,
departments, provinces and stateb)
provinces and statee) if
if the
the
inventoried area is epread
spread over
over several
several such
such units;
units;
physiography and
and accessibility:
accessibility: results tv be given
results will have to «iven by
by isolated
isolated
forest
forest unit, by watershed, type of relief,
watershed, by type relief, etc....
etc •••• the corr~sponding
the corresponding
units having
having to
to be
be managed
managed separately;
separatelYI
- management units:
units: in addition toto the
the foregoing
foregoing there
there may
may be
be another
another
management and/or logging classification
cl&esification (sustained
(sustained yield unit,
unit, logging
compartment, etc.).
compartment, etc.). For instance,
instance, the
the classification
classification into \L~exploited
into unexploited
forests forests is
forests and logged-over forests i8 of
of primary
primary importance
importance in ma~ tropical
in many tropical
zones
zones for the
the preparation
preparation of
of harvesting
harvestin« regulations.
regulations. Reaults have
Results have to
to be
be
given separately for each class.
Criteria for
for statistical
statistical stratification:
stratification: if in the same eame management and/or
"preeent
"present land
land use"
use" a.nd/or "potential land
anTor "potential land oapability"
oapabili ty" unit
unit forests
fores-+;s are
are
ai~nificantly
significantly different with regard
re«&rd to the
the parameters
paramotera to be estimated,
aetimated, itit
i8
is useful toto stratify the foreets
foreste aocordingly
aocordin«ly in in order to decrease
decreaee the
the
8&n1pli"«
sampling error on on the estimates
estimates and
and make
!lake the
the inventory
inventory more
.ore efficient.
efficien't.
Stratifioation will be more efficient
Stratification will effioient ifif it
it is
is done
don. prior to sampling
(.ee
(see par&«raph 411.4 of
paragraph 411.4 of Chapter
Chapter III).
III). This stratific~tion ie
This stratification ie generally
generally done
done
tbrouch
through photointerpretation and is ie based on criteria
criteria which can be b. appraised
frOM
from aerial
aerial photogr ..phs, euch
photographs, such &0 dominant e~ecies
as dOMinant species or heisht
height and
and density
density of
of
th. do.inant trees.
the dominant tr.e.. Claasee
Classes based theattor
baeed on the oriteria are
latter criteria are often
often called
called
·oondition cl..... ".
"condition classes". Re.ulta 01. . . aay
Results by condition class may not be useful since
since -
oondition
condition ol ... e. are
classes are in principle only strata
atrata used forfor samplin«.
sampling. But
But they
they
are
are woet'Ul f this
useful iif this .traUfioation
stratification is then used as a bad. basis for
for man&«ftent
management purpo.ee.
purposes.
- 64
- 64 --
22
22 Classifications based
based on
on vegetation/environment
vegetation/environment relationships
relationships
In most cases this
this type
type of
of classification
olassification is
is not
not used
used for
for assessing
assessing the
the present
present
land use
land use pattern
pattern as this
this pattern
pattern differs
differs generally
generally from
from the
the one
one of
of the
the potential
potential or
or
oliMax vegetation types which are considered
climax considered in these
these classifications.
classifications. However, they
However, they
may be used in forest
forest inventory
inventory for
for a primary broad stratification of the forestsforests to
to be
be
inventoried, especially
inventoried, especially when
when original ve~etation has
original vegetation baa been
been more
more or
or less
less untouched.
untouched.
classification and
Many systems of classification and mapping
mapping based
based on
on vegetation/environmental
vegetation/environmental
rel&tio~hlp8 have been evolved,
relationships evolved, some on aa world
Bome on world basis,
baais, others
others on
on aa more
More restricted
regional basis,
regional baeis, e.g.
e.g. for
for Africa,
Africa, Southeast
Southeast Asia,
Asia, and
and South
South America.
America. They
They generally
generally use
use
various methods of analysis of of the
the complex
complex ofof factors
factors making
making up
up the
the environment,
environment, with
with
emphasis
emphasis chiefly on one or more climatic factors,
factors, e.g.
e.g. rainfall, temperature, evapo-
rainfall, temperature, evapo-
tranapiratlon, etc.
transpiration, etc. the purpose
For the purpose of
of the
the forest inventory, necessary for
inventory, it is necessary for the
the
expert
expert first
first to
to familiarize
familiarize himself with aa national
himself with nationsl classification
classification system
system adopted
adopted for
for
local
local usage,
usage, am
and relate this
this as far as
as possible to a suitable (1) regionsl
regional and
and (2)
(2) world
world
type classification.
type classification.
It is
is not
not intended in
in this
this manual
manual to
to consider
consider the
the merits
merits or
or limitations
limitations of the
the
various world
various world and regional classifications.
and regional classifications. It is
It is advisable
advisable first
first to
to find
find out
out for
for each
each
inventory project
inventory project what
what vegetation/ climatic maps
vegetation/climatic maps already
already exist
exist on
on aa country
country and
and regional
regional
baeie.
basis. Several maps have been
been published
published on
on world
world and
and regional
regional classification
classification systeme,
systems,
BOMe of the
and some the more recent may
may be
be mentioned:
mentioned:
1. Vegetation map
Vegetation map of
of Africa, published
published under
under the
the auspices
auspices of
of the
the "Association
"Association
pour l'~tude taxonomique
pour l'4tude taxonomique de
de la
la flore
flore d'Afrique
d'Afrique tropicale"
tropicale" with
with the
the
assistance of
aseistance of UNESCO,
UNESCO, by
by the
the Oxford
Oxford University
University Press, 1958.
Press, 1958.
2. Atlas of
of maps of
of the
the "Crop
"Crop Ecologic
Ecologic Survey
Survey in
in West
West Africa",
Africa", by
by J. Papadakis
Papadakis
auepices of FAO in 1966 (which
under the auspices (whioh includes
includes also
also aa classification
classification of
of
oliMatic zones
olimatic zones correlated
correlated with
with vegetation
vegetation types).
types).
3. A series
A aeriea of
of maps
Mape for
for individUal
individual countries
countriea inin Southeast
Southeast Asia,
Asia, Africa
Africa and
and
EUrope, published
Wrope, publishedby Gaussen and
byGaussen and his
his co-workers,
co-workers, e.g.
e.g. publications
publications of
of the
the
Insti tut Fran9ais
Institut de. Pondioh4ry
Frangais de Pondioh8ry cavering
covering India,
India, Ceylon
Ceylon and
and Madagascar
Madagascar
8Iftong others.
among others.
4. World climatio
climatic Mape the systems
mapa on the systems of
of Thornthwaite,
Thornthwaite, Swain
Swain and
and K6ppen.
Oppen.
5. Climatic vegetation ..aps for

vegetation maps for Latin
Latin America
Anlerica by
by Holdridge.
Holdridge.
6.
6# World vegetation
World vegetation map
map by
by Schmithilsen
SchmithUsen at 1/25,000,000.
at 1/25,000,000.
UNESCO, the World Meteorological
UNESCO, the Meteorolosical Organization
Organization (WMO)
(WMO) and
and FAO
FAO have
have been
been specially
specially
in, and have eponsored,
ln~erested in,
interested sponsored, the
the preparation
preparation ofof world
world or
or regional
regional maps
maps on
on
.~iall&ed eool0sioal aspects
specialized eloological aspects (inoluding
(including soilo),
soils), e.«.
e.g. the
the Crop Ecological
Ebological Map of
Papadakie referred
Papadak1e referred to above, aa study
to above, study ofof the
the "Agroclimatology
"Agroclimatology ofof the
the Semi-Arid
Semi-Arid Areas
Areas
South of the Sahara in in West Africa",
Africa", by
by J. Cochem4
Cochem8 and
and P.
P. Franquin,
Franquin, jointly
jointly published
published
1967 by
in 1967 FAO, UNESCO
by FAO, UNESCO and WHO, and
and WMO, and aa World
World Soils
Sol1a Map
Map by
by FAO
FAO to
to be
be completed
completed in 1974.
in 1974.
~UIb F!O
Though PIO h&B not yet specifically
has not speoifioally recommended
reoommended any
a"7 one
one system
ayetem for
for aa classification
classification of
~tation
vegetation onon a world or regional basis,
basis, the
the HOldridge
HOldridge System
System appears
appears toto be of special
apeoial
interest both tor
interest both for ita
its simplicity
simplicity andand eany
easy adoption
adoption for
for forest
forest inventory
inventory purposes.
purposes. A
A
dHorlpUon of
description of this
thia system
oyet ... is
is given
given by HOldridge (1967).
by Holdridge (1961). ThisThis aytem been applied
sytem has been applied
to
to the COMpilation-of ecolosioal mape
compilation-of ecological mape inin several
several countries
countries ofof Latin
Latin America.
America.
- 65
65 --
23 "Eristi!l/l land
r&isting land use"
uae" ol&lldfication uaed by FAO inventorZitr_22122122.1.
°1am'ifi°4111222.4=1-2gFA"nvent________ operations.
231
231 An area
An area claasification
claosifioation scheme
achome was devi.ed at
.&11 devised at FAO
FAO Headquarters
ieadquarters at a .eetine
meeting ofof
foreat Sept_ber 1967 and FiO
experte in September
forest inventory experts FAO inventory projeots have been
aoked
asked to
to uae
uee it (with eventual
eventual introduction
introduction of of sub-divisions
sub-div1a1ons toto eatisfy
satiefy Individual
il1div1d_l project
proj.ot
requir_ents).
requirements). In the preparation
preparation of of this
this classification
olassification efforts
efforts were
were made
made to oonfo~ to
to conform to
the
the categories
categories and definitions used by
definitione uaed FAO in
b;r FAO in its
its World
World Forest
Forost Inventory
Inventory compilation.
ca.pilation.
The elaboration of
of world,
world, regional
regional andand national
national statistios
statistio. on
on forest
forest resources
resouroes will
will be
be more
More
easily obtained
obtained as
as more
more &«'Inoiell'
agenciad acoept
accept th10
this olassification.
classification.
The stepe in the

step~ in the classification
classifioation and
and the
the definitions
definitions and
and explanatione
explanations required
required are
are
as follows:
aB follows:
Classifioation .tepa
Classification steps Definition or
or explanation,
e!planation. if
if required
required
1•
1. ClasSify the area
Claesify the area into:
into: Th. baai.
The for this
basis for this division
divieion should
should be
be defined
defined and
and
I.
I. area
Land area the date
date given, •• c. see:lording
given, e.g. aooordine to
to ext.Une
existing oart<>-
carto-
II. Wt.tar area
liWeeer area sra~, asrial photography,
graphy, aerial photosrapil;y, eto.
.to. Jlansrove
Mangrove and
ooastal pala forests
coastal forest. arzare to
to be
b. assigned
&Rsigned to
to "land".
"land".
Clanify "Land Area"

Clameify "Land Area" into:
into. Consider .... foreste:
Connider as foreets. all lands
lands with aa "forest
"for... t
A. Fore.t Area
Forest oover" (inolUdine natural
cover" (including natural bamboo
bamhoo and pea); i.e.,
and palm); i.e.,
~. other Wooded
Other Wood~d Area with trees
tree. whose
whol. crowns
orowns cover
oover mcre
more than 2~ of
than 20% of
~;.. Noa-Porest Area
Non-Forest the aret,
area, and
and not
not used
used primarily
prillari l;r for
for purposes
purposee
other than
than foreetry.
for •• try. For the
Por definition . of aa
the definition.of
tr.e uae the following
tree use followine one
one given
given by the
b;r the
"~inoloc;r of
"Terminology of forest
forest soienoe,
eoi.noe, technology,
teohnoloc;r,
practioe and products"
practioe produots" (edited
(edited by F,C. Ford
b;r P.C. Ford
Robertson and authori.ed by the
authorized b;r the joint
joint FAO/IOPRO
FACAUFRO
Co~ittee
Committee onon Ferestry
Fbrestry Bibliography
Bibliosra~ and Terminoloc;r)'
and Terminology):
tree
tree:I "a woody perennial plant typically large
larp
and with aa single
sinele well-defined .tea
well-<i.flned stem
earrying a lIore
oarryinc less definite crown"
more or less
Ino1ude.
Include: (ba)
Et? Publio private forests;
Pub/ic and private foreets;
( b)) All plantatione,
plantations, including
inoludine one-
ona-
rotation plantation,
plantation, primarily
primarily
used for forestry
ueed for forestry purposes;
purpoees;
(o) Areas
(0) t_porarily unstooked
areas temporarily unetoolted anas well
w.ll
standa and all
YOWlA' natural stands
as young
plantatiOns established
plantations establiehed for for forestry
forsatry
purposes, which
purposes, whioh have
have not
not yet
;ret reached
reached
a crown
a orown denmity
denll1 ty ofof more
lIore than 2~,
than 20%;
(d) Forest
(d) Poreet roade and etreams
roadII and sm_ and oner
and other
_all open
small open erase:,
........, &II
as well as for •• t
.. forest
nuraeri .. , that constitute
nurseries, oonatitnte en an
intesral part of
integral of the
the foreet
foreet and
whioh cannot be
which oannot be readily
readily excluded
no1uded
by the survey
be the survey system
s;rete used.
uaed.
lI:Eolud.,
Etolude:
(a)
------- (a) I.olated tree
Isolated tree groups
croupe smaller
s.al1ar than
0.5 hal
ha;
(b)
(b) City parks,
City parka, privete
private gardens
gardena and
and
puturul
pastures;
(0)
(o) Are wiDdbrult and
... of windbreak
Areas ah.lterbelt
and shelterbelt
tr .... with an area
trees un exceeding 0 •.5 ha,
excsediD( 0.5 ha,
too :marrow
but too
but narro" to rur.naced as
t obebenarus.ged ..
for •• ta.
foreets.
- 66 -
Classification steps
ClassificatioalEtles Definition of explanation,
Definition of explanation, 'if
'i f required
required
2. (contd.
(contd.)) Consider as as other
other wooded
wooded areas
areas land
land with
with trees
trees
whoso
whose crowns oover
oaver less
lo.. than 2~ of
thin 20% of the
tho area or
with shrub.
shrubs or .tunted trees covering
stunted trees caverin« lIor.
more than
2C!f.
20% of the
the area,
area, not
not primarily
prillarlly used for
for acri-
agri-
cultural
oultural or other non-fore.tr,y purpose. (such
nonforeatry purposes (Buch as
as
lI1"a&in« of
grazing of domestic)
da.e.tio animals).
aniaals). Also
Al.o include arO"
inolud. areas
occupied u.r
oocupied tree. in
by trees in linea
lines (along
(alon« roade,
roads, oanals
canals and
and
.tre". etc.,
streams, etc., converted to area u.r
by 0.8 ha per
t
',000 II)
1,000 m) .as woll as
. well ... windbreaks
windbroak. and shelterbelts
and shelterbelts
whicb ere not
which are not included
inoluded in
in 'Termite".
'Tore.t.".
3. Claseify the "Forest
Classify the "Forest Area"
Area" The differentiation betwoen
The between natural and lI&n-llade
natural and manmade
into.
into: forost. should be .ade
foreste on the
made on the basis of the
baai. of the
Bdur&l Forests
1. Natural Forests ol..sifio&tion given
classification liven in
in paragraph 233.
paracrapb 233.
2. ~·J(ade Forests
ManMade !i'or8sts
4. Clas.ify 'Natural
Classify "Natural Forests"
Forests" Categories (a)
(a) and
and (b)
Cb) will be defined by b1 a
into.
into: of 80%
composition of 8C!f. or
or more
more ofof the
the species
species groups.
lI1"0upa.
(a)
(a) Broadleaved species ex-
ex- forests with
Mixed forests with less
l •• s than 8C!f. of
than 80% of (a)
Ca) or
or (b)
(b)
cludin«
cluding .angrave fore.te
mangrove foresta will
will bo cl.. sifi.d ..
be classified VW(0).(c). Whore bamboo
Where baaboo occurs
occurs
(b ) Coniferous species
speciee in the above types
in t1Pos asas understorey,
underetoro1, this tbis should
should be
Co ) Mixed broadleaved
broadleaved and
NoConiferoue and recorded to
recorded to estimate
osttaat •• ixed bamboo
mixed baaboo area.
eroa. It
It a&7
may
oonlf.~oUB
coniferous opocies
species bo useful to
be to subdivide
.ubdivido (a) (a) into
into mixed
mixed broadleaved
broad.loaved
Pure bamboo
b...boo sreaa
areaa forests and pure
forests puro (or
(or almost
&lmo.t pure)
puro) broadleaved
broadleaved
m
0
(g)
Mangrovo
Mangrove
Coastal and riverine
Coastal
p&lm forcet
palm for.st
riverine
forests in certain
forests in
&lmoat
almost pure
certain tropical
puro stands
standa of
tropioal areaa
(oase of Oilbertiodondron
(case
ereas where
of aa broadleaved
where pure
broadleaved species
dowevrei in
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei
pure or
species ooeur
in Congo
occur
Congo bbamin).
.. in).
(g) Temporarily
Temporarily unstocked
unstooked
Shiftin« cultivation
Shifting oultivation sreaa
areas a!r0ad: re-atookod
areas
ar e as
forest veznIálión
with forest vegetation should
should be
be claasified
classified as
as
sub-divisiona of
subdivieions of categories
oategories (a),
(a), (b)
(b) or
or (c).
(c).
';.
5. Clusify
Claasify ''MlU'l-Kade Forestoll
"ManMade Foreste"
into those
those applicable
applicable divisions:
divisions
shown under Step 4.
Step 4.
Claseif,. "other Wooded Area"
Classify "Other Area" Savannahs should
Savsnmala should be
be coneidered
oonaidered as areas of
as areas of
1uto,
into or scrub
scattered trees or scrub over
over graminaceous
gr ..1naoeoUB oror
1. Savannah,
Savannah, opon
open woodlands
woodlanda herbaceous layer.
herbaceous l&7"r. Crown oaver
cover of of the
the woody
woodJ<
2. Heath,
Heath, stunted and
and .crub
scrub vertation can exceed
vegetation can 2~.
excoed 20%. Cate",rios (2)
Categories (2) and
fore.t
forest (3) are
ere defined
defined under
under Step
Step 2.
2.
3. Trees in lines,
Unes, wind-
break. shelterbelt.
breaks and shelterbelts
4. other areas
Other areas
Clasaify the
Classify the "Non-Fore.~
"NonForest Area" Ca) inoludes
(a) inoludB8 shifting
.hiftin« cultivation are .. where
cultivation areas where
into.
into: land is tor agricultural
ie under preparation for acricultural
1.
1. AlI1"icul tural land
Agricultural land oroppin«, or
oropping, or is
is planted
planted with
with agrioultural
acricul tur&l crop
crop
a. Crops
Crop. and improved
aproved or is
or is not
not re-etooked 78t with
restocked yet with forest
for •• t vegetation.
v.,etation.
pastur
pasture'••
b. Plant-. tiona
Plantations Plantationa inolude oroherd8,
Plantations include paaa, etc.
rubber, palms,
orchards, rubber, .to.
-67-
- 6", -
Classification steos
s teps Dafinition or
Definition explanation, 1fifreçu.ired
or explanation1 required
7. (contd.)
(contd.)
22.. Other lands

Other lands
Barren land
a. Barren l&nd E.g.
E.g. rock, 10e, etc.
a and , ice,
rock, sand, etc.
b. Natural
Natural range
range lands
lands E.g. pampas, steppes.
prairiee, pampas,
E.g. prairies, steppea. If aa scattered
If scattered
and grasslands
and griLBslandB layer of woody vegetation
vegetation exists,
exists, the
the area should
~ea should
be classified
be classified inin "other wooded areas".
lIothe~ wooded a.reas".
c. Swampe
Swamps This swampy areas
This includes swampy without aa tree
are88 without tree cover.
cover.
d. Heath without
Heath without trees
trees E.g. northern zone°.
E.g. tundra in northern zones.
e. Urban, industrial
Urban, industrial Includes rights of of way for roads,
way for roads, railroads,
railroade,
and communication
and communication areas
areas power lirios,
power lines, etc.
etc.
f. Other areas
Other areas
232
232 FAO's propoaed
proposed classification
classification is, thaa_the£21lowing:
is, thus, the follOwing.
fliEtirig
~istir,g Land-Use and Foreot
Forest Classes
I. Total
Total Land
Land Area
Area
A.
A. Foreet area
Forest
1. Natural forests
Natural forests
a. Broadleaved excluding
Broadleaved excluding mangroves
mangrovee
b. Coniferous
Coniferous
c. Mixed broadleaved and
and coniferous
d. Pure
Furo bamboo
e. ){angrove
Mangrave
f. Coastal and riverine
riverine palms
palms
g. Temporartly
Temporarily unatocked
unstocked
2.
2. ){lUHIIade fdrests
Man-made fdrests
(thoae
(those above divisions of
of a.
a. to
to g.
g. which
which are
are applicable)
applioable)
B.
B. Other wooded area
1. Savannah,
Savannah, open woodlands
woodlands
2. Heath,
Heath, stunted and and scrub
sorub fcrest
foreet
3. Treea in linee,
Trees in line.. , windbreaks
windbrealco and ahel hrbe1t.
and shelterbelts
4. Other areas
are ....
c.
C. Hon-toreat
Non-foreat area
1. .lgr1""J:tural
Agricultural land
a. Crope iJlprOTed paatures
Crops and improved puturee
b. Plat;.tationa
Plantations
2.
2. Other
Other lands
lands
a. Ba%Ten
Barren
b. Natural range
r&D«" and grasslands
gruelanda
C.
c. SWilP
Swamp
d. Beath, tundra
a.ath,
•• urban,
Urban, industrial and oo.eunioaUon
ovemunivation
f . Other
Other "" ...
areas
-68
- 68 -
233 Definition
Definition and
and interpretation
interpretation of
of m~ade forests
manmade forests
The following
The following text
text is
is issu.d
issued from
from the
the note
note "Actual
"Actual and
and potential
potential role
role of
ofman-111ade
manmade
f or ests in
forests in the
the changing
changing world
world pattern
pattern of
of wood
wood consumption"
consumption" which
which was
was delivered
delivered by the
by the
Secretariat of the "World Symposium
Sympoeium on man-made forests and
manmade forests and their
their induetrial
industrial importance"
importance II
(Canberra, 14-25 April 1967).
(Canberra, 14-25 1967).
sound. simple
"The phrase sounds si .. ple enough
enough but
but has
bae caused
caused difficulty
difficulty in in definition
definition and
and
in interpretation.
differences in interpretation. In fact, certain of
fact, certain of the
the natural
natural distinctions
dist inctions
types are
between types are blurred
blurred and Bome degree
8nd some degree of
of arbitrary
arbitrarydefinition
definition isi8 needed.
needed. A~
Any
final, authoritative definition
final, ~ust await
definition must await the
the findings
findi"«B ofof the
the current
current Multilingual
Multilingual
Forestry Terminology
Forestry TerMinology Project,
Project, which
which is
is working
workin« under
under the
the guidance
guidance ofof the
the joint
joint
FAO/IUFRO Committee on
FAO/TUFRO on Bibliography
Bibli0Kraphy and and Terminology
Terminology andand with
with the
the comprehensive
comprehenaive
support of the
the U.S. Forest Service,
Service, thethe Department
Department of of Forestry
Forestry inin Canada,
Canada, and thethe
Society of AnerirAln Foresters.
American Forestere. Bome guidance
Meanwhile, some guidance is is available frOM the
available from the
definitions adopted byby the
the second
second session
se.sion ofof the
the EUropean
European Forestry
Forestry Commiseion's
COMmission's
Working Party on
on Afforestation
Affore.tation and Reforestation (1953), as
and Reforestation as amended by its
it. third
third
session (1954), as well asas existing
existing terminologies
terminologi.s such
auch as
ae "British
"British Commonwealth
Commonwealth
Forest Terminology, Part I"
Terminology, Part Itt and
and the
the Society
Society of
of American
American Foresters'
Foresters' 'Torestry
"Forestry
Ter-inoloa" •
Terminology".
It seese
It seams si_plest
simplest to to equate
equate the
the definition
definition ofof aa man-made forest with
manmade forest with that
that
«iven for
given for aa plantation
plantation in in thethe BC Forest Terminology,
Be Forest Tenninology, i.e.:
i.e.: "A forest crop raised
artifiCially,
artificially, either by sowing sOwin« or or planting".
plantin«". ThiB
This could be interpreted to include
all forms
toras of artificial regeneration
regeneration but but no
no natural
natural regeneration.
regeneration. "To regenerate"
"Po regenerate"
Ehglish is
in English defined as
is normally defined as lito
"to cause
cause to
to be
be born
born again,
again, to
to re-create",
recreate", which
i.plies the
implies the renewal
renewal of SOMething
something pre-exiBtin« rather than
preexisting rather than its
ita replacement
r.placement byby
sa.ethin« different.
something different. In this
this Bense,
sense, aa for.st fOrd.d hy
forest formed by artificial
artificial regeneration
regeneration Can
can
be. said to be rremade
be.said ...... ad. by
by man
.. an rather
rather than
than made
lIade by
by man.
man.
The different types

types of
of forest,
forest, according
accord in« to
to their
their means
me ana of
of origin,
origin, are:
ar.:
1. Those eatablished'artifically
e.tablished ·artifically by afforestation
afforestation on on land
land which previously diddid
carry forest.
not carry foreat. This i8
This is the most clear-cut
the ~OBt example of
clearcut example of aa ~an-made forest
manmade forest
invariably involves
and invariably involves the
the exteneion
extension of of the
the area
area of
of the
the forest.
forest. A cl.ar
A clear
definition of
of the
the period
period ofof time
tille for
for which
which the
the land
land previously
previously carried
carried no
is needed.
forest is needed. "Wi thin living
"Within livin& memory"
Jl8Wlory" is
is suitable
sui table for
for areas
areas where
where there
there
records, but
are no records, "within 50
but "within 50 years" is 1s suggeeted
suggested asas an
an alternative for
alternative for
areas where reoordB exist.
where records exiet.
2. Thoae established
Those e"tabliBhed artificially
artifioially by by reforestation
reforestation on on land
land which
which carried
carried forest
within the previous 50 years or
the previoue or within
wi thin living
livin« memory,
..... ory, and
and involving
involvin« the
the
replaoement of the
El211222112A the previous
previous crop
crop byby aa new
new and essentially different
and essentially different crop.
crop.
The change
ohauga 1I0st frequently involved
moet frequently involved is is species
"peoies conversion,
converSion, but but the
the use of
Beed known to
mead to be genetically
senetically different rro~ the
different from the previous
previous crop,
crop, e.g.
e.g. from
from seed
oroharue oonsisting of
orchardn conristing of superior
superior genotypes
senotypes demonstrated
demonstrat.d by by progeny
proseny trials,
trials,
al"o qualify.
would also InasMuoh
Inaemuoh as the forestforest established
established artifically
artifically by by man
man
ess e ntially different from
is essentially frOIi its
its predeoessor,
predecessor, thisthis tootoo is
is aa clear-cut example
clearcut example
of a lIan-ftade forest, though
manmade forest, though it it does
doe" not
not involve
involve any change in
any change in forest
foreat areas.
areas.
tar. "reforestation",
The term "reforestation", it it la
is suggested,
eugseeted, ehould
should be ba confined
confined toto this
this type,
type,
dis tingu1sh it
to distinguish frOM the
i t from the following.
following.
3. Thos • estaLlished
Those • eta\,1ished by
by artifical
al't1fical regeneration
rerneration on on land
land which
which foreat
carried forest
t.he previous
within the 50 years
previous 50 years oror within
within living
livin« memory,
memory, and
and involvi,,« the
involving the
renewal of of what
what in 8Rs8ntially the
io eesentially the same
same crop as before.
crop as before_ lna.emuch
Inasmuch as the
as the
orop is
new crop eseenttally the
i8 essentially the same
e .. a as
88 its
its predeoeesor,
predeo8sBor, this
this 19
is aa fore8t
foremt r~-Made.
remade,
than made,
rather than by man.
Made, by rlon.•
- 69 -
4. Thoss
Those established by natural
natural regeneration,
reseneration, with deliberate silvicultural
silvicultural
assistance from
from man. In the past,
past, such
such assistance
assistance has
has sometimes
eOMetimes cost
cost more
more
in time,
time, effort and money than certain of the cheaper forms
forms of artifical
artifical
regeneration. Nevertheless, inasmuch
Nevertheless, inasmuch as
as the
the source
source of
of seed
Beed or
or vegetative
reproduction is natural, it seems
natural, it seems logical
logical to
to consider
consider this
this as natural
natural (but
(but
man-assisted) forest.
forest.
5. Those established by natural

natural regeneration without deliberate assistance
assistance
from man. They would include so-called "Virgin
''Virgin Forests",
Forests", as
as well
well 88
as those
those
regenerated by wholly natural means. They are the most clear-cut
clear-cut examples
examples
of a Natural Forest.
Forest.
The definition included

i ncluded in
in the
the questionnaire
questionnaire distributed
distributed to to countries
countries
attempted to draw
draw the
the line
line between
between number
number (2)
( 2 ) and
and (3)
(3) of
of the
the above
above types,
types, in in order
to
to include
include as
as man-made forest s all those which involved the creation of something
forests
essentially new but to to exclude those
those which are formed
formed by
by renewal
renewal ofof thethe same type
Bame type
of forest as before.
as before. This seemed
seemed aa logical
logical distinction
distinction and was in
and was line with
in line with that
that
made by the EUropean
European Forestry Commission's WorkingWorking Party
Party on
on Afforestation
Afforestation and
Reforestation
Reforestation,, when it defined artificial regeneration
regeneration as: as: "Restoration of forest
cover by planting
planti ng or sowing
sowing in
in the
the normal
nonnal course
course of of management",
managementll, and
and reforestation
reforestation
"Restoratio n of forest
as: "Restoration forest cover by planting
planting or or sowing,
Bowing, when
when it
it has
h.&s notnot been
possibl e to
possible to effect
effect this
this restoration
restoration in
in the
the normal
nonna.l course
courseofofmaman.&g1!!!l'!Bnt".
x.lement". Some
Some
difficulties
difficulties,, however,
however, have arisen
arise n in
in interpretation.
interpretation. Borderline cases may may arise
in whi ch it is difficult to determine whether
which whether thethe epecific
specific composition
composition of of the
the new
new
forest
forest is or is not essentially the the same
same as that of
as that of the
the previous
previous crop,
crop, or or whether
whether
the
the management
management methods in use are normal
normal or
or not.
not. It
It seems preferable, therefore,
seems preferable, therefore,
to
to draw the line between 3 and 4 and to to include
include within
within the
the term
tem "man-made"
"man-made" all
forme
forms of artificial regeneration.
r egeneration. This
This agrees exactly with the existing simple simple
definition of a "Plantation"
"Plant ation" in thethe British
British Commonwealth
COfMIoDwealth Forestry
Forestry Terminology
Tenninology --
"A
"A forest crop raised
forest crop rais ed artificially
artificially either
either by
by sowing
sowing or
or planting."
planting."
Mixed regeneration
r egeneration systems. -- Difficulty
Difficulty arises
arises when
whe n both
both natural
natural and
and
rege neration are
artifical regeneration are carried
carried out
out in
in the
the same
S8me area.
area. In such cases
cases it
it is
is
proposed that the
the deciding factor should
should be
be the
the intended
intended composition
composi t i on of
of the
the final
final
crop.
crop. If over 50% final crop
over 50% of the intended final crop has
has been
been regenerated
regenerated artificially,
artifiCially,
the
the forest
forest should be considered as man-made.
Shape.. - - "For
Shape. es t implies
"Foreat impliee width as well
width aD as length aand
well as nd can scarcely
s carcely be applied
to
to row plantatione.
plantatiOns. Likewis
Likewisee "forest crops"
cropsll implies
implies that
that a high proportion of the
trees are growil'18'
trees growing in i n competition with eacheach other
other in
in the
the "crop"
"crop" rather
rather than
than with
with
f orme of
other forres of vegetatio
vegetation n outside
outside it
it and are thus capable of of forming
forming aa true
true forest
forest
environment. Row
Row plantatiOns,
plantations, avenues, etc., in
avenues, etc., in which aa high
high proportion
proport ion of the
tre es are nubject
trees BubJec t to edge effect,
effect, dodo not
not conform
conform to
to this
this description.
descripti on. Though
unquestionably man-made, they
unquestionably they are
are not
not strictly
strictly forests.
forests. Wide shelterbelts of .IJ. a
kilometre oror so "'ide, like
so wide, like the
the "green
"green belt"
belt" at KhartoUnl, on
at Khartoum, on the
the other
other hand,
hand, equally
equally
defini tely are.
definitely It is thought that a 100 100 mm width
width should
should be
be the
the minimum
minimum toto
L
:'oustitute
onntitute aa forest. In practice, importance of row plantations
practice, the importance plantatio!19 and shelter-
i n many countries
belts in countries often
oft en makes
makes it
it essential
essential that
that they
they be
be considered
cons idered together
together
with more orthodox shapesshapes of
of man-made
ma~ade forests, as will
forests, as will be
be done
done ini n the
the present
present
sympoSium, but they
symposium, they ehould
should bebe mentioned
mentioned explicitly.
explicitly. It should be b. noted
noted that
that the
the
EUropean
European Forestry Commission's Working Working Party
Party on
on Afforestation
Afforestation andand Reforestation
Reforestation
"Plantations outside
defined "Plantations outside the
the Forest"
Forest" as
as "Row
uRow plantations
plantatiOns (road-side
(road-side planting,
pl&nting,
windbreaks, etc.)
windbreaks, etc.) and plantatiOns in
and plantations in stands
stands associated
associated with
with aa permanent
permanent
agricultura.l revenue
agricultural revenue on on the
the same eite".
same site".
StOCking. -- "F'or9stlt
Stockin&. "Forest" implies
implies a closed canopy,
canopy, at least
lea.st when the
the trees are
old enough to formform one,
one, and
and hence
hence aa certain
certain minimum
minimum stocking.
stocking. This needs toto be
Rpec i fied strictly
epecified stri ctly in
in order
order to
t o avoid
avoid the
the fallacious
fallacious inflation
inflation of
of figures
figures for
for areas
areas
"af fores t ed " by the inclusion
"afforested" i nclusion of "plantations It only
of "plantations" only 10%
10% stocked
stocked and
and largely
largely
--70-
70 -
incapable
incapable of Making full use of the productive capacity
making full oapacity of
of the
the site.
ait.. It 1a
It is
proposed
proposed that
that for
for young crape
cropa not
not yet thinned,
thinned, full
full stocking
stocking ghould
lIhould mean
.ean aa minimum
lIinio">II
1,000 stem/he
of 1,000 75% of
stem/ha or 75% of the
the trees
trees planted,
planted, whichever
whiohever isi. the
the lees,
lees, with
with aa
reasonably uniform distribution. Plantations with 25-75% survival
Plantations with survival oror 300
300 to 1,000
to 1,000
stems/ ha should
stems/ha should be considered as
be considered as partially
partially stocked
stocked and
and those
those with
with less
le.s than
than 25%25%
survival or less
loss than
than 300
300 etems/ha
et"",s/ha as
as poorly
poorly stocked.
stocked. 'lbe latter
The latter should,
should, in in many
1I&n,y
cases,
cases, be considered for writing
coneidered for writing off
off and
and complete
cOliplete replanting.
replanting.
Naturalization.
Naturalization. -- Plantations
Plantations of exotica are,
of exotice ipso facto,
are, ipso facto, lIanoMade
man-made during
during the
the
first
first rotation. auba8<{Uent rotations:
If subsequent rotationa are
are regenerated
regenerated naturally,
naturally, it 10 le debatable
debatable
whether the
the forests
forests so
so formed
formed should
should be
be called
oalled natural
natural on
on account
acoount of
of their
their method
lIethod
of
of regeneration
regeneration oror man-made
man-made because
because they
they could
could never
never exist
e%lat had it not
had it not been
been for
for man's
lIan'.
active intervention
intervention through
through the
the initial
initial introduotion.
introduotion. In
In .uch case. it
such cases it is
i. necessary
neoe •• &r,y
to have recourse to a purely
purely arbitrary
arbitrary definition;
definition; it it is
is suggested
sucgeeted that
that naturally
naturally
ragenerated crops of
regenerated crepe of exotics
exotics should
should be
be coneidered
considered asas "man-made
_"....ade forests"
forutl" up up to 250
to 250
year. from
years fro," the
the date
date of
of their
their original
original introduction
introduction into
into that
that area,
area, but
bllt that
that after
after
250 years the
250 the species
speoies should
should be
be considered
oonsidered as
as naturalized,
naturalized, when
when only
only artifically
artifi~.ally
raised crops
crops could be conaidered
considered as
as man-made.
man-made.
Agricultural v.
v. forestry
fore. try crops.
crops. -- The
'lbe logic
logic of the dintinction
di.tinotion botween
between
agricultural tree
agricultural tree crops
crops and
and forestry
forestry tree
tree orope
oropo is
is often
often obscure.
ob.cure. Thore le."a no
There seems no
good reason,
good reason, for
for example,
example, why
why plantationa
plantationa of of rubber
rubber trees
tree. are
are thought
thought ofof as
as an
an
agricultural crop,
crop, while
while plantations
plantations of of tan-bark
tan-bark acacia
acaoia treee
trees are
are classed
ol... ed as
as aa forest
fore.t
crop.
crop. It is
It is pointless to
to try
try to
to change
change distinctions
distinctions which
whioh are
are now
now generally
generally
accepted by
by tradition,
tradition, but
but it
it is
is important
important to to ensure
ensure either
oither conformity
oonformity between
between
countries in
countries in the
the species
species included
included inin man-izado
lIan-made forests
fore.ts for
for which
which area
area figures
fi~e. Are are
Cited,
cited, and those
thoBe excluded
exoluded as
as being
being "agricultural
"agricultural crops",
cropo", oror at
at least
least aa knowledge
knowledge
of the differences. A8 an
As an example,
exaMple, Ivory
Ivory Coast
Coast has inoluded over
h&e inoluded 5,000 hectares
over 5,000 heotares
of Anacardium ita man-made
Anacardium in its man-made foreats,
forests, whereas
whereas inin other
other countries
oountries this
thi8 may
may be
be
considered
conaidered an agricultural
agricultural crop."
33 Interpretation of
,Interpretation of conventional
conventional aerial photosraphs in forest irrventau
oto a ha 13...0__IE_k11.'21.est invontory
31
31 Introduction
311
311 Area estimation
estimation with
with or
or without
without foreat
forest sapping.
"apping. The uso
The use of
of all
all the
the
clasaifioatioDB
c assificationa listed in paragraph 21 leada toto aa distribution
par&«raph 2Fleads distribution of of the
the total
total
in sub-divisions
area in sub-divisiona or
or strata.
atrata. One objective
One objeotive of of aa forest
forelt inventory
inventory isi. to
to get
get
satisfact08! estimates
eatisfactory sstillatea of
of these
these areas
areas (or
(or of
of the
the proportiona
proportions of of these
the.e areas
ar ... with
with respect
re.pect
to the total
tota area).
area'. In ma~ case. an additional objective
many cases objeotive ofof aa forest
forest inventory
inventory isi. to
to
the.e areas
know the exact location of these ar ... by
by a delineation on a .map. .p.
312 ".:C::om~pulT:,:.,:07ryor,":::oi17as~B::i.:.ffi7ca=t-:i:-o~ns,,~,"and=:-:0:-:1::as~s~i;:f'ii1::ca=,t,::i::o::na~:::d:;:ev;.:.::e;::l;;:o"",;::...=wi=th=in"-t,,,h:.:;e,,-,i:.:",,::::..;e::n"t",o;.:.,o.'
"Com lsory" olasaificatione and olassifications developed within the inventory.
The
The OIUal?ications
c assifications liated
listed above
above are
are 0of two .orte,
tw aorta: .
(a)
(a) SOlIe existing
Some existing claasifications
classificaUona are already riven and
alraady given and cannot
cannot be avoided
aYOided oror
.. ended by the
amended the inventory
ioyentory expert.
expert. ru. i.
This oase, for
is the case, tor instance,
inatanoe, of of the
the ownership
o".,....hip end
and
adaini.trative classifications.
administrative clas.ifications. Eoti~ation
Estimation and II&ppinc
mapping ofat the
tho areas
are.. of
of the
the corresponding
oorre.ponding
01..... do not
olaases not generally
gensrally require
require interpretation
interpretation of
of aerial
aerial photographs:
photo",aplw: they they consist
oonalot
.mainly
.iuly in transferring
tr&llllferring onto the available
avaUable topographic
toposraphio (or
(or planimetric)
planimetrio) mapo information
maps information
obtained from e%latine documentation
froa existing dOOUllentation (euch
(such ar
.. laws
lawe oreating
oreatine forest
for •• t reserves,
re.erve., concession
oonoe •• 1on
acre.ente, eto.), and in "measuring
agreements, oto.), ... uring areaa
areas on these
the.... apo.
maps. photop'aplw may
Aerial photogrephs may be
b. used
used
oocasionally
ocoassionally to add t~
to add to the
the ..maps
apo some missing
ieoinc dot .011...
ail. reterred
details referred to to inin tho
the relevant
relevant
dOOUllentation (plani.. etric or
documentation (planimetric or topographic
toposraphio features
feature •• uoh as
such .. aa small
...11 river,
river, the
the riclge
ridge ofof aa
rans-
range ot
of hills, etc.).
bills, etc.).
- 71
71 -
(b) Some other classifications

classifications are
are set
set up
up partly
partly or
or entirely
entirely by the inventory
by the inventory
officer,
officer, e.g. classifications of present landuse,
e.g. classifications lam-use, of
of accessibility,
acceSsibility, ofof "condition
"condition
classes". But
But the
the inventory officer must tr;v as far as possible to fit his ol... ifioatioIlll
itryj-tventorofficerrrusasfarasssibletofithisolEufsifioations
with existing and well-accspted ones, sosoasastotoallow
swithe:LELLmjITljiellaccetedors2e, allowfor
for comparison and addition
comparison and addition of
results
results given byby different
different inventories
inventoriee designed
designed by
by different
different foresters.
foresters. Unfortunately
Unfortunately
this
this is not very often
often the
the case
case and too many
and too many inventory
inventory operatione
operations develop
develop their
their own
own
clasSifications, disregarding the
claseificatione, disregarding the existing
existing ones.
ones. If former classifications
classifications are
are not
not
deemed
deemed satisfac t ory one should
eatisfactory should first
first try
try to
to refine
refine or
or to
to condense
condense them
them in
in order
order that
that
classes (or groupe
classes (or groups ofof classes)
classes) of of his
his own
own classification
classification areare compatible
compatible with
with classes
01asse8 (or
(or .
groupe of
groups of classes)
classes) ofof an
an eximting
exi...ting one.
one. Only if
Only if this
this attempt
attempt proves
proves unsuccessful
unsuccessrul will
will aa
classification be
new classification be made.
made.
EBtimation and delineation

Eatimation and delineation of
of the
the areas
areas corresponding
corresponding to
to theee
these classifications
ol.. aifications are
are
generally through
made generally interpretation of aerial photographs.
through interpretation
32
32 Some information
information ori
on aerial
aerial photOgraphs ~overas.B
photographs and aerial coverages
(Many textbooks exist on

textbooke and manuals exist on aerial
aerial photography
photography andand photointerpretation.
photointerpretation.
Some of them are lieted
listed in
in the
the bibliography,
bibliography, and
and it
it is
is not
not intended
intended to
to review
review or
or even
even to
to
summarize in
in the
the following
follOwing paragraphs
paragraphs all
all relevant
relevant information,
information, butbut more
more simply
simply to
to point
point
out the moet important elements
most important elements for
for inventory
inventory officers U8i~ conventional
officers using conventional aerial
photography. )
photography.)
321
321 Characteristics of aerial photographs
photOgraphs
321.1
321.1 Scale
321.11 Definition
Definition
The scale (or representative fraction)

fraction) is the
the relationship between aa diatanoe
distance on
on
the photographs
the PhotoraPhs and
and the
the corresponding
corresponding distance
distance on
on the
the ground
ground expressed as a fraction
expressed as fraction
{1/25,000
(1/25,000) or as
as aa ratio
ratio (1:25,000):
(1:25,000): 11 ot
am on aerial photograph is
is equivalent to
250,000
250,000 em
cm -. 250 mm on ground.
ground.
h of the
focal length the camera f
It
It is to the
ie equal to the ratio:
ratio: altitude of the camera above
above the
the ground
ground - ii
H is exactly the distance between the lene
H is lena of
of the camera
camera and its vertical
vertical
projection on the ground,
ground.
f the
Iif the terrain isis not
not comple"tely flat
completely nat the scale is is not uniform
uniform all
all over
over aa /riven
given
photograph.
photograph. This
This is
is particularly important when the scale is i8 relatively large
large
(relatively low
low average
average altitude)
altitude) and
and the
tbe terrain
terrainisismountainous.
mountainous (significant
(significant differences
differencea
between altitudes
altitudes of various points
potnts of the terrain).
terrain).
321.1 2
321.12 Suitable scales for forest
forest inventory (scale
(8cale requirements
requirementa for
for foreot
forest
inventory )
inventory)
cl""s1fication of
A classification of scales
Bcale8 of
of aerial
.. erial photographs
photographa can
can be
be the
the following:
following:
1/100
1/100 to
to 1/3,000 very lar!e-scaleaerial
very largescale aerialphotograph's
photographa
1/3,000 tto
o 1/10,000
1/ 10,000 large-ooale aerial photographa
largescale aerial photographa
1/ 10,000 tto
1/10,000 o 1/25,000
1/ 25,000 medium-ocale aerial photographs
mediumscale aerial photographs
1/25,000 and omaller
and smaller small-ecale aerial photographs
smallscale aerial photographs
- 72
72 -
'!be
The large
large or
or very large aertal in forest inventories
aerial photographs are used in inventories in
i n ylhich
which
es timation of the stand parameters is
estimation is carried
carried out
out mainly
mainly through
through measurements on the
(photogrammetry).
photographs (photogrammetry). This is
This is the
the case
case in
in some temperate forests
Borne temperate forests with
with aa limited
limited
parameters measured
speCies, parameters
number of recognizable species, measured being
being the
the height
height ofof dominant
dominant and
and
co-dominant trees,
codominant trees, the
the density
denSity of
of the
the crown
crown cover,
cover, the
the diameters
diameters of
of the
the individual crowns,
individl~l crowns,
etc.
etc. One of the problems toto be solved
solved is
is the
the precise
precise estimation
estimation of
of the
the elevation
elevation of the
the ground (useful
camera above the (useful in
in its
its turn
turn for
for obtaining
obtaining aa precise
precise estimate
estimate of
of the
the scale
of the
the photographs).
photographs).
The medium and small scales are generally

generally used
used only
only for stratifying, mapping and
for stratifying, and
estimating the forest areas in in forest
forest inventories
inventories where
where all
all oror most
most ofof the
the parameters
parameters are
estimated through
through field
field work.
work. suitable scale
The most suitable Beale in
i n each
each forest
forest inventory
inventory depends
depends
on the
much on the refinement
refinement of
of the
the stratification
stratification to
to be
be made
made and
and onon the
the criteria
criteria used
used for
for this
this
stratification. instance, if
For instance, if individual
individual species
species must
must bebe recognized,
recognized, aa medium scale
may be necessary.
necessary. if the stratification
But if stratification does
does not
not imply
imply the
the recognition
recognition ofof individual
individual
speCies, a smaller
species, smaller scale
scale may
may suffice.
suffice. very often
This happens very often inin mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests
forests
in which individual species
which identification of individual species is
is generally
generally notnot feasible
feasible at
at present,
present, at
at
least
least at scales smaller than 1/10,000
1/10,000 and
and therefore
therefore isis not
not used
used asas aa criterion
criterion for
for
stratification.
stratification.
In many tropical countries the

the only
only photographs
photographs available
available have
have aa small
small scale
scal e since
aerial surveys are primarily
primarily designed
designed for
for topographic
topographic mapping
mapping at
at aa scale
scale generally
generally not
not
larger than
larger than 1/50,000.
1/50,000.
roughly summarizes
The following table roughly summarizes the
the use
use of
of the
the various
various scales
scales of
of aerial
aerial
photographs for
photographs for forest
forest inventory:
inventory:
~ ~
Scale Uses
Uses
large scale
Very large Beale 1/200 - 1/3,000 Photogrammetric measurements (stand
(stand
parameters estimation)
parameters estimation) or
or refined
refined
' Large
Large scale
Bcale 1/3,000 - 1/10,000
1/10,000 stratifioation based on quantitatively
stratification
criteria
measured criteria
soale
Medium scale 1/10,000 - 1/25,000
1/25,000 Broader stratification"
stratification based on
qualitative criteria including
including species
species
occurrence or on estimated
estimated quantitative
quantitative
(SUCh as
criteria (such as crown density or
or
height of dominant trees)
Beale
Small scale <
<1/25,000
1/25,000 Broad stratification based
excluding in
criteria excluding
based on
on qualitative
qualitative
in most cases
cases species
species
occurrence and on broad
broad classes
classes of
of
criteria
quantitative criteria
321.2 TYpe of
321.2.D22.e. of ernulsion
emulsion
photographs are
Conventional aerial photographE are images
images of
of the
the reflexion
reflexion by the objects
by the objects of
of the
the
electrom"«,,etic ra.diations of
electromagnetic radiations of the
the visible
visible spectrum (0.4 fA - 0.8 ,iJ.. )) with
spectrum (0.4)u the possible
with the possible
addition of
of those
those of
of the
the near
near infrared
infra-red(up
(uptoto1/t).).
1;"" ). In the
In the latter
latter case case the
the photographs
photographs
are oalled
called infra-red photographe.
infrared photographn.
- 73
(3 -
321 . 21
321.21 Conventi onal photograph.
Conventional wit hout the
photogmhp witnout the near
near infra-red
infra-red
Panchromatic black
black and
and white
white photographs
photographs are
are the
the most
moat common
commonand andmost
moetusted
used up
up to
to now.
now.
In
In fact
fact most
most of the
the extensive
extensive aerial
aerial surveys for topographic
server for topographio mapping
mapping use use panchromatic
panchromatio
films.
filme. They are also
also the
the ones
ones which most
most people
people are
are more acoUlltol'lled to.
more accustomed to. The spectral
The spectral
sensitivity of
seneitivity of most of
of the
the serial
aerial panchromatic
panchromatic films
films ranges between 0.36Akand
ranges between 0.36~and 0.72)4
0.72~. .
In many
In many cases
cases they
they are
are used
used with
witha aminus
minusblue
bluefilter
filtertotocut
cutoffoff blue
blue light
light below
below O.5~ .•
0.5.)J.
Resolution (in terms
Resolution (in terms of
of lines
lines per
per millimetre
millimetre recorded
recorded by
by the
the film),
film), epeed
speed and grain vary
and grain vary
from one
considerably from one film
film toto another.
another.
Colour serial are much

aerial photographs ere much less
lesB common
common and
and are
are generally
generally used
used for
for special
special
purposes on limited
gurposee on limited areae.
areas. They are
are now
now only
only aa little
little more
more expensive
expensive than
than the
the corresponding
corresponding
panchromatic photographs.
panchromatic photographs. It is
is said that "the
"the human eye
eye can
can separate
separate more than
than 100
100 times
more colour combinations (hues,
mere colour (hues, values and chromas)
values and chromas) than
than gray
gray scale
ecale values
values (ratio
(ratio of
of 20,000
20,000
to 200)".
to 200)". Species identification
identification as
as well
..ell as
as detection
deteotion of
of diseased
diseased stands
stands is easier on
is easier
than en
colour aerial photographs than on panchromatic
panchroma'tic onee
ones so
so that
that aa more
mors refined
refined stratification
stratification
is generally feasible.
generally feaelble.
321.22 photographs
"Infra-red" photographe
The
The Bensiti vi ty of infra-red black and
sensitivity and white
white filme
films extends
extends to
to 0.9)1- fA- •
0.9}L or 1.0)A
1.0 .
Filters generally
Filters generally cut
cut out
out the
the blue
blue and blue-green
blue-green wavelengths,
wavelengths, soso that
that the
the range
range ofof
sensi tivi ty is
sensitivity is approximately
approximately from
from 0.6)4
O.6f1. to
to 0.9).4
O.9f1-· .. 'lbe main differences
The differenoes forfor forestry
interpretation between the
interpretation between the black
black and
and white
white film
film and
and thethe infra-red
infra-red one
one are
are the
the following:
following:
easier distinction on
on infra-red
infra-red photographs
photographs between
between angiosperms (broadleav~d
angiosperms (broadleaved
species) and gymnosperms
gymnosperms (coniferous);
(coniferous);
possible
poesible distinction between
between healthy
healthy and
and diseaaed
diseased broadleaved
broadleaved trees
trees on
on
infra-red photographs;
photographs;
easy differenciation on on infra-red

in:fra-red photographs
photographs between
between water
water areas
areas and
and land
land
areas, between wet
areas, and batwe~n dry soils:
Wet and dry this is particularly
sois: this particularly useful for the
delineati.on f orest on
delineation between forest dry soils
on dry Boils and swamp forests;
and swamp forests;
better individualization
individualization ofof the
the trees
trees on
on the
the infra-red
infra-red photographs
photographs than
than on
on the
the
panchromatic ones; consequently it
panchromatic onee; it is
is easier
easier to
to delineate
delineate the
the stands
stands on
on
panchromatic photogra phs.
panchromatic phetographe. ruB true on
Thin is especially true on large
large ecales.
scales.
The colour infra.-roo.

'Dle fi lme ("false-colour"
infra-red filme ("false-colour" film film or
or Russian
RusBian "apectrozonal" fi 1m)
"spectrozonal" film)
reproducti on in colour of the same
allow for the reproduction Bame spectral range as the infra-red black black
and
and white film.
white film. It combines
combinee thethe advantages
advantages of of the
the colour
oolour reproduction
roproduction (large
(large number
number
of
of combination cfof hues,
huen, val ues and
values chro~ •• ) and
and chromas) and those
thoBe ofof sensing
sensing the
the near
near infra-red
infra-red
(detection of humidity and of of °trees
.tress of
of vegetation).
vegetation). Identification of
Identification of species,
species, andand
more generally
generally refined
refined stratifications:
s tratifIcations based
based on
on soil
soil moisture,
moisture, stand
stand composition andand
vegetation health isis eaeier
eanlor onon thie
this type
type of
of film
fi lm than
than on
on the
the three
three former
former onee.
ones.
Colour
Colour additive viewing makee possible aa large
makes possible large number
number of
of different
different falsecolour
false colour
picturos from the name
pictures from eame set
oet of
of one-band
one-band photographs
photographs (see
(see paragraph
paragraph 613
613 of
of this
this chapter).
chapter).
321.3
321.3 Printing
InaLLBg
Prints
Prints (on
(on opaque
opaque or transparent mediums)
or traneparent mediums) are
are made
made from
from negatives
negatives by
by contact
contaot
printing or
or eutomatic
automatic dodging
dodging printers.
printers. The latter is is more economic
economic and
and "has the
"has the (1)
(1)
on one
accommod~t iDR on
advantage of accommodating one print
print the
the range
range of
of densitiee
densities occurring
occurring on
on the
the negative".
negative".
(1)
(1) from
from J.A.
J.A. Howard
Howard,, "!erial
"Aerial phote-ecology", pages 36-37.
photo-ecology", pages
74
- 74 -
"GloBay print. with

"azIEK_Rrints high contrast
>'i.t h aa high contrast have
have the
the advantage
advant&«e of
of a... greater
great ... density
deno1t;r range
r~ but but matt
matt
prints can easily be written on
2rints can on and
and the
the reflected
reflected glare
glare from
from thethe surface
.,,rface is eo trii;;g-
not so
is not taii-ng
to
to the eyea.
eyea. Nowana;ye aa semi-matt
Nowadays semimatt or or semiglossy
semi-gloesy or or gloe.;r-matt
glossymatt surfacesurfaoo isis generally
generally
preferred as oompromise between
os a compromise betw~en the
the two
two types".
typ •• ". (1)
(1) The possible
The po •• ible defects
defeot. ofof aerial
aorial
numerous and provision must be mado
prints are nweerous in the
made in tho contracts
contraots of of aerial
&erial surveying
ourve;y1ng inin
order ..void them
oreer to avoid them as much as
as much poasible.
&8. poeeible. Thoy
They are listed in
are listed in the
the book
book referred
referrsd toto in
in (1):
(1):
blurred areas, fingerprints,
fingerprints, abraeion
abrasion streaks
str.ak.andandscratchee,
ecratch.a,air airbelts,
belte,fog,
fog,streak's,
atreNKB,
irregular white
irregular white spots,
spoto, irregular
irregular dark >pote, flat
dark spots, p~1nt., exoeasive
flat prints, oxo ••• ivo contrast
oontraet (ese
(Bee below),
below),
denoity too
deneity too high
high oror too
too low,
low, blister's,
bl1.ters, brown
brown spots,
epote, bellow
bollow etain,
otatn, fading,
fading, double
dOOlble image,
im,,«",
arytag
dr;y1ng marks,
marks, pres.ur
pressurebar....bar marks;
marks; forklike
fork-11keororfinger
fingerpatterns,
pe.tterlUl, darkdark streaks,
strealea, small over-
amall over-
exposed circular
exposed circular zone.
zone.
321.4
321.4 Badc irnarquai
ic_irne quali t:r factors
Lt7 faoion
interpretation 3f
The interpretation ~f the aerial photographs depende
the aerial d.p.nd. on
on the
the ability
ability of
of the
the
interpreter, on
interpreter, on the
the equipment
equipment used
used and also
aloo of
of course
oouree on
on the
tho qualities
qualities of
of the
the photographs.
photographs.
TheBe qualities
These qualities can
can be
be estimated
estimated from
from the
the following
following three
three main
main factors:
facton:
- (or colour
tone contrast (or colour contrast
oontrast for
for colour
colour photography)
photograph7) which can be
which can '00 dofined
defined as
as
"the
"the actual
actual differenoe in photographio
photographic tone or brightne
brightness.. between aa particular
particular
feature that
that is to be
is to be interpreted
interpreted and the background
and the r.ga1lll1t which
background against whioh it iB imaged";
it is imaged";
"21ArEnple
"sharpness" which corresponda
corresponds to
to "the
"the abruptness
abruptnees with
with which
which aa change
chango appears
appears to
to
on the
occur on the photograph":
photograph": the
the sharper the photograph, the
the easier
easier the
tho inter-
inter-
pretation;
Itstereol!lcopic
"stereoscopic parallax" whioh which meaM "the difference
means "the differenoe in the appe.rent poll!
th .. apparent tion of
position of
one feature - suoh as the top of a tree - with respect reopeot to
to another
another feature
teature - .uch
such
as the
as the base
base of
of that
that tree
tree - caused
oaused by
by aa shift
shift in
in the
the point
point ofof observation".
ob.ervation". It
It
.is measured
is measured by the parallax
b;y the parallax difference
difterence Dp, and is
Dp, and i. related
relat.d toto the
the difference
difference in
in
elevation hh of
elevation of these
theae two
two features
feature. by
by the
the following
follOwing formula:
formula:
h •- HxDp
p -a
where Hi! is
where is the
the height
height ofor"the
the camera
o..... era above
above the
the ground
groundand
andP Pin the"air
isthe "airbase",
base",
distanoe between
viz. the horizontal distance between the the twr pointe of
t~ points of observation;
ob.ervation; Dp being
expre.sed as the
expreesed the sum of
of the
the projeotions
projeotions parallel
parallel toto the
the flight
flight line
line on
on each
each
photograph of
photograph of the
the distanoes
distanoes between
between the the two
two features.
feature.. formula is used
This formula used
in photogrBBOet1'1 for
1n photogrammetry for measurement
.. aasuroment on on the
the photographs
photographs of
of such
such things as tree
thingo as treo
height.
height. .. easuring instrument
A measuring
A il1lltrument based on thie
baaed on th10 formula
tormula in
i8 the
the parallax
parallax bar;
bar; 11a
ol.mllier device
nimpler devioe is is the
the parallax
.p arallax wedge.
wedge.
322 Characteristics of aerial co._
322. 1
3220 Over lap!!
°v".1tRE
Al<>r.g the same
Along the "ame flight line,
line, the areee by two
..,.eas oovered b;r sucoeestas photogreahs
twr 1I1100eOl1'<1e photogt'ftp4' wre.
"".
overlapping.
overlapping. !hio
Thie overlap can be expressed
0An be a%pres.ed asas aa percentage
p«roentAgo ofof the
the area
area oovered
coy.rod by by one
photograph and is
photograph called "forward
h walled "torw.rd lap"
lap" (or e!ldlap).
ndlap). The .211.1112.
The ".id. lap" corresponds
oorre.ponde to to the
the
ovarlap
overlep between photographs
photographs in
in adjacent
adjac.nt parallel
parallel flights.
flighia.
Forward laplap is
18 usually
l1IIually betwson 55" to
b.t.... n 55% 65". and
to 65%, aida lap
and side lap is ..ore variable,
is more Variable, from
from 10%
lo,r;
to 40%
to 4o,r; or
or more.
DOre. Both overlaps are neoeesary
n.o •• aar,r for
for good
geod ateraosoopio
at_r'o.oopio interpretation
int.rpretation .r4
and
plotting forfor .. apping of the surveysd
mapping lIUl'Teyed area.
(1)
(1) from J.A. Ho~,
from J.1. Howard, "Aerial
"Aerial photo-eoololr",
photeeoology", peeve 36-7.
~. 36-37.
--75.-
75 -
The number
The number NN of photographo
photographs corresponding
corresponding to
to the
the aerial
u ..i.l coverage
cover... of ,iv........
ot aa given area B
is
is appro~mately equal to:
appro7imately equal to:
2
S
S x o-2
1: ..
II
N -+'-"---
2 1 (1-R1 )(1-R 2 )
12(1-R1)(1-R2)
where ee is
is the average sO&le
the average scale of
of the
the ae .. ial surv.y
aerial eurvey
11 is the side
side of an aerial
aerial photograph
Ri is
R1 fonmrd lap (usually 0.55<R,<
is the forward 0,55<R1< 0.65)
the side
R2 is the
R2 side lap
lap (usually R2> O. '0 )
(usuallyR2)1.0.10)
(if SS iaisexpressed
(if expressed in
in ha,
ha, 1I must
must bbe
•• xpr.... ed in
expreseed l1li)
in hm)
For instance,
For instance, let
let us
us suppose
suppose that:
SS . 1,000,000 ha
1
o
° -" 20,000
20,000
11 . 23
23 om 0,0023 hm (9 inches)
cm - 0,0021 inohes)
R, - 0.60
R1 - 0.60
- 0.20
R2 -
R2 0.20
Wewill
We will have:
( ,1 2
%2 1
,I • ',000,000
1'113°09"..x (20,000)
'20,000' (0.0023)2 1: 0.40
x 775777477i
1: 0.80
n
1: 0.00 0
II ',5 00
1,500
0.4o r
Graphs canbebeoonstruoted
Grapha can constructedononwhich
whichi t it
18iepopossible
•• ible toto...
red
1Id NII tor
for a liT.n .....la,
given eoale,
and sizm
assuming given overlaps and 8i.~ of the photographs.
photographe~
Dueto
De to significant
signifioant variatione
variatioM of
of scalee
80alee in
in mountainous
100wltainoue areas
....... it 18 lIClvl.eabl.
it is soWeable to to
large.. endlaps (up
request larger (up to 8~) and
to 80%) lidelaps (up
and sidelaps (up to 4~).
to 40%).
322.2 Flight lineR

Fliet linee
linea should
Flight lines should be
be theoretically
theoretically parallel
parallel and equidistant.
and equidistant. Da* to III&IlJ'
DIw taotore
any factors
."eh
s,oh as crabhing and drift of the
as crabbing the flight,
flight, tilt
tilt and ot the
tip of
and tip the aircraft,
airord"t, the ov.rlaps ....
1;lIe overlaps are
cone"aut.
not conatant.
1-2.1zAtin
Flight indices on stable
stable tran.oparent
transparent med1 lIber.the
... ,where
madi, theflight
rUshtlinee
Un...... nth
are drawn with 4r"""
the indication of the centre
cent.. e of the
the successive
auoo ••• iv. photographs,
photographe, ara v.r.J useful
are very w.,tul and
aa4 .uat b.
mumt be
in any
requested in aerial survey
8QY aerial survey oontract.
oontraot.
32:>.3
322.3 Tilt and r~0t.ill~
rectification
Tilt and tiptip of

of the ai .. oraft result
the aircraft r ..ult in
in the
the camera tilt which
OM"''' tilt 1Ih1011 is Iq\I&l to
18 equal to the
the
inolination
inclination of eamera u10 with respect
""",era axis r .. peot to
to the vert1oal.
the vertical. '&.wt the plane
Thus plalle of
ot the photo....ph
1;lIe photograph
in eX*Otly horizontal.
i. not exactly horisontal. photographe can be reotifietp
The tilted photographs ~pEtlti!4. i.e. 1 ••• prosieted
projeoted onto
onto
horisont"l reference
a horizontal rerer.noe plane,
plan., the ~. between
the angle between the pbo\ocr. plans
th. photograph pl&A8 and
aDd the
the horisontal
bar1lQn,al
b~ing determined
being by grousd
de-t"l'ilinGd by r.oonnai ....."o. yr
gro und recormaiseano, <lr frote 1'1:.,111 .u..t
troa fltgbi; rte. ••
-- 76
76 -
-
322.4 Other specifications
Annex II refers
refera to
to other
other specifications
specifications ofof aerial
aerial surveys
surveys such
ouch as junction
junction of strips
stripe
when the
(important when the aerial
aerial coverage
coverage if
if obtained
obtained from
from several
several flights
flights or
or when
when it
it is
is to
to be
be
used in combination
ueed combination with
with other surve~ covering
other surveye covering neighbouring
neighbouring areas),
areas), cloud
cloud cover
cover (which
(which
must be less
leas than
than aa given
given percentage), tim~ of
percentage), time of day
day -- shadows
shadows must
must not
not reduce
reduce the
the value
value ofof
photographs for
the photographe for interpretation.
interpretation.
323 .2221_próbleme
Some probleme related to
to aerial surveying.
surveying. In many forest inventories
inventories it it is
is
desirable to get new
new aerial
aerial photographs
photographs becauee
because they
they are
are missing
missing on
on aa part
part or
or
on the whole area to
to be
be inventoried,
inventoried, or
or because
because they
they are
are too
too old
old (in
(in case
case there
there have
Mve been
been
rapid changes
changes in land use since the date of the former
former coverage)
coverage) or bscause
because they
they do
do not
not have
have
sui table scale or characteristics.
the auitable characteristics. is available
If money is avail,a ble and
and if the inventory
i f the inventory design
design
includes the
the use of aerial photographs,
photographs, aerial
aerial surveying
surveying will
will have
have to
to be
bs contemplated.
contsmplated.
addi tiOD to the technical

In addition technical specifications whioh
vhioh are listed
Usted in Annex
AnnexII , 80me
eome other
,
points have to be considered

considered when
when preparing
preparing aa contract
contraot of
of aerial
aerial surveying.
surveying.
(a) Government restrictions:

Government restrictions.:
Maqy
Many governments exercise varying degrees of restriction over the execution
execution of
of
aerial photography.
photography. It is necessary
necessary to
to investigate
investigate whether
whether the
the aerial
aerial surveying
surveying is
is
permitted over the
the inventorisd
inventoried area (in particular by foreign
foreign contractors),
contractors), if
if the
the
processing is permitted outside
outside the
the country
country (when
(when the
the local
local processing
processing facilities
facilities do
do not
not
meet with the technical specificatione),
specifications), etc.
(b) Preliminary information

information to
to be
be collected:
collected:
In order to enable an
an invitation
invitation to
to bid
bid to
to be
be issued,
issued, investigation
investigation has
has to
to be
be made
made
on such
un ouch items as;
i ter:"IB as;
flying season, number of

season, number of likely
likely photographic
photographio daye
days and
and general
general meteorological
meteorolOgical
infonnation;
information;
topography, terrain
topography, terrain and
and altitudes
altitudes in
in area
area to
to be
be photographed;
photographed:
documentation (mape)
existing documentation (maps) and
and ground
ground control;
control;
location of airports with servicing facilities
faoilities
permits required, etc...
permits etc •••
I. c )
(c) Cos
Cost payment:
t and payment:
The coet survey is

cost of an aerial survey is not
not only
only determined
determined by the size
b~ the size of
of the
the area
area to
to ce
be
inventoried
inventoried for given scale and
and characteristics
charachristioe of of the
the photographs.
photographs. Posi tioning
Positioning
(mobilization and demobilization) and
and stand-by
stand-by may
may have
have an
an important
important bearing,
bearing, especially
especially
in
in tropical cOW1tries the cloud
countries where the cloud. cover
oover is
is often
often aa serious
serious inconvenience.
inconvenience. The basie
b&als
for
for payment may
may be
be photography
photography only;
only: photography plusplus ponitioning;
poRitioning: photegraphy,positioning
photography,poe1tioning
and standby;
and standby; photography, poeitioning,
positiOning, standby
standby and
and flying
flyir.g hours,
hours, oror various
various combinations.
combinations.
of weighing
It is a matter of weighing the
the various
varioun components,
oomponents, when bide received, in
bids are received, in an
an attempt
attempt
to
to ensure that
that photography
photography will
will be
bft obtained
obtained at
at aa reasonable
ro""oJl8.bl .. price.
price.
-77-
The
The example below shows
example below shows the
the range
range of
of costs
co.ts per
per item
item according
according to
to the
the relative
relative
importance given
importance given to
to them
them by
by the
the tenderers.
tenderer•• It i. related to
is related to aa survey
survey made
made in 1972 at
in 1972
scales within
various scales within an
an area
area. of
of 5,000
5,000 km2
Jan2 in
in aa tropical ~ountry.
tropical country.
Bid. (in US S)
Bids (in
1. Mobili7.ation
Mobilization 1,200 to 6,150
1,200 6,150
2. Demobilization 1,200 to
1,200 6,150
to 6,150
(po.itioning)
Sub-total (positioning) 2,400 to 12,300
2,400 12,300
2 1/ 15,000 panchromatic photograp~
3. Rate per km
km` for 1/15,000 photography 4.73 7.98
to 7.98
4.73 to
2 photograp~
4. Rate per km 1/30 ,000 infrared photography
km2 for 1/30,000 3.42 to
3.42 6,77
to 6.77
2 for 1/5,000
1/5 ,000 panchromatic photograp~
5. Rate per km
km2 for photography 24.47 to
24.47 37.31
to 37.31
2
6.
6. per km2
Rate per for semi-matt
km for .emi .... att contact prints from 33 above
contact prints
~
a~~ first set
set 0.17 to 0.75
0.17 0.75
seoond set
second
b eet 0.13 to 0.35
Bub
Icfirst sequent
subsequent sets up
sets to 66
up to 0.13 to
0.13 0.30
to 0.30
2
7. km for eemi-matt
Rate per km2 from 44 above
semi .... att contact prints from
~
a~~ first set
(a) first set 0.09 to
0.09 0.26
to 0.26
Bet
second set 0.07 to
0.07 0.15
to 0.15
c subsequent sets
sets up
up to to 66 0.05 0.15
0.05 to 0.15
2
8.
8. Rate per
Rate per km for semi-matt
for semi-matt contact
contact prints from 55 above
printB from above
ac~ second
~bcIfirst
set
first Bet 3.00 to
3.00 5.71
to 5.71
b second set
set 3.00
1.60 to 3.00
subsequent sets up to 6
subsequent sets up to 6 1.53 to 3.00
3.00
9. Rate for map photo indices of the photography
photograp~ in 3
above (indication
above (indioation of the indices on existing
1/50,000 topographic
1/50,000 topographic maps)
mape) 0.10 to 26.64
26.64
10.
10. Rate for map photo
photo indices
indioes of the
ths photography
photograp~ inin
4 above
4 above 0.10 1.21
to 1.21
0.10 to
11
11.• map photo
Rate for map photo indices
indices in
in the
the photography
photograp~ inin
5 above 1.50 to 61.35
2 for the
12.
12. per km2
Rate per km for the production
production ofof an
an uncontrolled
uncontrolled
mosaic at
momic at aa scale
scale of 1/15,000 from
of 1/15,000 from the photograp~
the photography
in 33 above including
including aa screen
screen positiva
positive of
of each
each set
set 1.41
1.41 to 3.66
324
324 Mosaios.
Mosaics. ia sometimes
It is sometimes useful
useful toto use
use an
an assemblage
..... emblaee of
of the
the aerial
aerial
photographs inin order
order to
to get
get aa clear
clear picture
pioture ofof the
the inventoried areh or ot
invsntoried area of
part. of it.
parts of This as.emblage
Thi. aesemblage may be "composed
"oomposed of uncorrected
unoorrsoted printa,
prints, the
tile detail
detail of
of which
Which
being matched from print
print to
to print
print without
without ground control or or other
other orientation"
crientation" and the the
mosaic 1s .aid to be
is said bft uncontrolled. A controlled mosaic
A controlled moaaic is
is made
made up ot prints
up of printa which
which have
have
been rectified
been rectified and
and ratioed
ratioed (in
(in order
order that
that all
all the
the photographs
photographs have
have the
the same
8ame average
average scale).
8cale).
Seml-controlled
Semi-controlled mosaics are are made
made up
up of
of corrected
oon-ected oror uncorrected
unoorreoted photographs
photographs arranged
arranged
through "a
throng/1 "a common
common basi.
basis of
of orientation other than
orientation other than ground
ground control".
oontrol".
mosaica are
Controlled mosaico are not
not yet
yet comparable
comparable to
to aa map
map as
.... variations
variations for
for lens
lens aberrations
displaoement due
and displacement dus to
to topography are not
topograp~ are not corrected.
corrected. The' completely corrected
The completely corrected mosaica
moaaioe
are the
are the orthophoto-mosaics
orthophoto-moBaic. called
called also
also "orthophotomaps"
"orthophotomape" (see
(eee paragraph 614 of
paragreph 614 of this
this ohapter).
chapter).
However,
Howevsr, in
in flat
flat or
or gently
gently undulating terrain controlled
undulating terrain controlled mosaics
mosaics can
can be
be used
umed ....
as planimetric
planimetric
mapa.
mape.
- 78 -
31 Fh2tointearttati2st
Photcincerpretation in forent
Photcin,o~pret.tion for.~t inventory conniste
ooneiste in
in the
tho identification
identification onon the
tho aerial
aerial
photographs and ....entually in
II.nd eventually in the
t he delineation
deUn""ti on of thn differset
of tha difhrsutclasees
cla"o ••corresponding
correepon<l.i"~ to
to
the c l88 8ifioations adopted.
the classifications adopted.
ol88.es within
Some olaeses thin the
the inventori ed area
inventoried are. are relstieely
relat i vely easy
e .. y to
to identify
id.ntify and II.nd
delineate, as they
delineate, they are
are defined
defined by
by geographical
geogT8phical limits,
limite, such
ouch as
ucla .... corresponding
clessee corrtt.ponding toto
o""erehip, tenure,
ownership, t.nure, administration
administrationor ~iogl'aphy.
orpheetiography. '!!I
The most
... oot important and and most
moat
inter.oUD« part
interesting port of the
the photointerpretation
photoinhrpretaUon work""rk in
in fcreet
for ..t inventory
im.ntor;r is i. related
related to the
identification (1I.nd eventually
id.ntification (and ...ventually delineation)
delineation) of
·of the
the various
variouo classes
ola.... ofof land
lll.nd use,
uo., vegetation,
nrtltton,
forest
for.st type
tzpe and accessibilitx.
and aoo •• sibility.
331
331 Qalities
Q.uali tie. of
of lOad
od e¥otOillterpr.taUon.
hotointer retation. A
A good photointerpretation
photoint..."r.tation must
must be b. as
as
obj.cti ve ea
pbjective as possib
po.oib e. •• Although the
the analysis
an&l;yBio of
of the
the aerial
aerial photographs
photographa is io
through direct
made through direct observation
observation and and interpretation
interpr.tation byb,. aa human
bwnan being, it should
being, it should always
al...,.., be
baeed
based on aa •• t of precise
set pr.c is. criteria
crit.ria and or !!l!.
definitione or
II.nd definitions keys. Thi.
Thie requirement i.
is nec.osar;y
necessary
for the
for t he following
follOwing twotwo main
main reasone:
r • ...,o"," ,
photointerprehUon muat
photointerpretation muot be as poeeible
be as uniform as pos.ible over time tim. from the beginning
from the
to
to the
the end of the
the work;
work; the keY" .erve as
keys thus serve ae a
.. permanent
perm .....,ont reference
r eference to
to the
photointerpreter;
photointerpreter;
- photointerpretat1on must be as
photointerprotation muet ..., coneistent
consistent as ae poseible
po.sible regardleee
regudloe .q of the the photo-
photo-
interpr.t.rs the keys
interpreters and the keY" will
will serve
s.rve to
to reduce
r.duoe the
the discrepancies
discrepancies between
betw.an them.
them.
Th.se
These keY"
keys &1eo
also s.rve
eerve as
as an
an aid
aid for
for the
the field
field teom.
tema inin on-the-spot
on-th ...... pot recognition
r.cogni tion of
the
the different photointerpretation claases
claeoaa and thus aaai...r to match the
thue make it easier
photointerpretation and field
photointerpretation field classifications.
olaseifications.
The criteria
crit.ria for thethe claesifioations
ol.-eifioationo used uaed inin photointerpretation
photoint.rpretation must muet be
b. .easily
. . il,.
identifiaUl. on the
identifiable the ground
ground in order that
in ord.r the,.
that they can &1.0
oan also bo uo.d in the field
be used fiold inventor
iav.ntor:.
In other
oth.r words,
wordo, classifications
ol ... ifioation. designed
deaisnedononthe thebards photogr.p~
b .. i.ofofphotography par~.tere
parameters ouob as
'filch ..
cover, height
crown cover, h.isat of dominant
do.inant trees,
tree., soil
ooil moisture,
aoioture, topographic
topo,raphio features,
f.aturee, should
ahould be
... aningfUl and eaceptable
meaningful • .,c.ptable for
for a• person
pereon on on the
the ground;
ground; oth.rwi.e the,. are useless
otherwise they wool ... for the
inv.ntory.
inventory. In a&DJ inv.ntorie. the photointerpretation
many inventories photointerpr.tation work work and the field
and the fiold inventory
inventor,. have
been dona ind.pendentl,., with the
done independently, the result
r.sult that
that the
the photointorpretation
pbotointorpret.tion work work used fo~ forest
UI.d for for.et
mapping ha.
upping ••rved to
has not served to reduoe
r.duo. the
the sampling
o. . plinc error
.rror of of the
tho inventory
illyentor,. resulta
r •• ulto and
aDd conversely
conv.roel,.
tb.a. results
these reaulta could
oould not
not be applied
appli.d toto the
tho individual
individual forest
fore.t classes
01..... delineated
dolin.ai.d on the tho .ape.
mape.
lIt
t .. ~ happen that ohangee
may chancee inin the
tho forest
for •• t °over
ooyer since
dno. the the taking
taking of of the
the aerial
..rial photographs,
photograph8,
or
or errore tho photointerpretation
errors in the pbotointorpretation work, introduoe
illtroduo • some
• 0.0 discrepancies
di.or.panoi •• between
bet... n the
tho results
ro.ult.
of tho photointerprot.tton
of the phrtointerpretation work and the tho field ""I'll:.
field work. Th•• e discrepancies
These dleor.panQio. can oan be taken
talcen into
~ocount
account in the inventory designd •• i!" (nee
( ••• chapter
ohapter 7) 7) provided
proTidod the the classifications
ol ... ifioatioao of Of the forest
tor •• t
oro .... used
areas uoed in
in the
tho photointerpretation
photointorprotaUon work work and inthe
and in tho field
rhldarearebasically
baoioall,.the tho'Jame.
......
tho
th.
.As
the r1.~
. a ooneequenoe
risk of
oon..quono. of
rielA) , \11..
the field),
or error.,
dleor.pancie. with the
discrepancies with
perfoNaDOe.
performance.
or the
toinM
tho above
abOY. requirements
"quir • • nto (objectivity
MUon ol...
nOOn8 .teno •• oyer
error-e,0 ofineonsisteI
tho field
field observations,
ob.OrY&t1o ... , are
(obj.cUrlt,.and.
t JIIIt
lfioailoao arturk
assitioations not be
•• and between
are increased
inor....d and
be too
Mov
t ... ibilit,. for "".
and. feasibility
too rofiD84.
refinod.
.nterpreterw, and
be ...n .nterpreters,
oono.qu.nU,. result
and oonsequently
and ef
Jf
re.ul t in
uee in
th.,. are,
If they ar.,
in a.. poor
poor
332 IIt.roo.coeo lnh;n:-l1on.

Storeosoo o ints ta lER. Int.rprotation
Interpretation ofor ocnventienal
oo".,.nUol1Al aerial
a.rial photographs
photograph8
.hOUld a.l~
WáTad ways &0 à madee sterecsookieetilz
• •reo.oopioallz in ord.r !roe the
prorlt from
order to profit tho perception
perc.ptlon
<f boipt
.c.f .tIiob,
height which,accordi".
according to to
oan;y .peoralhtl, .bould
maroli-WZMIsta, should btbe <)011ll1d01'1ld
oonsiderd en* uf %be
OM uf the most
IIO.t
.rr.otin cOllponont. ef
effective eoaponents af the
tho interpretation.
lnlorprotation. Obo.rYaUon of
Observation ot single
oinclo photograph,'
photogl'aplla and of
IOcd of
ao.a1~. wa70
hoealoe ~, of Of course,
oour- e, provide "".tu!
proTide useful information,
infor.atlon, but t~ aa loteer
but to l •••• r degree,
d_grW4.
- 79
79 --
SteI'e08COJ:es
Stereoscopes can bebe claneified
c l a oa1fied in
in three
thl'ee categoriees
categories. lelll!l It.roo,oopt .. , a1rror
lene stirs:wale/0pm, mirror
s t ere08Cop8a , aand
stereoscopes, nd speci applioation atereORcopes.
al application
special stereoscopes.
Lena stereoscopes
Lem stereoscopes are
are generally
general17 small
small instruments
inotruaent. with .&gDit7!ng (2
with magnifying (2 toto 4) l~ao ••
4) leneem
separahd distanoe equal to the spacing
separated by a distance at the eyes.
spaoing of e7'" 'l!l.7 lIJI.d easily
O&ll he used
They oan ... 117 in
ill the
the
fhld,
field, but have
ha... drawbacks
dr.wbacks such as li.Hed .agn1t7!ng
.. limited i.po.. ib11H7 at
power, the impossibility
magnifying power, of viewing
the entire stereoscopic area in the line
the at flight
line of fligbt without raising .dIS of
-the Oda,
raining the at ons
ObS of
ot the
the
photographs, the impossibility of viewiug
photographs, and the vi.wing the entire
.ntire stersomoopio
.t.reo.oopio areaar.a sores,
&OrG •• the
the lin.
line
flight without
of flight without shifting
shifting the
the stereosoope
stereo.oope oror photographe.
photographa.
Mirror stereoscopee
Mirrcr stereOBcopea useuse aa combination
combination ofof prisms,
pri ••• , mirrors
mirror. and lenaes to
and lotuses to avoid
avoid th.
the
above-mentioned
abcve-mentioned defects the lene
defecte of the lena stereoecopee.
.tereo800pea. The7 are
They the basic
are the basic instruments
inotrua.nt. of of
photointerpretation in
photointerpretation in the
t heoff
office.
ice. Different typee
types of
of frase
frame make
Make itit possible
po •• ible to
to scan
.oan the
the
,nth high magnification, either
ar~a with
whole area .ither by
by moving
moving thetho plata
plat. on
on which
¥hich the
the photographs
photographs ara
sro
put, or by
put, by moving
moving the
the whole
whole optioal
optioal set,
s.t, or
or oely
only the
the mirrors
milTol'll ("Oid
("Old Delft"
D<olft" scanning
BeannIng
BtereOB cope) •
ntereoscope).
Of the
tho ¡special
special applicati on stereoscopes,
application stereoscopes, cne
ene has been designed
hu bemn de.iin.d to
to allow
allow for
for the
the
stereoscopic viewing of several euccessive
nuccessivo photographo
photographs of
of the
the mime f11tht strip;
ea.. flight .trip; another
anot~.r
designed for training purpoees
has been deuigned
has purpos.s and
and permits
permits simultaneoue
sillul taneoUII viewing
viewing of thethe .....
same
photographs by
photographs by two
two interpreters.
interpreters.
333
333 hotointer retation ke
Assessment of photointerpretation ken.'l!l. preparstion
The ,veparation of of photeinterpretstion
photc1nt.rpl'lltation
keys ehould
keye shou d alwaye
always be
be connidered
consid.redan-ieeportant
au .por~ant part part orof tho
the photoint.rpretatiou
photointerprotatioe
WQrk, and sufficient
work, .~fficient time should be spent spent on
on it.
it. AI it
Au 1t ie
i. edeential
ed~.ntial that the tho photo-
e .. ily utilizable in
classification be easily
interpretation olaosification inthethofield,
tiold,many ,round check;
a&D1 ground oh.ok. have
have to
to
be carried out on the different vegetation
v~getation and foroat types.
and forest typos. A key
A k.7 ehould
obould elways
olWft7W he
b.
supported by a set
eupported by kiet of test
test stereogrammes,
stereogrammes, eaoh
eaoh 01 ... being
clam be'ng illustrated
illustrat.d by ona or
by on* or more
Mor.
atereogramme.
etereogrammt. If density cf
of the
the crown
crown cover
cover is lIJIod as
is usad . .a. criterion
ari tarion for
tor stratification,
.tratification,
"dfmsi ty Bealee
"density cruwn covers
scalee"II reproducing crown covers with
with different
different percentages
peroentap. of of crown
crown oloeure oan
uan
bfI used.
be used.
}34
334 I'!lotointerpretation of plo
.F121212ALEEE2tation cf_ t . andjalEthiplthpretation
plots and 2hotointerpr!.!!!!on with
with deliniattion
deU""Uon
334.1
134.1 Introduction
Introduction
large-Boale forest
In a large-scale fore.t inventory,
inventory, foreat
fore.t mapping m~ not
aapping may not be
b. an
an objeotive ot the
obj.otiv. of the
operation and t ",ay
a_nd iit may be
be Bwficient
sufficient to to estimah
estimate tho the areas
areas of
of the
theditter.nt
differentclclams
....a of
of formet
for •• t
by a seampling
.... pling of plots
plot. on the
-the aerial photographs
photographs without
without delineating
delineating the
tho °leases
01 ..... on the
the
photographs and without transferring
trILnsferring the
the limite
l i .. itH onto
onto topographic
topographic oror planimetrio
planill.trio .ap".
nape.
Photointerpretati on of plotn
Photointerpretetien plot. is ie generally
general17 more .atilfaotory than
~ o ro ustisfaotory than photointerpretation
photointerprotation
with delineation. As matter
As aa ..atter of fact
fact it i. often
i t is ofte" difficult
difficult to to draw
draw an
an exact
.u.ot limit
li.it
between °lenses;
between 01 ....9; some lubjectivit7 is
BO... subjectivity ta unavoidable
~voidabl. and th.r. are
and there ara transition
traaaition somos
so ... between
b.t.... n
vegetation types
vegetation t7P.s oror forest
forost types.
t7P•• ' Photointerprotation by
Photointerpretation b7 plots
plot. is
i. lens
Ie •• liable
liable to to
8ubjoctiv1t7'
subjectivity. Estillates
Batimsteu of the the area
area of
of the
the eame
... e forest
for •• t type
typo by the
tho eame
.... photointerpreter
photoint.rprot.r
a~ be significantly
muy 9ignifico.ntl7 different
different under
under each
each of the two
of the two methods,
•• thoda, and th1. differenoe
and this ditf.rollo. will will not
not
be entirely due to the tho sampltng d•• ign used
sampling design used for
for the
tho photointerpretation
photointerprotation by b7 plots.
plota. 1.
It im
preferable in
profenbl. in many
.. an;r ccases
.... to *wont
Aooopt aaknown sampling,,'ror
known l_pUng error on
on n.lid
valid banio
basio data (photo-
(photo-
inteepretation
i"t.,·pret.~iou by by plots)
plot.) than
tha.o to
to obtain
obtain area
un velum
vaiusl not
no-t aubjeci
aubj.ct to
tosampling
... pl1", errort
.l'I'O .... but
but
eubjeot ~nown subjective
to unknown
eubjent to .ubjectlv. bases
bia... (photointerpretation
(photointorpretaUon with with dalinzation)
d.l1naation).
334-.2
334.2 Photointerpretationtl
!'hotointerpr.taUon of plata
- photo1nhrpretaUoo without
In photoitterpretation wi -thout delineation,
daUnut1on, plots plo'. of ot equal
eq1>&l sise
.h•• hould always
abould 1>.
allfaJ"B be
UIIed rather than
used than points,
point., ao thllt the
"0 that the avemement
.......... ntofofthe . . . . taUonororfox-eel
thevegetation for"'" type
Vpe ia always
is allfO&78
tho ease
done on the ...e reference
r.terenoe area.
....... (In photointerpretation
phowin-l.rprotaUon with with delineation
d.l1_Uoll the the asseement
,...ua.. nt
ot the
of tho ar ... of
orear of the
the different
different olue
olamem .. oar -.de by
be made
0&lI be dot °mute
by dot oounta on on the
the photographs,
pIIoto,...pbiI, or
or on
on
tb. maps
the map" mice ~Qfo ... ation frem
one. Information the photographs
trOll the photo .....pha has betan imeneferred).
hu been Uou.at.noect). '!he
The plate .,..
plots ere
-- 8800 --
oircular with
generally circular with aa radius
radius ofof two
two or
or more
more millimetres
millimetres onon aa photograph.
photograph. These
These
circular plots are generally
generally printed
printed on on aa stable
stable transparent
transparent material
material laid
laid on
on each
each photo-
photo-
graph. If the aerial coverage
coverage inin an
an inventory
inventory is is based
based cn
on more
More than
than one
one ocale, it is
Bcale, it is
to retain
better to retain the
the plots
plots at
at aa constant
constant size;
size; thus, circles printed
thue, the circles printed onon the
the
transparent overlay will
transparent overlay will have
havetotovary
varyininsize
sizeinin aocordance
accordance withwith
thethe Bcale.
fiscal's.
A plot is
A is assigned
assigned to
to aa given
given class
class if more than 50%
50% of
of its
its area
area belongs
belongs to
to this
this
class. The
The corresponding parameter for this
this class
class has the value
has the value 1 in this
this plot;
1 plot; 0 in in
assigned to
a plot not assigned to this
this class.
class. The proportion of the total.area
total 'area covered
covered by
by aa given
photointerpretation class and thethe standard error are estimated by formulas
fOrMulas given inin
of this
paragraph 53 of this chapter.
chapter.
- Sampling design.
Sampling design.
In principle, the sampling

sampling of of the
the plots
plots to
to be
be interpreted
interpreted should
should be
be made
made on
on aa base
base
map or on a mosaic, and
and the
the plots
plots thus
thus aelected
selected transferred
transferred onto
onto the
the photographs.
photographs. The
The
layout
layout may be randoM systematic over
random or systematic the whole
ov~r the whole area to be
area to be inventoried,
inventoried, oror over
over each
each
delineated on
stratum already delineated on the
the map
map (ouch
(suoh as
aa administrative
adMinistrative or or physiographic
ph:Biographic units).
units).
For the
For the sake
sake of
of convenience
convenience the
the layout
layout of
of the
the sampling
aampling plots
plata is
is often
often .ade
made directly
directly
photographs.
on the photographs. The effective area of one photograph
photograph isis assumed to be
ass~ed to be aa rectangle
reo tangle inin
the middle part, the sides of which are determined from the average endlap and
middle part, and aidelap
sidelap ofof
coverage.
the photographic coverage. Plota
Plots are selected in
in each
each rectangle
rectangle according
acoording toto aa systematic
syotematic
pattern.
or random pattern. If the
the topography
topography in
is even
even and the overlaps
and the overlaps nearly
nearly conetant,
constant, then
then aa
syotematic distribution
eystematic dietribution of the plots on each photograph will result approximately
approximately in in aa
syotematio distribution
syetematic distribution over
over the
the inventoried
inventoried area.
areM.
Due to variations in
in scale and
and in
in overlaps, the
the sampling
sampling intensity
intensity -- which is
is the
the saae
same
in each
in each rectangle -- varies from
from one
one photograph
photograph to
to the
the next.
next. A correction
A correction factor has to be
to all the plots of a given photograph (or
applied to (or group of photographs of approxi.ately
approximately
the same scale and having the same overlaps) toto take
take into account
account these variations
variations inin
sampling intensity when they
they are significant. (1)
(1)
A syotematic or random sample

A syetematic sample of
of aerial
aerial phctographs
phctographs may
may be selected
selected for interpretation
instead of
instead of having
having all
all photographs
photographs interpreted.
interpreted. this case
In this case the
the layout
lOO'O"t corresponds
corresponds to a
two-stage sampling design, the rectangular
design, the rectarlgUlar effective areas
areas of the photographs being the the
primary units,
primary units, and
and the
the plots
plots the
the secondary
secondary units (estimation ~roc.dur.
unite (estimation procedure m~y b. the
my be the one
one
described in
described in paragraph
paragraph 422.121.111
422.121.111 "estimation
"estimation of
of aa proportion",
proportion", if
if tbe
the plots
plot. are
are not
not
distributed on each selected
systematically dietributed selected 'photograph).
photograph).
334.3
334.3 Photointerpretation with delineation
forest mapping
When forest mapping is
1s required,
required, the variouB classes
the various classes must
must be delineated on the the
photographs.
photographs. effectivo area
The effective area ofof each
eaoh photograph
photograph has
has first
first to
to be
be delineated
delineated and
and, the
the
delineation on
delineation on this
this photograph
photograph restricted
restricted to to the
the effective
effective area.
area. instruotions
Detailed instructions
have to
have to specify
specify the
the dimensions
dimensions of
of the
the minimum
minimum patch
patch to
to be
be delineated
delineated (in(in relation
relation to
to the
the
scales of both the photography and
scales and the
the final
final map),
map), the
the precision
precision of the delineation,
delineation, andand
other items such as degree of illumination of the the photographs
photographs under the the etereoscope,
stenoscope, typetype
used, rubbing out
of pen or pencil to be used, out of the
the wrong lines,
lines, etc.
etc.
(1)
(1) Other More
more sophistioated
sophisticated methods exist. one of them consiets
~ethods of correction exist: of
conai. B~8 of
determining the
the effective
effective area
area of
of each
eaoh photograph
photograph and using aa correction
and using corr8oticn factor
factor
l"!l.ted to the
related to the soale
scale of
of the
the photograph.
pho'tograph..
--81
81 -
4
4 Fore.t Limping
Forest mapping from
from conventional aerial photographs
conventional_rxóriAlepAotógmhE
41
41 Introduction
M~pping
Mapping is is generally done once
gener~lly done once the
the interpretation
int~rpretation ofof the
the aerial photographo and
aeri~l photographo and
delineation on
delineation on the
the photographs
photographs of of the
the different
different forest
forest and
and vegetation
vegetation classes
classe. have
have been
been
(:ornpletf'!d.
completed. is necessarily
This is necess arily the
the case
case whenwhen the
the mapping
mapping is
is done
done using
ueing no~tereo8copic
nonstereoscopic
plotters (see(see paragraph
paragraph 42).
42). When stereoplottere
stereoplotter. are used,used, it may
Nay be possible
po.sible to dodc the
photointerpretation
photointerpretation and and the
the transfer
transfer simultaneouely
simultaneously sincesince the
the operator
operator has
has aa stereoscopic
atereoscopic
view ofof the
the area
area to
to be
be mapped.
mapped. Ster.oplotters of
Stereoplotters of the
the third
third order
order can
can be
be bought
bought and used
~nd ueed
within the framework
framewor k of
of an
an inventory
inventory operation,
operation, whereas
whereas stereopletters
atereoplottere of of the
the first
first and
and
second order
oecond order are
are generally
ge nerally the
the property
proper"t,.. ·of photogratMletric companies
of photogrammetric companies and
and institutes.
institutes.
already stated
As already stated in
in subchapter
sub-chapter1,1, wewewill
willassume
asSUMethat
thatananacceptable
acceptable planimetric
plani.etric or
or
topographic exists at a suitable scale
~o pographic mapping exints Bcale over the whole inventoried
inventoried area.
ara.
42
42 Transfer from single photographs
photograph.
In this
In this case
case the
the operator
operator does
doe. not
not have
have aa stereoscopic view of
stere08~opio view of the
the area
area toto be
be mapped
mapped
during the transfer,
trans fer, eince
since only
only one
one photograph
photograph isis used
used at
at aa given
given time.
ti~e. Tb.
The st.r.o.copic
etereoscopic
interpretation is
interpretation is assumed
assumed toto have
have been
been done
don. before
before the
the mapping
mapping operation
operation and
and cannot
cannot beb.
cheoked and eventually
checked eventually corrected
corrected during
during the
the mapping;
mapping; this is a serious
this is s.rious shortcoming
shortooMing but on
hand the
the other hand the equipment
equipment used
used is
is simpler
simpl.r and
and less
le.s expensive.
expensiv.. Tbe
The instrUMents IIUSt
instruments muet
allow for adaptation of the
ad~ptati o n of the scale
scale of
of the
the photograph
photograph toto that
that ofof the
the map
map to
to be
be drawn.
drawn.
Adjustment of
Adjuetment of the
the photograph
photograph muet
must be
be possible
po.sible around
around its
its centre
centre in order to rectify tho the
photograph, if necessary,
photograph, nece •• ary , to
t o take into account thetho relief displacement@
displacements and and thus
thue tQ
te put
put in
in
optical coincidence
coincidence the
the same
same terrain
terrain features
f.atur.. onon the
the photograph
photograph andand on
on the
the map.
map. To avoid
avoid
too
too much manipulation
manipulation ofof the
the photographs
photograph. the
the transfer
transfer ofof the
the interpretation
interpretation lineslin••• hould
should
be restricted to
to the
the central
central effective
effective area
ar.a of
of each
each photograph
photograph (see(see paragraph
paragraph 334.3).
334.3).
inet~ents are
The usual inetruments are based
baaed on
on the
tho principle
principl. ofof the
the camera
CaM.ra lucida
lucida and
and most
Most of
of them
theM
are call.d sketchmasters
are called sk.tchllaeters (Zeiss
(Z.iss Aerosketchmaster,
Aerosketchmaat.r, Aero A.ro Service
S.rvio. Universal
Univer.al and
and Vertical
V.rtical
Sketchmaet.re,
Sketchmastere, Abram. Sketc~aeter).
Abrams Oblique Sketchmanter). The following description
d•• cription of this
this type
type of
instrwnent is extracted from the "Manual
instrument ''Manual of Fhotographic
Photographic Interpretation"
Interpretation" of of tho
the Am.rioan
American
Society of Fhotogrammetry:
Photogrammetry: "The observ.r
observer perceives two two superimposed
superimpo ••d images,
images, one
on. from
froa the
tho
photograph and the tho other from the manuscript (map). (map). This
This result is attained by meane of
by means of
aa semi-transparent lIirror which
semitransparent mirror which both
both reflects
refl.ct. and
and transmits
transmits light.
light. The.ye
The r.ceive. the
eye receives
image of the manuscript by by tranemitted
transmitt.d light.
light. The operator can can adjust
adjust the
the inetrument
inetrUMent so.0
that seleoted
seleoted imagte
iMageS onon the
the photograph
photograph coincide
coincidewi,th their true
~th their true positione
positione onon the
the manuscript.
manuooript.
Moat of
Most of the
the camera
oam.ra lucida
lucida inntruments
instrUMents canoan be
be raised
rai.ed oror lowered
lower.d toto change
change the
tho .oal.
scale and
and
tilt.d oompensat. for tilts in the photographs".
tilted to compensate The ratio of the
tho scales
soal.s ofof the
tho
photograph and of the the map
map can
can generally
generally b. be down
down to
to 1.3 "4.
or 1:4.
13 or
Tbis
This type of instrument
inetrUM.nt is
is particularly
particularly recommended
r.co.... nd.d for
for transfer
transfer from
fro ... ingl.
single
photographs if the relief isi. not too broken
brok.n and the
tho strata not too .~allsmall and
and not
not too
too
intricat..
intricate. If this is
is not
not the 0". it
the case May be
it may be more
more effioient
.ffioi.nt to to make
make aa visual
visual transfer
tranef.r
wi thout the
without tho use
uo. of
of any inotrUMent.
inetrument.
43 Transfer from
Transfer from stereoscopic
st.r.o.copiopa-ira
pair.
Tbe
The main advantage of
of this
thiB type
typ. of
of tranefer
tranefer over
ov.r the
tho use
use of
of single
single photographs
photographs is
i.
that
that it allows for a simultaneous
.imultaneouo photointerpretation,
photoint.rpr.tation, or for cheoks
ch.ck. and po •• ible oorr.ctione
possible oorrections
of
of tho
the photoint.rpr.tation thi. has
photointerpretation work if this ha. already been
b•• n performed.
perform.d.
Th~
The .impl.st mo.t usual
eimplest and most usual instruments
instrum.nts belong
belong to two groups.
to two group ••
- The Radial Line

Line Stereoscopic
Stereoscopic Plotters
Plott.rs (third
(third order),
order), such
suoh as
as the
the Kail
Kldl Plotter
Plott.r or
or
tho Hilg8r
the Watt. Plotter,
Hilger and Watts Plotter, whose
who.e principle
prinoiple isi. the
tho following!
following. eacheach point
point of
of the
~h.
-82
- 82 --
terrain corresponds
correspond. to
to the
the interseotion
inter.eotion of two linea,
of two -line., *tact
eaoh one passing
p..... ing through the
centreof
oentmeof one
one of the two photographs
photographB ("radial lines")s the " two lines are moved in
("radial lines"):
order to
t.o intersect
inter.ect at
at the
the points
point. along
along aa limit
limit between
between foreut
forest classes,
cl ..... es, and
and aa
links their
mechanism links their intersection,
interseotion, poesibly
poeaibly through
through aa pantograph,
pantograph, to to aa drawing
drawing
pencil marking the reference mapmap or
or manuscript.
manuscript. instruments to
These instruments to not
not correct
oorrect
for tilt
tilt and are difficult to to use for
for transfer
transfer of of detail
detail near
near the
the flight
flight line.
line.
The
The Multiscope and the Hilger and
and Watts
Watts Stereosketch
Storeoeketch consist
oonsist basically
b&aically of of aa mirror
.tereo.cope with aa camera
co~bined with
stereoscope combined camera lucida.
luoida. The
The photograph tables of
photograph tables of the
the first
firot
iDBtr~ent drawing table
instrument (or the draWing table of
or the
the second)
oecond) can
can be
be tilted
tilted to
to rectify
rectify the
the
image and
photographic image and take
take into
into account
account the
the relief
relief displacement.
displaoement. In addition,
In addition,
.cales ineerting different
scales can be adjusted by inserting different lonsee
lemma oror moving
moving up
up and
and down
down the
the
table (Stereosketch).
drawing table (Stereo.ketch).
liore .ophisticated stereoplotters

More sophisticated .tereoplotters using
usill6 the
the principle
principle of
of the
the fused
fused floating
floating dots
dot.
(for
(for in.tance
instance a parallax bar) can
can be
be used, euch
such as
as the
the Zeiss
Zeiss Stertopret
Stereopret oror some
etereoplotter. third order
stereoplotters of third order (Zeiss
(Zei •• Stereotope
Stereo tope oror E.O.M.
S.O.M. Stereoflex).
Stereoflex).
5
5 e.tisation from
Area estimation from aerial photographs and
aerial photographs and map!
mue
51 remark.
Introductory remarks
As already mentioned in paragraph

paragraph 334,
334, estimation
e.timation of the areas of the the different
different forest
forest
or vegetation claeses
classes does
does not
not require
require mapping
mapping ofot these
these areas;
areas; an objective estimation
by allocating,
can be performed by allocating, through
through photointerpretation,
photointerpretation, every
every photoplot
photoplot ofof aa sample
sample to
to
foreet or vegetation
its forest vegetation class,
clas., provided
provided the
the sampling
sampling design
design is
ia sound
sound and that correction
and that correction
factors are applied to
factors to take
take into acoount the possible
pos.ible variations
variations in scale
scale and
and in
in overlapping
overlapping
of the photographs.
Acouracy of the
Accuracy of the area
area results
result. should
should bebe of
of the
the same
same order
order of
of magnitude
magnitude asas the
the total
total
error (sampling
(samplill6 and measurement
measurement errors)
error.) ofof these
theoe estimates:
eetimates: there is i. no
no point
point providing
providillg
area results
result. to the
the nearest
neare.t hectare
hectare if
if the
the total
total error
error is
i. expected
expected toto be
be around
around 100
100 hectares.
hectares.
Area results
reoults ahould
.hould be given in
in the metric eystem
.ystem whenever
whenever poseible.
poe.ible. Briti.h
If the British
.ystem i. ueed,
syatem is used, both British
British and
and metric
metric units
units should
should be
be given,
given, as
as is
is required
required in
in all
all
inventories carried out
out by
by FAO.
FAD.
Whatever method is
i. used
ueed for
for estimating areas on maps, preci.ion of the
maps, the precision the eotimation
estimation
be higher with larger
will be larger ecales.
Bcales. Thio
This shoWB tho importavoe
shows the importanoe of transferring
transferring details
detailo of
photograph. map. at
photographs onto mapa at aa scale
ooale which
which is
i. not
not too
too much
muoh smaller
smaller than
than that
that of
of the
the photographs.
photographs.
fore.t map, patches

On a forest patohes with
with dimensions
dimension. smaller
omaller than
than aa certain
certain minimum are not
miniM~ are not shown.
ehown.
Thi.
This provi.ion
provision i.
ie generally necessary to avoid difficulties
difficultiee 1nin reading the
the map,
map, but
but itit may
may
lead to biased estimations of
of some forest classes.
Bome forest clue.e. The moat obvioua case
most obvious of such
CaB8 of btu is
ouch bias i.
when aa classification
olassification of
of forests
fore.ts is
i. made
made according
aooording toto the
the individual
individual sise
sioe of
of forest
foreet patches,
patohee,
the
the area of the forest
fore.t class
claos corresponding
corresponding toto the
the emallest
smalleot patches
patoh •• being
being underestimated.
undere.timated.
This
This problem must
must be
be kept in mind,
mind, partioularly e.timating foreot
particularly when estimating forest areas
areas on om .. ll-ecale
smallscale
lIaps.
maps.
A fundamental
A fundamental prerequisite
prerequid to for
for estimating
.oti .. ating areaa on mapa
aroas on ie that
'!lap" is that the
thomaps
",aplll must
'!lust be
be
drawn on aa paper
drawn on pap"r with
withahi.ji
a hi ~'nlional stabilit ooeffioient.
listerna.12.1.:t coeffioient. Thie is
This ie partioularly
particularly true truo
tfor
or _po.
saps dra"" tracing paper;
drawn on tracing paper; ordin&rJ'
ordinary oa.-ero
ooerciala tracing
traoingpaper
paporcan
oanexpand
expand up '5~.
to 15%.
liP to
Many stablebssed
otable-baaed materials
.aterialo are
are readily
readily available
available (with
(with polyester
polyeotor baso bas. or
or *star
•• tar base,
baae, tho
the
latter Ming 1... stable),
being less stabl.), and it le
and it hi,hly reoommended
ie highly rooo.... nded that
thst t%etel
thou M used for
be ""ad for ..mapping
appi ng in
in
order to .'fOid
avoid considerable and unknown biases
oOllllidor.blo and bi .... ininthe
tho%:roba
ar • • - • • t l. .... Uon.
- 83
83 -
'nlere are several ways

Therm ways of
of measuring
measuring areas
areUl on
on mapa.
m..ps. 'IlIe indications
The indio..tions given
given bolow
below refer
refer
only to
only t o planimetering
planimetering and
and to
to methode
methods based
balledononsampling
samplingteohniques,
teohnique.,since:
sinoe the
the other
other onee
one. are
are
deemed lesa
deemed less practical
practic.. l in
in most
most cases
cases (such
(suoh as the one
UI the one using
using geometric
geometrio formulas
formulUl and
and
ooordinate. or
000rdinates or the
the one
one based
balled on
on weighting).
weighting).
52
52 Direct measuremente
lIeUlurement. by
by planimetering
planilleter1", on
on maps
....pe
Hand planimeters have been

been usad
used for
for some
some time
tille and now there
and now there exist
exist the
the much
muoh more
more
..ccurate and rapid electronic planimeters
accurate planimeter. euch
such ..
as the
the Stanley Ci"tel
Cintel Electronic
Electronic Planimeter.
Planimeter.
or the Kimoto Electronic
Electronic Scanning
Scanning Planimeter.
Planimeter. In addition
In addition to to the
the need
need for
for dimensionally
dimensionally
stable paper,
paper, mentioned above,
above, other
other precautionn
precautions have
have to
to be
be taken,
taken, among
among which
which can be
Oan be
quoted the
the following:
following:
(a) correct the

the scale
scale setting
setting given
given with
with the
the instrument
inetrwaent againnt
agaiMt aa master
mUlter area
area
generally provided
generally provided with
with the
the instrument;
inatruaent;
(b) oheck
check that
that the
the lIIeasuring
measuring wheel is parallel
wheel ie parallel to
to the
the ·tracer
tracer &rill;
am;
(e) slipping of the

avoid any slipping the measuring
measuring wheel
wheel during
during the
the meaeurement
me&aurement operation;
operation;
(d) porform number of

perform a sufficient number of measurements
measurements in
in order
order to
to reduce
reduce the
the measurement
measurement
error.
error.
electronio planimeter
Unless an electronic planimeter is
is available,
available, it
it is
is advieable
advioable to
to use
use statietical
statistioal
methods (especially
methodn (eapecially the
the dot-grid
dot-grid system)
aystem) asas they
they are lees
leas liable
liable to measurement errore
errore and
and
computation of
allow for a computation of the
the sampling
sampling error.
error.
53 EStimation methods bameq_2aj.5skilmAtaillaatE

Entimation balled on s&IIIpliM teohniquea
531
531 Are. estimation from
Area estimation ma~.
from maps. Within an
..n exactly
exactly known
known total
total area
area (overall
{overall area
of the
the map, for instanc~,
map, for instance, thethe prinoiple
prinoiple ofof these
theae methodn
methods is
ia to
to determine
determine the
the
proportion of of the
the total
total area
ares occupiad
occupl.d by
by aa given
given forest
fOrGst class.
clas.. 'nle
The eatimate of this
estimate of thi.
pt'0POT t1 on io
proportion in given
given through
through ..a syotematic
nyetematic J.."out
levut efof either:
either:
- data, to
dote, to each of which
which is
ia attached
attached the
the value 11 if it is innide
inside the
the forest
foreat clase
class
ore
or-6 f iit
iif 10 outeide
t is out.ide (dot
(dot grid
grid eyetem);
'Y" tem);
- parallel lines
or parallel line. (or
(or "trannects")
"transects") to
to each
each of
of which
which im
ie attached
attached the
the part
part of
of its
its
length
length within the forest
within the forest cages;
01as8; the traneeot
tranaeot system
system is
is less
lese used
used than
than the
the dot
eystem since the
grid system the lengthe
lengths have
have to
to be measured.
The areas of
'nle of the
the forest
forest claes
class have
have toto be
be estimated
estimated by~ multiplying
multiplying thethe number
number of
of dota
dots
wi thil1 the
within the class
clasa (dot
(dot grid
grid oystem),
.yet•• ), or
or the
the sum of the
.mI of the lengths
lengths of
of the
the parts
parts of
of transeote
trana.ots
wi thin the
within the class,
class, by an area extension
"nension factor (area(area of the unit square of the the dot
dot grid
grid or
or
unit
unit length multiplied by by distance
di8tance between
between twotwo neighbouring
neighbouring transeots).
tranoeots).
The error formula given in in paragraph

paragraph 422 of Chapter 3 for for estimation of a foportion
proportion
18 not applicable in
is not in the case
CUle of
of the
the dot
dot grid
grid .ethod .. the
method as the dots
dots (sampling
(8&111pling unit.
unite) are
are
.yet_aticall:r di.~ributed.
syetematieally dietributed. S""eral authoro have werked
Several authors worked onon the
the problem
problem ofof error
error
uti_tiOl! do~ grid
eetimatior in dot .... ur...n~_, and
crid measurements, error formulas
and error fonoul.u have be.n developed.
have been d""eloped. Jon
An
acceptable approxi . .tion of
approximation ~be standard
of the .tandard error
erro.. 1. b:r the following
is given by followin« formula (after
(after
Chevrou -- 1971).
ChOTrOU 1971):
e(~)
s(%) "'
- 5645
56.5 ~4
n 4
where.
where:
e(f)
e(~) 18
is the error
error in
in percentage
paro.ntt.«e on
on the
th. estimated
. . ti_tedarea
areaofofa aforest
fO ....8tclam's;
01... ;
n i. the
is the number
nuaber of of dots
dot. found
found within
within this
thi. forest
fo .... t olass;
01... ;
Ie
Ic i. a factor
ie r ""tor depending
d.pendinc on on the
the shape
_hap" of
of this
thi. area,
area, and incre .. e. as
and increases the
&II the
area b000mee
area bee.,. •• lIOn irrogtU.ar; Cor
more irregular; for aore .... gular shapes
more regular .hap"- the
the value
value of of this
thio
i •••
oo~tti01 on t in
ooeffioient i d to be between
'Raid between 55 to
to 7.
7.
- 84
84 -
Taking a conservative
conservative value
value for
for kk equal
equal to
to 77 we will have approximately
e(%)
e(%) - 1~74
1374
corresponding to
corresponding to the
the following
following values
values for
for n:
n:
n
e% 10
10 55 22 1
1 0.5
0.5
n 37
37 93 310
310 780 1970
Each dot count

count must
must be
be carefully
carefully performed
performed and repeated, preferably
and repeated, preferably by by another
another operator.
operator.
If the
t he two counts differ
differ significantly,
significantly, atat least
least one
one other
other count
count must
must be
be carried
carried out.
out. Use
of small hand counters
counters is
is recommended
recommended inin order
order to
to avoid
avoid mistakes
mistakes in in enumeration.
enumeration. Counting
can bebe restricted to
to marginal parts
parts of the
the area,
area, the
the central
central part being divided
divided into
into
rrectangles
ectangles or or squares
squares of
of known
known area.
area. If a slight discrepancy
discrepancy is found between
j.s found between the
the sum ofof
the areas
the areas of
of the
the forest
forest classes
classes estimated
estimated byby dot
dot count
count and
and the
the exact
exact known
known value
value of
of this
this
tot al , each
total, each individual
individual area
area has
has to
to be
be corrected
corrected byby the
the ratio
ratio of
of this
this exact
exact value
value to
to the
the
estimated total.
total.
Es timation by
Estimation dot counts
by dot counts and
and by planimetering can
by planimetering can be
be combined
combined in
in certain
certain cases.
cases. For
instance the
the areas
areas of
of the
the inventory
inventory units
units can
can be
be estimated
estimated by
by planimetering,
planimetering, the
the estimates
estimates
being corrected
corrected by
by the
the ratio
ratio ofof the
the exact
exact value
value ofof the
the total
total inventoried
inventoried area
area to
to the
the sum
sum
of the
the estimated areas
areas .of
o f the
the inventory
inventory units, and the
units, and the areas
areas of
of the
the strata wi thin the
within the
inventory units
units can
can be
be Calculated
calculated from
from dot
dot counts
counts and
and corrected
corrected according
according to
to the
the same
same
principle.
532
532 Area estimation
estimation from
from photographs
photographs
Sampling designs in
Sampling designs in which
which the
the dots
dots are
are replaced
replaced byby "photoplots"
"photoplots" are
are generally
generally used.
used.
The delineation ofof the
the forest
forest classes
olasses on on the
the photographs
photograplm is is not
not necessary
necessary unless
unless the
the number
number
of
of plots per photograph
plots per photograph is
is large.
large. Ellcamples of
Examples of one-
one oror twostage
two-stage sampling
sampling designs
deSigns have
have
already been
been described
described in
in paragraph .334.2. Other designs are
paragraph 334.2. are possible: for for instance one
can imagine
imagine aa three-stage sampling design
throestage sampling design wherein
wherein the
the primary
primary units
units are
are parallel,
parallel, but
but non-
nonr
adjacent strips, the secondary-units
strips, the secondarY'units areare photographs
photographs within
within these
these strips
strips and the
the tertiary
tertiary
units are
units are the
the photo-plots
photoplots onon the
the effective
effective area
area of
of each
each selected
selected photograph.
photograph. Multi-stage
Multistage
sampling designs can also
deeigns can also be foreseen
foreseen using different
different photographic
photographic coverage,
coverage, for
for instanoe
instance
one space
apace satellite
satellite coverage
coverage plus
plus two
two aerial
aerial coverages,
coverages, one
one of
of the latter at
the la~ter at small-scale
smallscale
the other
and the at aa larger
other at larger scale
scale (see
(see paragraph 622).
paragraph 622).
54
54 Continuous area
area estimation
estimation
"continuous area
By "continuous area eetimation"
eatimation" is meant the
is meant the estimation
estimation ofof areas
are ... at different UmeR
times
using successive
using sucoessive photographic
photographic coverage*.
ooverage.. Repeated
Repeated estimations
estimations of of forest
foust areas
areas are
are of
of
tropiCS as the forest cover
utmost importance in the tropics oover isis endangered
endangered in many places
places and
and it
it
is necessary
is necess&r,f to
to monitor
monitor these
these changes
changes inin order
order to
to achieve
achieve better
better control
oontrol and
and to
to develop
appropriate landuse
Wropriate land-uaepolicy.
policy. The
The statistioal b... i. for
statistical basis for such
.uch studies
.tudie. isi. regression
regre88ion analysis
anallBi8
identioal to those used for
and some methods used are identioal for continuous
continuous forest inventory
inventOr: in
in the
the
field
field (see Chapter 7).
(see Chapter The different coverages
ooverages can
can bebe either
either complete
complete oror partial.
part:al. If
the . first
first one is complete,
oomplete, the
the estimation of change
change can
can be
be assessed
.... essed through a new partial
partial
coverage using simple
coverage aiMple regression
regression estimation
eatiMat10n (such
(suoh aa study
siu4y was performed in
was performed in the
the Ivory Coast
Coast
using aa complete
using complete coverage
coverage of
of 1956 atat aa scale
.cale of 1/50,000 and
of 1/50,000 and aa partial
partial coverage
coverage of 1966 at
of 1966 at
a ocale 1/40,000).
scale of 1/40,000).
If only one old complete

oomplete or partial coverage
ooverage is avallable, and if no signifioant
is available, significant
interpretation error is foreseen,
foreseen, the
the estimation
eoti.ation of
of change
ohange can be obtained by regreoaion
regression
analysio from
analysis from aa ground
ground check
check of
of photo
photo plots
plot. precisely
preo1oely located
looated in
in the
the field
field and interpreted
interpreted
previously on the
ihe photographs.
phoiograp)uo.
-- 85
85 --
A the photoplots
A part of the photoplote previously
previously interpreted
interpreted on
on the
the old
old coverage
coverage can
can be
be
interpreted again on the subsequent
subsequent ooverage, as in continuous
coverage, as foreat inventory,
oontinuous foreat inventory, after
after
carefully transferring them from
from the
the old
old phctcgraphs
photographs onto
onto the
the new
new ones, I.nd on
o:teB , tnd eaoh further
OT! each further
ooverage aa partial
coverage partial sample
sample of
of new
new photoplots
photoplots can
can be
be interpreted.
interpreted.
It is that with the rapid development

IB thought that development of remote .ensing techniques
remote sensing technique. and the
a~~ the
increasing concfI!rn for
increaoing concern the maintenance
for the maintenanoe of the
the forest theBe studies
forest cover these Btudiee on forest
forel!l"t
,.oni toring will
monitoring will develop
develop considerably
considerably in
in the
the near
near future
future at
.. t the
the local and national
looal and n..tional levels
levels
as the regional
as well as at the regional and
and world
world levelS.
levelS. Sampling theory
theory offers a lot
off~rs a lot of
of very
very ueeful
uAorul
e.nd
and efficient techniques
techniques pro'lided are utilized
provided they are utilized rarefully
carefullyand andon
on A
.. sound
BOund. baein.
"""io.
66 Recent develoements,
Recent developments in remote remötte seneing_tandues
Bensine and mapping techniques
61
61 Brief .presentation
Brief presentation of
of recent techniques
techniques
611
611 New forme
New forms ofofremote 8ens~.
remote sena. The conventional panchromatic
The principle of conv~ntional aerial
panchromatic aerial
photographs can be stated
stated as
as followss
follow t
means of
By means
By of aa film
film covered with aa silver
covered with silver salt
salt emuleion
eMulsion they
they reproduce the relative
r~produae the rel.tiv~
_lectrom netic
intensities of the natural electrom etic radiations
radiatione of all the the bands
band. of
of the
the visible
spectrum (the
npectrum (the bands
bands may
may be
be limited
limited by
by aa filter
filter, the camera being
, being situated aboard
aboard an
e.n
aircraft. Innovations in remote sensing with respect to normal panchromatic aerial aerial
simultaneously to
photography relate simultaneouely to one
one oror more the characteristics
of the
mor~ of characteristics mentioned
mentioned inin this
thiB
defini tion.
definition.
611.1
611.1 New platforms
a)
a) The orbiting of manned or or unmanned
unmanned artificial
artificial satellites
. atellite. has
he.s now
now become c~onplaoe
beoo,.e aa commonplace
operation. When such satellites are fitted fitted with remote seneors (cemeras
remote sensore (c.~oras oror scanners)
8c~ere) and and
devices for
with devices for storing
storing or or transmitting
tranA,.itting the i~age8 or
the images or signals
signal. collected
colleoted(television
(television eyetem,
oyeteM,
reproduotion of signals on magnetic tape),
reproduction tape), one
one can
ce.n obtain actual or or televised
televised photographic
photographic
i_agel, or data
images, reoorded on magnetic
data recorded tape or
~agnetlc tape or disc, corresponding to the radiations reoeived
radiations received
traM the
from the overflown
overflown areas.
are... . image. obtained
The images obtained have
he.ve the
the following
following advantageas
advantages,
they Oan
can cover
cover aa very larl!" area in a singlo
very large single expoeure (approxl .. ,.te1;y 33 million
exposure (approximately .. i11ion ha
for 70 x 70 mm negatives at
10M negatives at aa scale
Bcale of
of 1/2,500,000);
1/2,500,000);
distortions due
due to Are negligible and
to relief art and the picture has
hae the
the planimetric
plani .... trl.c
value of
value of a• map.
nI.p.
1/
The images
The i.ages suffer
Buff.. r from
from oneone .. drawbaok, namely
ajor drawbaok,
major naMely their poor ground reeolution
resolution ~
whioh corresponda
oarreeponds to a dimension
diMeneion generally
I!"nerally exceeding
sxoeeding 8080,..
m. around resolution
Ground resolution is
ia limited
li .. it .. d
priMarily by
primarily by the
the height of the spacecraft,
opaoeoraft, but
but it
it also depende on
0.100 depende on the nature of the iM~
the natura image
obtained.
obtained. If the photograph is taken direotly on a sensitive filM,
t~en directly fil~, ground reeolution
reaclution
will also depe~ on
ale a depend on the
the fineness
fineneee of of the
the emulsion
eMU1.ion grain.
grain. the pioture
When the pioturs is
i. televised,
televised,
i.e. tra. an unmanned
i ••• from \llI!IIann.d .atsatellite,
.. llite, ground
ground resolution
re.olution will
will depend
depend on
on the scanning intenllity
the .oanning intensity
of the
of the televission
talevi.ion .yet ....
eystem.
b}
b) have been
IIIxperi ••1lt8 have
Dtperimentg been conduoted
oonduot.d in in Canada
Canada with
with very
very large-eoale
larl!" .... oe.l. photographs
photograplul
tnd over)
(1/1,500 and aver) taken from helicopters
helicopter. or light aircraft.
airoraft. Such eoverage
cL'Verage its
is de.1gned
deeigned to to
oertain species
identify certain speoiee (e.g. f!.2!!
(e.g. Pioea glauca
!!lauea and ~ baleamea),
and Abies balullea), to to quantify
quantify thethe damage
d.... ag.>
cauaed by epidemio.
oauoed u.r epidemic!, andand inseot
inseot attacke
attacks and to &Weems
... oeo. the charecterietice
oharaoteri.tioe of foreot foreet
potential byby Me&nll of photogrammetrio
means of photogrll/llllletrio messeuremente
Ifteaeure,.ente and
and "aerial"
"aerial" volume
volUlle tablee.
tab lee. l!1'1[per·l.ftlGut.
Expereeeeee
epoo18s identification
on species identifioation fromfro .. very
very large-ecale
larl!"-tlcale aerial
aerial photographs
photographll have M-ve aloo
aloo been
baan perfermed
performed
tropioal American
in tropical ""erican forests.
fore.t ••
11
1/ i.e. the eize
i.e. the size of the
the am .. lleat object
emallest objeot detectable
detect ..ble on
on the
the image
iM&ge for
for aA epecified
opecified contras,.
oontraat.
-86-
- 86 -
The MO.t
most difficult problem h~ been
problen has been to
to develop
dove lop a.preciee
a , preoi.e height-finding .~te., an
heigct-findinc eyetem, en
ecourate messurement
aoour"te lHuureroent of of the
the oMara'. height from
cameras height from the
the ground
ground being
being essential
" •• enU&l for
for aa proper
proper
estimate at
eetillat. .oab am,
of ;scale and, ooriol.quenU;y,
consequently, .urtloient.l;y preoiu photogrammetrio
sufficiently preoice photogr_.trio data;datal the
the
riret
first &1 ti.et ...... UlIed
altimeters; worked on
used ""rite<! on radar whioh did not
radar whioh not penetrate
penetrate allall plant
plaut cover.
oover.
611 .2
611.2 other
Other elootra.egnetl0
electromIgpetic raQiation
reaation
The following
~" following table
table taken from
f1'Otl the book "Remote
"Rellota Sensing,
Sensing, with
with special
special reference
referenoe to
to
AcricuHuro
Agriculture and , Forestry" (U.S. National
PoMlet17" (U.S. National Academy
.loadelQ' ofof Science)
Scienoe) indicates
indioate. the
the wavele"B'th
wavelengeh &lid
and
trequen07
frequency intsrval.
intervals of th~ dift.Mlnt
of the different eleotrollagnetio
eleotromagnetio radiationa
rediatione ..
as well
well ..
as the
the
corresponding ael18o
oorre.pondin« ... used
senaors UlIed to etudy natural
to atud;y' natural reeourcee.
re .. ouroe ••
~hroMatio
Panchromatic pho~ogrephD
photographn employ
8IIplo;y the
the refleotion
reflection b;y objeot. of
by objecto of eleotromagnetic
eleotromagnetio
radiatio
radiations ot the via1ble
.. of apeotrula with
visible spectrum with aa wavelength
wavelength ranging
r&n&1ng from 0.38},- to
froll 0.38/u- to 0.78p.
0.78u . '!he
The
inn~ation in
real innoVation in the
the field
field of
of remote
Mlllote sensing,
•• nei'lg, admittedly
admittedl;y less
le •• spectacular
_pectaculer than
than the
the use
use
at
of spaoe plattorM., has
space platforms, been the
hae been the use
UlIe of
of radiation
radiation intervals
interval. other
other than
than those
those of
of the
the
vidble spectrum.
visible opeotrwo.
~The .... of part

use of part of
o'r the
the near
naar infra-red
intra-MId(from 0.78}1- to0.90./te
(fromO.78)A.to 0.90)4- )) in
in ... ooiation with
association
rldble radiations
visible radiatioM ofof0.5/..e (Tr 0.61A
0.5)1- (or 0.6}'-) ) to 0.78~hae already
to 0.78)Lehan alread;r been
been dealt
<1e&1t with
with in
in paragreph
paragraph
321.22.
Spectral region
Mlgion Wavelength Currentl;y uaed
Currently imaging
UlIed imaging
aensore
8621BOrt
tierowava (radar)
Microwave (radar) Deoilletre
Decimetre 10-100011
10-100 cm Scanning antennae
Scanning antennas
C~nU•• tr.
Centimetre 1-10 om
OIl
Mlll1..etre
Millimetre 0.1-1 am
0.1-1 0lIl
Intra-red radiation
Infra-red
Far
Par IR
Rear
IR
Ir.termediate
Intermediate
IR
lR
1ft
Near IR.
.
8-,,000),-
8-1,000/-
3-8/'
.HI./"
0.7 80-3/
0.780-3,-
Scanners
deteoto1'•
deteotors
-
Soanner" with IR
IR
film to
Photographic film
approxill&tol;y lp
approximately 1)1
to
Ul tr.-nolet
intra-violet II...... UV
Neer O.3 15-o. 38o.J"
0.315-0.3802a
-
Soann.re with
Scanners with IR
lR detectors
dot"otol'll
(quartz
Photographio film (quartz
Photographic)
'
radiation 1."" ).
lens).
,
II1ddl.
Middle UV 0.280-0.315p
0.280-0.315/A Soanner. with
Scanners with photo-
photo-
el.otr~o 8eneorw.
electric sensors.
1'bII ume ot
The ... "1lPel'7a1" i;ffA-'ftd (3-14)4)
of "asesell"infrap-red (3-14)ol) -- the
the radiations
radiatloM emitted
8IIl. t ted in
in greater
«,'eaier quantity
quanti t;y
lIT bottor bedia.
by hotter hedies -- 18
in •• peoi.'J' ."habl. for
espeoriaTi7a3table tor the
the detection
detection cf
of latent
lat.nt fires
fir •• and d1e~ ..
of diseases
and of
...,." inaeot attaot.
and insect attanke arteoUng
affecting the
the for •• t (the
forest .. r~.ult
(there in aa nlight
remit in olight heeting ot the
huting of the vegetation).
vertation).
Re4arr..uat1oD
~ raatation (boten
(betwe.n 0.5
0.5 and1 1m IIand
lea011and oapeoiall;rbetween
&lidespeoially 0.86an011and
lIei1Men0.86 3.3cet)
and3.3 CIII)
po the V.at
....... the
pooseesee ad-o..:ttac- of
great advantage ot being
bair\g able
abl. toto penetrate
pen.trate cloud
aloud formation'
tonoatio"., and
and ofor being
being
relaUvel;r
relatively little aUell\.\&t.d b:r
U tU. attenested by rain. Ii. ue& is
Its use 11 proving
provine very
v.r;r interemting
i!'lt.r,.Une in in tropical
tropical
rB«iObB
regions Where
where oOnTentional photosraphio coverage
oonventional photographic cover... is i. aa time-consuming prooedure because
ti~,-oon8uming procedure because
ot the nearly
of the nearl;y perm.nent
permanent premenoe at aa ' rather
pr...noe of rather lowlow cloud
aloud base.
b....
-- 87
87 --
611.3 Scanners
The
The use
use of new radiations
radiations and require.ent.
requirements for oontinuous auto.atin
automatic re-tranaail.ion
re-tranemission
from ~anned
(especially frOM unmanned eatellites)
satellites) have
have led
led to th. inor
to the ... ed use
inoreamed us. of
of scanners.
loanoer.. A simple
A .iapl.
soanner oonebt. of
scanner oonsiets of an
an optical
optioal device
device (generally
(generally aa rotating
rotatine mirror
airror coupled
coupled toto aa parabolic
parabolio
Mirror) and
mirror) and aa sensor
senBor which
whioh converts
converte into
into electric
eleotric signals
lignal. the variatione
the .. aria11oM in ths tha intensity
int.nl1t:r
of radiation in a certain band of the spectrua
spectrum (like photo-eleotrio 0.11).
(lik. a photo-electric cell). ~0UCh the
Through the
..ovement of its
movement its optical
optical system
eyete. and
and of
of the
the aircraft, thethe scanner
ooanner examines
e%&aine. theth. soone
lOIn. to be be
observed inin parallel
parallel contiguoue
contiguous strips.
.trips. The electrio signals
The electric eignals are
are then
then received
reo.iv.d in in aa
cathode ray for display
rey tube for display on
on aa televioion
televiaion screen
.creen or
or for
for printing
printine onon aa sensitive
aeneitive film.
filM.
They can also beb. transcribed
transcribed onto
onto magnetic
magnetic tape
tape and
and then
then prooeeeed
proo •••• d by ooaputer.
by computer.
611.4
611.A Artificial radiation
The radiations u.oed in

radiations used in conventional
oonventional photography
photograpb;r are
are natural
natural radiations
radiations r.fl.oted
refleoted b;r
by
the Object photographed and which come
the object co.e mainly
Mainl;r from the sun,
.un, either
either directly
dir.otly or indireotly
indirectly
via other objects rel~d these
Objects that have relayed theoe radiations by
by refleotion or tranemissicn.
transai •• ion.
Certain remote sensing
sensine systems
system. (active
(active radar devices)
devioe.) employ
.. plo;r specially
.paoiall;r eaitted (artifioial)
emitted (artificial)
radiations which are refleoted back by the objects
objectB photographed. Suoh o;ret... can
Such systems can also
al.o
perform sensing difficulty.
senning at night without difficulty. .
611.5 Band selection
~nother
Another important eleaent reaote sensing
element in the field of remote Bensine is th. separate
i. the .eparai. reception
reOlption ofot
the
the radiation _v. band.
radiation reoeived on each waveband. The
The advantac- toolatine pertain
advantage of ieolating oertain spectrum
.paot.....
bands
bande isis obvious. For example,
eX&l'lple, two
ho objects ~o be
object. to be differentiated
diffenntiat.,d may...,. reflect
refl.ot with
with the
the
ssame
..e overall intensity
inteneity the total radiation of the vieibl ••
visible paot..... whil.t
spectrum whilst r.fleotinc
reflecting with
with
very different intensities a specified band band of
of the
the visible
vilible epeotrum.
RpaOtrwo. wordl, their
In other words, tha1r
nsignature",
"signature", or response
response with respect to that band,
reepect to band, will be different
different and dilUnoUon
distinction
between them
them will
will be
be clearer.
c learer .
~pplioation
Applioation of of the
the principle
prinoiple of of bandband selection
.eleotion ie i. not
not new
ne.. in
in fact;
faotl the Jlllo
yellow.. filt.r
filter
intended to atop
.top radiation with a wavelength _velength of of under 0.50/e. is
UDder 0.501' uupl • . ot selection
i. an exemple.of l.l.oUon in
that
that it
it .amounts
.ount. to to eeleoting
eelecting the the 0.50)A-
0,50p-to 0.18»- bandof
to 0.78frband of the
the visible
vi.ibl • spectrum.
• peotrwo.
Conv.ntional
Conventional oolour photography al.o involves
photogrILph$ also involveo suoh luoh selection,
.eleotion, an .. in
in theso
thel" emulsions
-.uleto ... a
y<>ll ow layer
yellow reoeive. 0.38/e.
layer receivee 0.48)a radiation,
0 .38".,.. to 0.48.,.... radiation, a lIac-
magenta layer 0.54*
nta l~r 0.5~ to to 0.58)A
0.58)10 radiation,
radiation,
lo.yer 0.60
aa cyan layer )-'- to O.
0.60/A-to 78fo, the
0.78)U, tho three
threo images
i .. .gea being
b.ing superimponed
.upari_poled (unlike
(unlike black-and-white
blaol<-and-whi to
panc hromatic film
panhromatic o n whieh
fi i ,," on which aa single
single image
iJlage is famed).
i . formed). An interesting
An intereetil1£ example
e1Uple of oolour
of colour
film io the spectrozonal
film is opeotrozonal film uaed in the U.S.S.R.;
fila umed U.S .S .R. I itil _uloion possesset
its emulsion poa.on •• only two layere
onl;r two l.,.n
and it ha.
and it has provod
proved very very uuseful
•• ful in in foroatr.y.
forestrY
Soparate recording
Separate reoording of
of the
the images
iM&4I"1 in
iD the
the different
ditf.reDt bando
bandJo is effooted essentially
ia effeoted • • 0nUall;r in
iD
two
two new ways:
wa)'IIJ
- oOllbinationo of several
by oombinationn Beveral cameras
c ..or .. (up
(up to
to 27
27 in
in one cu.) or by
one case) b;r cameras
.,...r.. with
Bevoral lenses
several Ion... where
whero each
eaoh camera
o...ra (or oach lens)
(or eaoh lene) oorresponde
oorr. . pollda to a specific
lpacifio
uullion/fUter combination;
emulsion/filter ootObinatioDI thus
th"" different
dift.rent simultaneous
liault .... OUI images oft.acee
ot the
the same
a_
oo.ne are produced,
ecene produood, each oorre.ponding to
aoh corresponding to aa particular
parUoular Land ot ths
baIIIi of thol spectrum;
lpaoVwoI
- b;r an
by an equivalent
equivalent system
";ret. . in
in wbioh
whioh thethe oamerator
""""tor cameras,
o_r.. , are replaoM by
ILrI replaced lIT sensor.;
_oral
OUlOp!e, the
for example, Iffultimpeotrai 11
the ·..uthpaoU'u line scanner" system,
... 10&llllor" I~tea, in in which
1III1oh several
awe'al scanners
a_"
opante to.. tber, each one
operate together, on. reproducing
r.produoinc the the radiation
radiation emitted
. .Uted by lIT the
thol object
olljlo; in aa
apaoitio
speoifio band ofof the
the spectrum'
lpeo'tr1all i t has
it 01.,.1. optical
baa a single optical device beul.,. tbe
deno. beaming the total
total
priea which
radiation onto a prism whioh scatters
.oatiera it acoordi.,. to
i t acoording ,,""1.~1
to wavelength; aoattered
the scattered
nd.1aUoll p...... through
radiation pasase tbro..p a nUmber
milat>.r cf
of sensors,
.....Orl, each ot uhich
each of .etoh te 1a sensitiva
..... Ui" to to ..a
given
cin" band
band of the
tho speotrum,
lpaOtru., and the thol resulting
reeu1U.,. signals
o1palD areare then
then converted
co-wcl either.Uher
into aa televised
televioed image
i .... or
or into
iD'tO a• photographio
phowFaph1o imagei .... (in
(in both 0&8'.
bo~ oasee ~ _a
through_a
aathode r~
"-thod. tub.), or ;pt
rey tubo), ocain into
yet again date stored
into data .tored onon aa magnetic bal ••
...... Uo base.
- 88
88 -
612
612 New media for information
information storage
storage and reproduction.
and reproduction. The information
information collected
collected
has
has so far been assembled in
in the
the form
form ofof black-and-white
black-and-white oror colour
colour photographs
photographs
on
on an opaque or transparent base, in
in negative
negative or
or positive
positive form,
form, produced
produoed directly
directly by
by simple
simple
reaction development
chemical reaction development on
on the
the sensitized
sensitized film.
film. long time
For a long time to come
come the forester
forester
will
will continue to use this type of information
information base
base for ~uch of
for much of his
his work.
work.
The
The major innovation in
in the
the field
field of
of reproduction
reproduction is
is the
the use
use of
of the
the cathode
cathode ray
ray tube.
tube.
The
The electrical
electrical data transmitted by aa sensor
sensor are
are converted
converted by
by the
the tube
tube into
into visible
visible
information. It is the principle
principle of
of television
television applied
applied to
to the
the recording
recording ofof radiations
radiations
which are ·not limited to
not limited to the
the visible
visible spectrum.
spectrum. '!be picture obtained may
The may therefore
therefore be
be aa
black-and-white or colour
colour image
image onon aa television
television screen,
screen, oror it
it may
may be
be obtained
obtained directly
directly by by
eensitizing at the
sensitizing a film at the output
output ofof the
the tube.
tube. In this
this way
way black-and-white
olack-and-white cliches
cliches are
are
obtained from radiation in
in the
the thermal
thermal infra-red
infra-red oror radar
radar radiation.
radiation. These same
These same cliches
cliches
can be oonverted
converted into pictures
pictures inin standard
standard coded
coded colours
colours where
where each
each shade
shade of
of grey
grey is
is
represented by and aa shade
hy a colour and shade in that colour,
in that colour, thue
thus permitting
permitting naked-eye
naked-eye differentiations
differentiations
which would
would be
be impossible
impossible on
on the
the corresponding black-and-white clich~.
corresponding black-and-white clich. Electric impulses
Electric impulses
at the scanner output can
at the can also
a1eo bebe stored
stored on
on magnetic
magnetic tapes
tapes or
or discs.
discs.
613
613 new procedures for information
New_procedures information analyeis.
analysis. conventional aerial
Analysis of conventional aerial
- photo-interpretation
photographs - photo-interpretation -- employn
employs the
the human
human eye
eye and
and brain
brain aided
aided by
by
vptical
optical devices
devices (magnifying equipment,
equipment, stereoscopes).
stereoscopes). weaknesses of
Despite the great weaknesees
human interpretation, this type of
this type of analysis
analysis will
will continue
continue to
to be
be done
done both
both on
on conventional
conventional
pictures
pictures and on
011 black-a.lld-whi
black-and-white te and
and colour
colour pictures
pictures corresponding
corresponding to
to radiations
radiations outside
outside
the Rpectrum.
the visible spectrum.
A f:>imple device
A kiimple device which
whinh can
can improve
improve the
the hWftan interpretation of
human interpretation of the
the cliches
cliches obtained
obtained isis
addi tive viewieg.
additive viewing. This eonsists
This consists of of the
the projection
projection onto
onto aa single
single screen,
screen, through
through particular
particular
filters and with varying intensities, of positive
colour filters positive black-and-white transparencies
transparencies --
correspording to
each corresponding to e8 . given
given waveband.
waveband. The
The result obtained is is aa "false
"false colour"
colour" picture.
picture.
The
The "value
,d"e of this
thls device
devic;e lies
lie. in the fact
11t the fact that
that the
the different
different shades
shades of
of grey
grey are
are converted
converted
lnt~
into aa much greater number
number of of colours
colours and
and colour
colour shades
shades (chromes,
(chromas, hues,
hues, and
and values).
values). B,y
By
filter. one ean
altering the filters colour image that best displaye
0ar, obtain the false colour displays the
the difference
difference
oetween two
netween two objects
Objects that
that would otherwise
otherwise be be undetectable
undetectable on black-and-white cliches.
on black-and-white cliches.
Kicrodensitometrlc analysis
Microdensitometric analysiS is
,. a technique
technique whereby
whereby aa light
light spot scams
scans a photographic
photographic trans-
trann-
parency
parenoy and the variations in in luminous
luainous intennity
intensity transmitted
transmitted through
through the
the photograph
photograph are
are
transcribed onto a.. graph.
graph.. The
The system of a sensor
by means of
syntem operates by sensor which
which converts
converts the
the
variations in luminous inteneity
1n luminous intensity into electric impulses,
impulses, the
the impulses
impulses being
being amplified
amplified and
and
transnllttec.
transmittec through scribing arm
tht'ou,gh a ecribing to the
arm to the graph.
graph. A Lype
A type of
of crown
crown can
can thus
thus be
be reproduced
reproduced
as
&8 a cert..ln curve
& certain shape.
curv~ shape. imagine the
One can imagine the possibilities
possibilities of
of this
this method.
method. For
e.x:ample, if the
example, the type of curve
cut'Ve corresponding toto a given speciee
species is
is fed into aa computer
computer
together tolerated fluctuations,
together with the tolerated fluctuations, it
it becomes
become. possible,
po.sible, with
with the
the microdeneitometric
microdensitometric
l1.nked to
device linked to the computer,
computer, to to count
count (and
<and perform
perform calculatione
calculations on) the number
number of
of
f~orreap"ndil~ et,cOlL'1tered.
crowns encceeetered.
eorresponding crowns
Mer. generally, the

Mere tho Introduction
lntroduotion into
into aa computer
oomputer of of the
the magnetic
lft&€Iletic media
media storing
storing all
all
the
tne da.a
data relating to the
the electric
electric signals
signals produced
~roduoed by by scanners
soanners sensing
sensing thethe radiation
radiation from
fro.
the
the observed
observed scene (or
(or from
fr o. aa photographic
photographic image
i_age of of it)
it) permits automatic land objective)
pe~its ii2.122LaLsjand objective)
proceseinc; of the data.
1E2S221ine,_21_the data. is likewiee
i t is
If it l1kewioe given
given the the data
data on
on the
the aircraftls
aircraft s path
path the
the
oOliputer can
computer oan thuo
thus make it
1t. possible
po. si ble for instance to to locate
locate the
the hot points
pointe obeerved
observed byby the
the
thermal iufra-red
lufra-red sensor.
sensor. The advantages in many cases of such
'"an;)' cases euch automatic processing
prooeesing
huaan interpretation are clear,
over human clear, especially
especially for radiation
radiation outside
out. ide the visible
visible speotru.
spectrum
"the cliches
where the oliches obtained
obtai ned have a poor resemblance
ree_blance to to the visual images
iJaagee to whioh
which ....
we are
are
accustemed.
&CC'WI tCDled.
-- 89
89--
614 Ortho~otographr.
Orthophotography. A new technique
A new teohnique has ~en developed
haa been developed forfor plotting
plotting from
fro.
aeria photographs.
aerial photographs. oonsists of
It consists of reproducing
reproducing photographically
photographically and and without
distortion the
geographical distortion the portion
portion of
of land
land common
oommon to
to the
the two
two photographs
photographs of of aa stereogram.
stereo~.
Orthophotography i. photographio plotting 8.8
is therefore photographic as opposed to to the
the conventional
oonventional
oartographio plotting whioh
oartographio whioh results in
in topographic
topographio maps.
maps. All the
the orthophotographs
orthophotographa for
a particular region oan
can therefore be brought together to to form
form what
what isis oalled
oalled anan
orthophotoplan whioh
which has the same planimetric
planimetl'ic value
value as
as aa map.
map. '!he lines
The lines traced
tr&Qed onon the
the
stereograms -
- such asaa boundaries
boundaries of
of forest
forest types
type. and,
and, of
of course,
oourse, oontour
oontour linee
linea -- can
oan be
be
automatioally reproduoed on
automatically reproduced on the
the orthophotoplan.
orthophotoplan. Plotting ofof forest
fore.t boundaries
boundaries can al80
Oan also
be done under a stereoscope
stereosoope from
from the
the stereogram
stereogram composed
oomposed ofof the
the worked
worked up
up photograph
photograph andand
the
the corresponding orthophotograph.
The ohief
The ohief interest
interest of
of this
this device
device is that it
is that allows more
i t allows lIore thorough
thorough and oonarete
and concrete
mapping than
mapping than normal
normal mepping.
",epping. I t is also about
It about ten
ten times
times quicker.
quicker. Its prioe
prioe remains
r ... ains
high; for
high; for example, plotting by
example, plotting by orthophotography
orthophotography of of the
the useful
useful part
part of
of aa 23
23 xx 23
23 am
om
oosts between US,
negative costs 80 and 140,
US$ 80 140, the prioe
price depending on the scale soale and on the the quantity
quantity
information to
of additional information to be
be plotted
plotted (e.g.
(e.g. boundaries
boundaries of of forest
forest types).
types). oontour
If oontour
is added to this,
plotting ie this, the cost
oost ranges between about UB US SS 160
160and 250.250.
and
62
62 Current operational
operational applioations
applications for
for forest
forest inventory
inventory
The possible combinations

The combinations of these different innovations
innovations are,
are, of
of oourse,
course, extremely
extremely
ll\lIIIerows and an
numerous an immense
immense field
field of
of application
application lieslies open
open in
in the
the field
field of
of natural
natural resources
resouroe.
evaluation.
evaluation. Applications inin forestry
forestry and in vegetation
and in vegetation studies
studies are
are at the present timetime
largely in in the researoh ..nd experiment
research and experiment phase.
phase. In general,
In general, their
their use,
use, even
even when.no
when, no
spallial
spabial observations are are involved,
involved. assumes
assUllles aa technological
teohnological infraetructure
infrastructure andand finanoial
finanoial
resouroes
resources which are not available
..vailable to
to all
..11 institutes or even to all governments.
governments. The
following paragraphs simply
simply indicate
indicate the
the accessible
aooessible and/or
and/or operational
operational procedures
prooedures inin the
the
field of forest resources
resouroes evaluation.
evaluation.
621
621 of radiation
Use of radiation outside
outside the
the visible
visible spectrum
speotrum
621.1
621.1 of radiation
Use of radiation in
in the
the thermal
themal infra-red
infra-red
early detection
Systems for the early deteotion of
of forest
forest fires are ..~ worth .entioning
mentioning although they
are not direotly relevant to forest inventory.
inventory. 0Ont
..... ploys an
employe an airoraft flying
fl,ying at a
of 7,000
height of 7,000 m
m deploying
deploying aa soanner
soanner reoording
recording IRIR radiations
radiations of of 33 to
to 6)A and 8 to
6lAand to 14)4
14)A •
Eleotrio signals oorresponding to radiations of 8 to
Eleotric signals to 14
14)A
).& are transmitted
tranami tted to a cathode r~
cathod. ray
tube and oontinuowsly
oontinuously aot on a film
fia whioh is devdoped
developed very rapidly.
rapidly. The 3 to
The 6p
to 6)A
radiation band is used toto indicate
indicate hot
hot points at the
point. at the moment
m"",ent when
when they
th.y are
are sensed.
.eJIII.d. A
A
oOllputer whioh integrates the
oomputer which the data
data on
on the
the airoraft's
airoraft's path
path (ground
(ground speed,
speed, altitude,
alt1'lud., bearing,
b.aring,
drift) determine. the fia
determines the film speed and makes a mark on the border of the film fila oorrelponding
corresponding
to unit distances
distanoes oovered. If a hot spot is is overflown
overflown its it. 000rdinate
ooordinate along
along the
the line
line of
of
flight
flight is
is also
siso indicated
indioated on the border of the film,
film, thus
thue .. aking it
making to pinpoint
1'1 easy to pinpoint and
and
analyse it.
analyse it. Aotion oan then
Action can then be
be taken
taken before
before the
the fire
firedevelops'.
develope'.
621.2 Uss
Use of radar radiation
An "active"
An "active" radar
radar devioe
davio. (i.e.
(i ••• one
one reoording
reoording the
the beam
b... refleoted
refleoted by cround objects
by ground obj.ots
of the
the radiaUol\ll
radiations .. Uted by itself) has been successfully
emitted suooesatully used
wsB<i in one
on. of the de ... tropioal
dense tropical
for •• t zones
forest lone. of Latin
LaUn America
Am.rioa (Nioaragua,
(liioaregua, southeast
80uth.ast Panama
Panaaa and northwelt Colombia)
and northwest Coloabia) and
and has
has
permitt.d mapping
permitted lIapping of
of sones
lone. permanently
perman.ntly louvered
oovered by
by aa fairly low oloud base.
baae. Another vary
very
important "acUve"
"active" radar mapping operation was carried
carri.d out in the northwestern
north..... t.rn part
part of
of
Bralilian
Brazilian Ama.onia.
Amazonia.
baaio prinoiple
The basic prinoiple is still the
1a etill the ,same;
._1 namely,
namely, a scanner
.oannar (in
(in this
thi. case an antenna)
0 . . . an anUnDa)
oovering
covering the
the ob.erved
observed terrain
terrain in
in .trips
'trips transverse
transverse to
to the
the direotion
direction of
of flight,
flight,.l.otrio
lootric
dgnal. being introduced
signals introduoed into
into aa oathode
cathod. ray tube which
r~ tube whioh continuously
oontinuously sensitises
le,.,ith.. a film.fila.
-- 90
90 --
One feature of these

these devices
devices which
which should
should be
be noted
noted is
i. that
that the
the photographed
photographed strip
strip is
i. not
not
situated vertically underneath the
the aircraft but
but to
to one
one side (sid~looking radar);
side (sidelooking radar); this
determination of
allows better determination of the
the distance
dintance to
to the
the ground
ground from
from chronometric
chronometric measurements.
measurements.
The
The original scale of the
the pictures obtained
obtained in
in Panana
Panama was around 1/200,000.
was around 1/200,000. In the
sou·theast region (southern
southeast region (southern part
part of
of the
the province
province of
of Darien)
Darien) they
they have
have allowed
allowed satisfactory
satisfactory
mapping at
planimetric mapping at aa scale
scale of
of 1/250,000
1/250,000 and
and mapping
mapping of
of vegetation
vegetation byby major
major classes.
olass •••
The oontrol
oontrol pointsused
points used were
were small
small metal
metal pyramids
pyramids cleared
cleared of
of all
all vegetation,
vegotation, possessing
pos •••• ing
known coordinates and
and easily
easily located
locatej on
on the
the radar
radar pictures.
pictures.
622 Use of space platforms
622.1
622.1 ~th
Flarth Resource
Resource TechnologY
Technology Satellite (ERTB) Programme
Satellite (ERTS) Programme
Several thousands
thousands of
of satellites
satellites have
have already been launched
alre~ been launohed for
for various
various purposes
purpoeeB
intercontinental broadcasts,
(weather observation, intercontinental broadcasts, radiation
radiation studies,
studies, etc.).
etc.). In the
field
field of natural resources evaluation,
evaluation, data
data obtained
obtoined from
from flights
flight •• uch as
such as Gemini
Gemini and
and
the way to special studies.
Apollo have opened the A
A great st.p
step forward was taken in July
July
1972 with the launching
launching in
in the
the United
United States
States of
of the
the firat
first Earth
Earth Resources
Resource. Technology
Teohnology
Satellite (ERTB-A).
Satellite (ERTS-A).
The characteristics
characteristics of
of this
this flight
flight were
were the
the following:
followingl
lifetime:
lifetime: 1 year;
1
al ti tude:
altitude: 920 km sun-synohronous orbit;
Jan on a aun-synohronous orbit;
coverage of
repeated coverage of the
the same
same zone
zone every
every 18
18 days;
days;
earth distance between two
two paseen:
passes: km;
160 km;
sat.llite-borne sensors:
satellite-borne seneors: - television system
a television system (RBV)
(RBV) recording
reoording images
image. in three
thr.e
bands of the
the visible
vi.ible spectrum
speotrum and
and of
of the
the near
near
infra-red;
infra-red;
- soanr~r (MSS)
a multiple scanner (MSS) recording
reoording images
image. in four
bands of the
the visible
vi.lble spectrum
speotrum and
and infra-red;
infro....red; thn
tho
.leotrio .ignal. are
electric mignals are ooded
ood.d and
and recorded
r.oard.d on on tape.
tape.
The
The scale of the original pictures
pictures obtained
obtoined (70
(70 mm)
_) -- for
for each
eaoh band
band and and also
aloo for
for
the
the oompos ite oolour
composite picture. -- is
colour pictures is about
abou·t 1/2,500,000.
1/2,500,000. Eaoh
Each neptiv. carre.ponds to
negative corresponds to aa
180 Jan
km square, i.e. 33,000
square, i.e. 100 2 •
33,000 km2. resol".tion of
Ground resolution of the
the negative*
negative. varies
v ....i •• between
betw.en 60
60
and 150 m m depending on the
the contrast of the scene
.cene examined and the sensor concerned.
the .ensor oonoern.d.
Longitudinal and lateral overlap is is low, 15~.
low, around 15%. the time
At the tille this
this manual
lIIanual is written
writt.n
it is too early to indicate what is is the real value of this imagery for for fare.t
forest inventory
inventory
tropic., but it can
in the tropics, oan be predicted that it m'Y may be v.ry
very useful for
for broad v.getation
vegetation
and fore.t large-ecale forest
forest typing in large-scale fore.t surveys, e.pecially if Combined
surveys, especially dombin.d with other other
coverages as
photographic coverages indioated in the following paragraph.
as indicated pe.ragraph. .
622.2 Multi-stage designs using apaoe

Multi-stagr spoee photographs
photOgraph.
A
A statistical design,
design, simple in its principle though more complex oompl.x inin i\l
mathe~atic&l formulation, has
mathematical formulation, has been conoelved inventories of vaat
conoeived for inventories vast areas
areas 11.
1/. ~ ••
It uses
•spatial
patial photographic coverage on which a .quare
square grid is i ••superimposed.
uperimpo ••d. A number
A !lUlllber of
at
.quare. are
squares are selected proportionally to th. forest
tu the for •• t area
..... a they
th.y contain,
oontain, the
the lattor
latter bei~
being
d.t.rmined
determined by interpretation
interpretation of
of the
the .paoo pbotographe.
space photographs. Small-ooal. (1/30,000
Small-scale (1/30,000 to 1/70,000)
aerial photographic coverage
coverage is
is than
th.n carried
oarri.d out
out onon these
th•••• olootod squares.
weleoted .quar... Thi.
This
1/ See "The
'''lb. ben.fits
benefits of .. ulti .... tage variable probability
multi-stage probability .... pling udng
mampling using opao.
space and
and
i~"eery" by
aircraft i-nncery" by Philip
Philip G. G. Langl.y
Langley in "Application ~f remota
"Applioation of r_oto sensors
•• nearo in
in forestry",
foro. ·tz'T",
joint report
joint report by
by working
working group
group on on &.aoto
Remote S.nsing
Sensing of
offormor
formerS.otion
Section2525ofofIUFRO.
IMO.
-- 91
91 --
ooveragyi.,
ooverage is, in
in turn, divided into
i nto a grid from whioh
grid from .quare. are
whioh squares are selected
aelected onon the
the same
Bame
bad. as previo""ly,
'oasis &II previously, and the.e
these square.
squares are photographed on aa larger scale
photographed on (1/5,000 to
Bcale (1/5,000 to
1/25,000).
1/25,000). F1nall~, field sampling
Finally, field sampling plots
plot. are
are seleoted
seleoted within
within the
the latter
latter squares,
square., and
and
the
the results
resulte of the field work areare applied
applied to
to the
the whole
whole zone.
zone, ThiB method
This method will
will probably
probably
prove
prove profitable when
when spatial
Bpatial coverage
ooverage in
i. readily
readily available,
available, but
but it
it is
iB limited
limited by
by its
ite
nature
nature to regional inventory
to national or regional operations.
inventory operations.
- 92 -
CBlP'1'!:R
CUPTER V V
msoREUll'1'
ItEiSIIRDOENT COIISIDERA'l'IOIIS
CONSIDER/TIME
-93-
- 93 -
CIliPTER
CHLPTER V
V
MEASUIil!XENT C01l3IDERA TrOll!

MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS
1 Introduction
In addition
addition to to the
the areass,
ar... , th.r. are ~
there are characierisiio. of
many characteristics of the
ih. forest .t&ndB which
tor•• i stands whioh
it 18 uaeN io
is sseefY1 to know
know tor
for ih.ir
their .anacea.ni
management and that inventory
i"".nio17 is 18 aimed
&1aed at ai estimating.
•• U.aUng. '!h•
The
• o.t common
most oo&&on andand generally
generally the the most
.o.t important
i.poriani charaoteristios
charaoieri.tio. are are relatad
r.lated to to the
the volume
volua. ofat
wood: gross
wood: gro.. or net
n.t or
or extractable
.xtractabl. volumes,
vol"... , by epeciee,
specie., groups
groupe of ot .peoh.,
species, by di ...ter
diaaeer
Oiias •• or groups
classes group. ofot diameter
di ...ter °lasses,
01..... , by
by quantity
quantity olieses,
o1&8 •• s, down
down toto aa minimym
.in1aua diameter,
di ...t.r,
.. ti_ted at the
estimated the time ot the
U •• of the inventory
i"".nto17 or or subsequently
nba.qu.ntly (through
(throngh thethe estimation
e.tt-tion of ot volume
vol• •
incr • • ni), etc.
increment), etc. Bui often
But otten other
other characteristics
oharact.rl.UOII are are just
jUllt as,
.. , if noi more,
i t not lIore, important.
l8portant.
Numbensof .te... by
liuabelll ot stems by area
ar.a unit,
un1 t, by
b;y species
.peoh. and di ..eier classes
and diameter ol...e. areare basic
b..io parameters
puo... tere which
whioh
are aenerall;y
generally easy... y to
to determine
deteratDO from the basic
troa the balic inventory
i"".nto17 data
date and
and are n.o•••&17 in
are neoessary in forest
tore.i
a&nII4PB'ent.
management. Other parameters
puoaaeters related
relat.d toto the
the volume ot wood
...01.... of wood may
UiY bebe more
.or. interesting
ini.re.ting to to
know than the the volume
vol...e itself:
it.elt: for inatance
inatano. inin okay tore.i inventories
.'""iT forest i"".ntorie. it it would
would be .or.
be more
l8poriant to
important io estinate
e.it-te the the wood
wood potential
potential inin terse
t ..... of !!!l!:!, taking
ot value, taldng into
into conaideration
collllidaraUon thethe
ditterent species
different speoi •• and types of of the standing
.tanding volume.
TOl"... .. •••••• nt of
Assessment ot quantities
quantiti •• of ot ~other
foreai producta, .uch
forest products., such ..as oork,
cork, 18
is .oa.tl8 •• the .ain
sometimes objeotive of
main objective at aa forest
foresi inventory.
i_nio17' In
In
tore.t inventories
almost all forest i_ntori •• additional
addiiional parameters
puo..et.r. have have toio be
b ••• ii_ted, such
estimated, Buch as.. those
tho ••
r.lated
related to io site
.it. and acoeosibility.
aco ••• ibilitl. Th. contents
The oonteni. of ot this
this chapter
ohapter will
will bebe restricted
r •• trioted toio
the
the probl • ..-ot
problems of vol".e e.tl8ation, quality
volume estimation, quality appraisal
appraiaal and acoe •• ibility assessment.
and accessibility ... e••• eni.
In most
In .o.t forest
forest inventories
i_ntorh. volume into~tion is
vol.ua. information obtained from
b obtained the field
troa the field inventory,
i""ento17,
althongh stratification
although .traiifioation by by photointerpretation
~otoint.rpreiaiion may .~ beb. based
based on
on iteme
it..s in
in relation
r.lation with
with the
the
total ... oluee of
volume ot the
the stands
.tands (suoh
(.uoh as
.. density
denaii;y and
and height ot the
heighi of the dominant
doeinant trews).
tr••• ). How...r,
However,
BOlle temperate
in some tellperate countries,
countrie., when
when species
.peoi.s identification
identification ie 10 feasible
f ...ibl. on
on aerial
aerial photographs,
photographs,
moet
moistof ofihe
thevol,.,e
volume intor.ation
information 10is tak.n
taken tro.
from the
the photographs
photographe thro,,&h
through phoio£_.irlc
Aiaagrammetric
..measerements,
"aa\lr_eni., the remaining
r_in1ng part ot this
puot of thi. information
intormation being
being obtained fromfro. a tew
few field
field
... pl...
samples. Thi
Thio•• ethod which
method which hen proved efficient
baa proved etticient for
torsome
aoaetempera-te
teaperate foreste
forest. is18 not
not
applicable to the t he mixed
.ixed tropical
tropical foreste.
torest.. For this
For thi. reason
re..on photogrammetrie
photogr_.trie measurements
.&&BUrea.nt.
for
for vol"..
volune ..ti ...tion will
estimation will not
not be considered
ooneid.r.d in thi. ohapi.r.
this ohapter.
Vol... e estimation
Volume •• ti_tion isis based
baa.d onon measurements
.... ur...nt. ofot tree
tr•• or
or stand
.tand characteriatice
oharaot.ristics (diameter,
(di...t.r,
height, bbasal
height, .. al ar.a
area ••• ) and
...) and on
on quantitl r.latiollllhipebetween
quanirr1-17a7=shipa b.tw.enthose
tho. .measured
. . . .ured oharsateristics
oharaot.ri.tic.
and the volum
volumes•• to be
b ••• ii_ted, whereas
estimated, wher... the
ihe assessment
........nt of of quality
qualit;y of wood and to to aa llesser
••••r
ext.nt the
extent the....evaluation
aluation of aco of... ibility 1& baa.d,
acosseibility is at l ... t at
based, PUOi17,
leaxtonpartly, j~.nt
per.onal obrsonst
18 coneequently
and in oona.qu.ntly lees obj.otiY..
le•• objective. llthongh this
Although thi. aannot
cannot be be avoided, th••extent
avoided, -the xt.nt 0of
.ubj.otivity .hould
subjectivity should be
be rrestricted
•• trioted to to aa .in1.aa
minims in in order
ord.r toto avoid
avoid discrepancies
di.or.panci •• in
•• ti_tion b.tween
estimation between ditferent
different iazatore
taxators and and .....
even n tor
for the
the .... taxator throughout
ame taxator throughout the the
t"".ntory.
inventory. For instance,
inatano., quotation'
quatationa of quality
qualU;y (allocation
(allocation of ot a given
gi.... n tree
tr •• or parte
parts of
of
a tree to e.. given
givan quality
quali ty class)
01... ) must
II118t oorrespond
oorr •• pond toto the
the 000urrences
ooourr.no. of one one or ..
a gi v.n mIIlb.r
given number
preoi •• l;y defined
of preoisoly d.fined defeots.
det.oi.. Th. qualii;y
The 01... has
quality olass to be
baa to b. narrow
narrow enough
.nongh to to make the
aak. the
enr olee worthllhll.
exercise worthehile but at ..t the
the same
.... timo
till. wide
wid • • nough to
enough .,ak.
to make it 1... difficult
i t less diffioul t and in the the
.nd lIore
end r.liabl..
more reliable. Th.
The probl .. ie
problem i •• i.ilar for
similar tor the
the assessment
........ nt of of some aco••• ibility and
.0•• acoessibility and
lolling
logging puo .... ter. euoh
parameters BUoh as
. . soil-bearing
.oil-bearing eapacity
capaoit;y oror irregularities
irrejlularitha of of terrain
terrain whioh
lIh10h are
are
not .... und, etriotly
measured, etriotly speaking,
.pealdnc, butbut are
are only
oul;y qualified
qualifi.d by b;y reference
r.t.nno. to to aa given
giv.n°lase.
01....
J.
A broad classifioation ot inventory
ola.. ification of illV.nto17 measurements
.... ur• • nt. not
not directly
dir.otly related
relaied to
to aren
area
deterainaUon the following:
1& the
determination is tollowing'
a)
a) tree and lo
log .... urea.nt. on
measurements .tandi'!' or felled
on utamdi t.lled trees
tr •••
- •enumeration
nuaeration and
and speoisse
.peoi.. id.niitication.
identification: the ...
aseignment ot a tres
igna.nt of tr.. to
to the ... pl.
the sample
1.
is prel181D&17 furih.r ....
preliminary to further ur • • nt and is
seasurement .oa.ti••• done
1e sometimes don. through
ihrough aa ....uriae
measuring
1nairla.nt (.uoh as
inztryment (suoh .. the Bitterlich
Bltierl10h relasoope
r.l .. oope in horizontal
horlsontal point ... pl1ng).
sampling).
- 94 -
Species identification,
Species identification, although
although not
not 'strictly
.triotly speaking a ••
speaking a measurement,
&aur_ent, is i ••
a
tundaaental operation
fundamental operation and
and sometimes
.olleti••• diffioult
diffioult and ti" .... cona ... lng (especially
and time-consuming (e.peoiall,. in
in
of mixed
inventories of lII1""d tropioal
tropical hardwoods);
bardwooda) i
- .,... ur• • nta of

measurements of diameter
diuetar (over
(ov.r bark
bark or
or under
und.r bark)
bark) atat breast
bre .. t height,
height, at
at the
the
.tuap, atatvarious
tump, variouelevel,'
level. onon tho
the upper
upper stem,
.t_, ofof diameter
di • •tar increment,
incr.... nt, height
height and
&lid
length (total,
(total, ofof the
the bole,
bole, of
of the
the merchantable
.erchaDtabl. bole,
bol., from the ground
frotI the ground or
or from
frca
the top of the buttreeses,
buttre •••• , up
up to
to aa given
given diameter),
di.... t.r), of
ot bark
bark thickness
thickn... amd of
a.nd of
obaraot.riatioe related to
charactoriatica related to minor
.1nor products
produot. (such
(auOh as.. oork
oork thickness);
thickn••• )i
b)
b) .... u:.reaent.
other measurements
- regen.ration ceeunts
regeneration oount. b,.
by .peci •• and
species &lid by d.nalt,. olu
b;r den:Pity ••• of seedliegs,
classes •• edlinga, by
b,. height
helght
di..eter classes
and/or diameter ot saplinge
01... e8 of saplinga and pol •• i
and poles;
- .... ur.ents for site

meaeurements &1t. quality ........ ntl in
qual1t,. aesesament: in addition
addition to to the .... ur ... nt ofotsolee
the measurement .ca.
tr.e .t&lld characteristics,
tree and stand obaraoterl.tioe, site
.it. quality can bbe. .esteemed
quallt,. can . . . . .ed b;r oounts ot
by oount. of ground
ground
&lid
and scrub v.getation &lid ....
vegetation and ur• • nt. of
measurements ot parameters
parae.t.re r.lat.d
related to .oil. and to
soils a.nd to
topograph;ri
topography;
measurement of accessibility parameters;
- various measurements
varioue .eaeur..enta euch
auoh as
.. seed
seed collection
ooll.oUon parameters
paraaeter. for
for individual
individ1l&1 epeoies.
.peoie••
c) ~t a other evaluation
aol and other
quality appraisal evaluation without
II1tho t true ....ur... nt., mainly
tra. meaeurements, wnl;r for
tor .tand
stand
d •• cription, site
description, aite quality
qua it,. and
&lid acoessibility.
aco •••ibi it,..
2 Tree measurements
21
21 Definition ot terms
D.fini tion of t .....
1!>.. t olloll1ng definitions

The following d.rini tiona have
have merved
••rved for
tor forest
tore.t ineentoriee
im.ntori ... oarried
oarried out
out by
b;r FAO.
PAO.
a) 51;_.
Stem: for trees
for t .... e. of deliquesoent
d"l1que.o.nt form,
fora, the ot the trunk between
the length of bet"".n ground
croam
1ml
level and the
the orown orown peint);
( ... below for the definition of the crown
Grown point (see pointl!
tfor tree. ot
or trees of .xaurrent fora the length
exourrent form l.ngth of the trunk between level and
b.t...n ground level and
top of
the top of the
the tree.
tr •••
.a..&zitl
Remark: Deliquescent
Deliqu•• o.nt formed
toraed trees,
tr.e., especially
••paoiall,. broadleaved
broadleaved species,
.peel .. , have
MV. aa stem
.t.. which
Iddoh
la atrongl,. evident ln
11-77.Ongly in the lower portlon but, due to
portion but, to branching,
branohing, becomes
beooa •• lose
le.. di.Unpi.hable
distinguishable
ln
in the upper crown (-lIT trees
orown (many tr••• of broadleaved
ot tropical broadl . .ved. .paoh. Iw.....r aa clear
species have however ol.ar bole up
to the
tho crown point and the stemat_ is h easily
...U,. distinguishable).
di.Uncu1.hable). tre..
&xourr.nt-fora..t trees
Excurrent-formed
eDllplified.
exemplified b;r
by ...... ooniteroua species
roua ooniferous
numerous apaoh. have d.efinite central
haYe a definite o.nVal stem
.t.. which
Iddch extends
utend.a fJ'OII
from
to top.
gro1Uld to
ground top. lIb.n
When there 18ie a fork,
tork, the number
_ber of ot stems r.corded depende
. t . . to be recorded 4.penda onon the
looation
location ot tork with reeard
of the fork .~.nt (breaet
r.terenoe height for diameter measurement
regard to the reference (breut
he1pt for
height tor non-buttreesed
no"...buttre...4 trees):
tree.)I if ..ift the
at the reference
ret.rel1OO height
h.ight the
the main
wn stem
.t.. io
i. already
alrea4;r
divi4.d in two or aor
divided mere••stems,
t . . , th ••• laU."
theme have to
latter haYe to b.
be recorded.
reoorded inat.ad
instead ot
of the
the wn
main .t ...
ate.
b) Crown point:
Crown pointl the crown
orovn point in at the origin of the lowest
located. at
h located oro_
10... 1; orown-
tora1a«
forming branch •• , living
branches, living or
or dead; W. point
4&&4; at this point inin many broadlellV&d speoies
aan.T broadleaved .peoie.
the etem aiarta to
.'1,. . "tarts to disperse
di.pere. into
into the
the crown;
orovnl 1&ola18d. .ingle branchee
isolated single branch ... below
thi. point,
this point, if they
the;r are at aa distance
di.tanoe of
of more half aa speoified
thaD half
IIOl'tI than .paoified log leucth
10, length
trca other branchee,
from branoh •• , should
&bould not
DOt be
be used
Qed toto determine
4.1:era1ne the
the crown
orow point.
poillt.
0)
o) D.b.h., the diameter
D.b.h.: 1.30 metres
cU . .eter at 1.30 ••tre. (4.3 t •• 1:) above
(4.3 feet) above greUnd 1..... (for
ground level h'eea
(far teees
a1:andinc on slopes,
standing on elope., the
the point ....v ... nt must
pointofofmeaserememrt be de/ten:lead
IIU1: be d.1:ua.l.,* on t he uebill
OD the "phi 11
aide ).
aide).
- 95
95 -
C ... of buttreesed
Case buttr...ed trews:
tre... iif t buttr ..... exist
buttressoe uhi andand are hish.r than
.... higher than the
tho breast
br".. t
h.tsht Ind. d.b.h.
height level, d.b.h ...... ".....nt.....
measurements a.l.... battresses
are useless: buttre........ otten irregular
are often irregul ...
in oro . . .section,
cross . ction..... ditticult to ....
are difficult measure At etandard
ure at standard br.ut he1sht with
breast height
aooara07
accuraoy and th.ir di •• DlioDi have
their dimenxions hav. aa 100 •• r.latioDihip
loose relationship Kith
with tho volume ot
the Tolu.. of
tho tre.; a .atiDt..,t0l'7
the tree; .t&nd.&r4 procedure
setiefaotory standard proo.dur. for
tor measurieg
....uring the
the diameter
di ...tar ofot
buitr••• ed tress
buttreesed tre •• has .till not
h&& still not been
b.en developed and different
ditterent procedures
prooedur•• havehave
b •• n used
been uaed upup to
to now:
""w. .euur • • nt just
measurement jut above thethe teruination
teraination ofot swelling
....lling or or
irregularity or at at aa given
given distance
di.tance above
abov. that
that point (30 centimetres
point (30 oenti •• tre .....
was
r.o.,.,.nded
reconeended for FAO FAO inventory
1"".nto17 operations
operatioDi inin the
the former
toraar edition
.dition ofof this 1I&IIU&l).
thi. manual).
B.-rItJII
Remarks: Cle... definitions
Clear defini t10Dl or or instructione
ill8tructiono have
hav. toto be
bo given
given to
to inventory
i"".nto17 crews
or .... uas to
to how
how
and whero
where toto .... ur. the d.b.h.
measure (detinition of "ground level",
d.b.h. (definition level". ot
of d.b.h.
d.b.h. for
for buttr ••• ed
buttressed
treee, ot d.b.h.
tr •••• of d.b.h. for
for otemes
.toms of of irregul ... form,
irreguaar fora, etc...).
eto ••• ). This i. a fundamental
Thie is fundaaental prerequisite
prerequi.it.
in obteining
in obtaining bast°
b.de datadat.aeat!homogeneova
hoaop,,",ouoas.. po •• ible.
pea's:ibis. '!h. defini
The tiono ueed
definitions uaed should
ahould be be ae
..
identical WS u possible
po •• i bl. to those
tho. . oommonly
co_only used
ueed elsewhere.
.la.wh.re. CCllparabili
Comparability ot inventory
ty of i""ento17
re.ulto
results ini •• oa.time. impossible
sometimes iapoeaibl. due to to differences
diff.renoe. in in the definitions
definitiono between
b.tween inv.ntorie
inventories. ••
4 feet 3 inches
inchea should
.hould be taken
tak.n an
u equivalent to 1.30 II m and not 4 feet
t ••t 66 inches
inoh•• asu inin North
1I0rth
America. For the sake ot comparability
eake of comparability and oonoi.tenoe (see
and oonmistenoe (ae. paragraph
par86l'.ph 24) di ...t.r
diameter
.... ur ..en1:a and diameter
measurements di ... ter classes
claose. should
should be
be used
ua.d rather
rath.r thanthan girth .... ur • • nb.
measurements.
d}
d) rHileallallatiaauremeaIE:
~igbt and leagth ..... ureaent.. '!he following
The followi"8 classification
ol...ification of of heigbt
h.isht and
and
i.ngth measurements
length .... ur ... niB on
on standing
.tanding trees
tr.e. (adapted
(adapted from
froll wForest
''Foreot )Lennuration"
lIenauration" by
by
Haoh.
Husch, II1ller Be.rs) and illustrated
Miller and Beers) illuetrated in figure V-1 h&& a.rv.d for
has served tor
i"".ntori.s carried
inventories oarried out byby FAO.
- !cta! height.
Total height: th. vertical distance
the di.tance between
between ground
ground level
level and top of
and top of the
tho tree.
tre ••
- HoI. height:
Bole heisht: the distance
di.tanc. between
b.t.... n ground
ground level
lev.l and
and crown point:
crOWD point: iit
t
.rpro h.isht of the clean,
•••• the height
exaresses ol.an • .ain .t~ of a tree.
main stem tre ••
- lI.rchantabl. h.ight: the distance

Merchantable height: di.tano. between
b.t.... n ground
ground level
level and
and the
the terminal
t.rminal
po.i tion of the last
position l .. t unable
Wlabl. portion ot aa tree.
portion of tr •••
'!he:r....
There e several
are .ev.r&!- oriteria
ort t.ria Which
which can
can define
4.nna this
thi. upper
upper terminal
terminal and tho
and the
I%&Ot looation la,
exact location i., to 1...8"0 extent,
to a• large .xt.nt, subjeotive
oubj.otive and 1I0re problematioal
&ad. more
and made probl...tioal
4ue to
due to the difficulty
difficulty of ot sighting
o1ghting the part of
the upper part .t.. in
of a etem in a tree crown
crOWD
under forest conditions. The upper position
for •• t oonditio... ~ be
po.ition may b. defined
d.fined by aa oho •• n
chosen
ainiau.
minimum top di ...tar or by branching,
diameter branching. irregular
irregul ... form,
tora. defect,
d.t.ot. etc.,
eto •• which
which
11m
limitst • .mat
what is10 oonsidered
oonaidered thlautilisable
the ..tilh.bl. wood
IIOcd inin a• stem.
• tell. Tha
The lIerohantable
merohantable
h.ight may
height ~ be up up to .iniau. top
to aa minimam top diameter
di ...tar or
or below
b.low butbut never
nev.r above it.it.
'!he .ini.u.
The minimum toptop diameter
di . .etar chosen
oho.en will
will depend
d.pend onon the
the intended
intended uso
u. . of the wood
in the
in the stem.
at... Th. definition
The d.fini tion of the utilizable
of the utilh.bl.wood wood and
and of the oorr •• ponding
corresponding
.11l11nating defects
eliminating det.ot. suet
auat be
be as
. . preoise
prooh. .as. possible
po •• ibl. inin order
order to reduce
r-eduoe the
peroonal oosponent
personal ooapoll8nt toto aa minimum
.iniau. (and preterably to
(and preferably to zero).
aero).
- S_p height:
Stump he1sht. the distanoe
di.tano. between
bet.... n ground
ground level
1....1 and the basal
and the b..al position
po.i tion
ot the
of tho main
ouin etem
. t . where
lIbore aa tree
tree is out.
1& cut.
'ftd. length
Thin l.ncth dependA
4.penda on
on outting
cutting praoticee.
practioe.. For the buttress:old
For the buttre. .ed tre •• in
trees in the
tropioe •• tUlIP height
tropioeoutump heisht is
10 generalay
. .ner.lly considered
oonaidered just
juat aboee
abov. the
the buttreemee.
but1:re.....
- lIorohantabl. l.lljfthl tho

Marchan-tibie length: th• • _ of
sum ot the
the loagtes
lengtha of
of the
the portions ot aa tree
portiona of tree which
which
.... utili...,.. W.
NId. utilized:
are out and ibis iDOlnd •• material
inoludes uterial such
.uoh as
.. trim all.,.".,e which
tri. allowance lIbioh
~ be
may be wasted
...ted in
in the
the manufacturing
lI&IlIlfaoturing process.
proo••••
Dlere are
There ..... three
three major
_jor difficulties
ditficnll.ti •• in
in the ...e._nt ot
the aasesermeni of .arch&nt&ble
merebantable lencth
length
on standing treeoo.
011 at&nd1ll11 trees. !he The evaluation of ot the external d.teot. on
exte:rsal defects on ths ~.
uPJlllr parte
UIa upper
ot the .
ef the _ b7
stem by an
an o.... __ r at
observer at cround
ground level
level ~ IIOt be
uy not be precise -cb umless
preoioe enough unl •••
- 96 -
Figure V 1 &fnletstioTheeheita.tearldn.
a. Fxcurreit
a. F:r:currel'lt farm
form
r
[. ". .1
Lc
crown
----.-----~.
-
point
poont t,. mill
~~
top dia"
min.top
.
dian
. . Ld
Lc
---- .'l-trQwn
poont
H
. r------ utit.limit
·utll.llmlt1
H Hm
H Hm
Hb ,J', --------~r \.Lm
H[b Hm
Hm
Id /
;:;!; -________ 1Ld
/ Lm
lHr-.-
[H
________ Jm1
Lmi
H5
r-- ... - - - - - ......
b.
b. Deliquescent form
form
11-
,.... "" ""- .
i N LC
1.---- crown crown
point top dia. min. t cc dia
Lm2
crown Id
-point
H Lm H -'min. H
Hb
Hm
Hm
rpKni-
Lmd Hb Hb
r"
_ vm 1-.
(not
note: no min.
f: no top dia.l
min. top dia.I
- 97 -
binooul .... are used.

binoculaxs uaed. S.ooDdl,. lop deemed
Secondly the loge de_ed merchantable
lIerohantable by b7 the
the inventory
inventor,.
people
people ....,. not be
uy not b. identioal
id.ntical to to those
thoae out b7 the
out by the logger.
logger. 'ftli.
This ir b partioularly
partioularq
true
true for
for mixed tropical
tropical hardwoods
hardllOodB due
due to
to the ch&ngine conditions
the ohanging comi tio"," in in looal am
local and
international market.,
markets, in in accessibility
aooe..ibilit,. of
of the
the inventoried
ill'fentoried sone am in
IlOna and in logging
louill«
praotic ..s.
practices. Finan,. the
Finally the assessment
...e• •ent ofor merchantable
.erchantable length
leagth on
on standing
.tatdiug treee
tr...
talc.a
takes olll,-
only the external
ext.rnal defects
def.ct. into
into aocount
account in
in most cu.. and
1I0.t case; and notnot inner
inner
defeot.
(lefects which
which are
are oft.n
often lIore
more deoi.i.e factoNl of
decisive factors' of .erehantibilit,..
merchantibility.
nefectin length:,
Defective leugth:, the
the sum
.". of
of the
the lengths
leugtha of
of the
the portion
portion of
of the
the stem which
.10_ which
di.eter is
diameter b larger
larger than
than the
the minimum
,,1ni.,. acceptable
aooept.bl. but
but which
whioh oannot
cannot bebe utilised
utiU.ed
becaua. of
beoaneme of .oae kind of def.ct.
some kind defect.
The ••• ~ka .

eame remarks . fa"
aA . . . . . . . nt of
fo- the assessment of merchantable
.archantabl. lengths
leugtha on
on standing
at&ad1ug
tr ••• appq
trees cu. of defeotive
apply in the case d.f.otl.. lengibs.
l.ugtha.
- Crown length:
Crown l.agth, th.
the dbtano. bet.... n crown
distanoe between arown point
polnt and the tip
and the tip of
of the
the tree.
t .....
!iltlpt
Height .... ur• •nb of standing
measurements .t&ad1ug trees
t ......... vertlcal dietannes
art vertical di.tano •• while leacth
whil. length
..... ur_ent • may
measureaents ....,. be
be made on sectiona
lOad. on •• otio.. whose axl. departs
lIbo •• axis d.perl. from the vertical.
froa the T.rtical.
Additionall,., aa merchantable
Additionally, merchantable height
heipt may ....,. innlude
includ• • oa. detective
some d.fecti•• lengths
lengtha below
th
the.. point definiug
defining the the upper limit
1111it of
of merchantability.
merchentabillt,.. Cona.quentq
Conmequently it isia
poe.ibl.
posible that that the
the totals
total. ofof length
l.ugth measurements
1I... urea.nt. ~ not agree
uy not agree with
with height
h.ipt
.... ur • • nt ••••
meassurements, g. the
e.g. the total of of merohantable
aerohantabl. lens-the
l.n~ ....,.
may not agree with the
BB'". with the
merchantable height
h.ipt for a • tree.
10 .....
22
22 KDaa.r.tion
Enumeration
B.fo... any
Before tr.. le
&rJ:r tree 18 measured, it
.... ured, 11 IIWIt d.olded whether
b. deoided
must be lIb.th... the
the tree
tr •• belonge
belouga toto the
the
• • pb or
sample or not.
11010. Thim i.
'ftli. is the
the pl'lnoipl.
principie of e_eratio"
enumeratiot and it.its illportance
importanee ..,..1 not be
mnet 11010 be um.r-
under-
•• t1aated.
estimated. lilmIa.ratlon
Enumeration is • •e in
ia not the same in sampling
_pU.,. unite
u.ni t. of
of u• given un and
gi.en hrea ill point
and in point or
or
Una
line ... pll",.
sampling.
221
221 Enuaeratlon
Enumeration ln
in _pli9(
am li with
with unite a gi•• n area.
unit. ofofaigilieliilque. Enuae1'ation conal.t. ot
Enumeration consists of
tIIo ohe
two oh.OIt.,
a) lIb.ther the tree
whether tr•• ie wi thin the sampling
l.a within distance of tha
• •pUug unit: the di.taJlOe the &Xi. tr••
axis of the tree
froa th.
from o.ntr. of the plot (ciroular
the centre (oiroul~ plots)
plot.) or orfrom
froa a .id. (or an
side (or &n axis) ot the plot
axl.) of
(&quar.
(square or ... otaugular plots)
reotangylar plot.) must
IIWIt be
b. .smaller
. .llar than
than. giT.n length;
a given ,l.ncthl precise
praoi ••
lnatruotiona ha-ve
instruotions ha'A to to be
be ,h·.n
geven to inventory crew
to the i"".ntor,. cr.w as.. to
to how
how to .auure this
to measure thi.
di.tanc., and
distancie, and lIb.ther
whether th. distanoe his to be
the dhtano. b. .measured
. . .ured horisontally
horisontalq or or along
alOll« the
the
t.rrain, aa
terrain, ..... n as
well .. particular
perlioular indication's
ltd1oationa on borderline trees; tr... ;
b) whether oharacterbtl ca of
lIbather the characteristics ot the tr•• make
the tree it enunerable:
aak. it .....erable: thesethee.. oharacteristics
oharaoteri.tio.
art its
are It• •species
peoie. (see
( •• e paragraph
paragraph 23 23 for
for problems
prebl• • of
ofspecies
.peol ••identification),
id.ntification),siness .inc. inin
8oa.
some iunntori •• , especially
iuventories, ••peoiall,. in in the
the tropics, ventral
tropioa, .... 1'al .peoha
species are ";'10not recorded,
reoorded, or or its
it.
di.enaione; generally
dimensione; pnaralq the the dimensional crt terion for
diIIenaional criterion for enueerable
e","".....bl. trees
t ..... is aini_
18 a• minimum
di • • ter &lid
diameter and .ore
more .... ur • • nt • must
memuremente .".10 b • ..a.
be made th,,"
than the
the OM S wh.t
ones uh are
which arer.oorded ( ...
reciordecra
paragraph 2424 tor
for 1Imeasurement
.......... nt prebl __ ).
problem).
222 kiziummLtii2Iiiinstsv..i..
lmaaration in point or line • • pli9(. 1h
The . hation of
. .eelsotion ot the tr ••• to
the trove to be
be
r.cordM 18is ua.
made b,.
by . _ of
Mama ot aIA..... urine lnatr.aent.
sesmamring instrument. In horisontal
horillOntal point
polnt
• •pUII« ehioh
sampling whioh ie the most
ia the .oat oommon
...,..on sampling
• •pl1.,. design
d..l", of ot that
that type, tree is
1;n>e, a• tree i. selected
ael.ews\ if
11' it.
its
bo hontal di.t • R froa the _ ii ja_from
tnt
int 1& is Paller than its
manor thva It.dI dIrl4ed bx a
• • ter D1.2_datt&iid
diameter
oariain factor
certain t ..otor It
k equal in the •• trio syetem
metric .,..t. toto 1
'90170),
~ V(BU'), (Blll')
b.i ug ealled
being oalled the
the hamal &reA rotator
b... al area factor of the
the inetresment:
i/llltr.aeat. e. •. _-=D~_
nR e-D
<!! -------D D
•2ein
--:-e
)c 1
y( Bl.lI')
5U Y(BAF) 2aln '2
- 98
98 -
i.
is the horizontal gauge angle
angl .. of
of the ino~."t (angle
the inetrument (a.agle of
of eight
light from
from the
the
..... pling point
sampling point of a borderline
borderline tree);
tr.e); and
IUld
HAP
BAF •e 10,000 ain
10,000
29
sin2 2
"7 m.. trio system)
(in the metric sywt. . )
Ev tr... in the
• ..,. tree
Every the nerreundinge
aurroWld1nga of
of the
the point
point whioh
lIbioh satisfies
.aU.fi..the
the:species
'pecle. mnd .tnt.. miss
t.lld minimum I i ..
rrequirements
.. quir •• ente and vi th
with RI
R<~ belonge to the sample.
_upl ••
Ono.
Once the tree
tr•• i_
is kllOVtt
knewm to to the ...
to belong to plo, th.n
sample, then oth.r
other •• uur. .ent. on
measuremnts on this
th1l tree
may
may be mad..
b. made.
stand: in each
SOIl.U ••• point
Sometimes
.ach sampling
point eampling
sampling point
....plinc is
point the
the bual
uaed only
11 used
basal area
only forfor esttmating
e.tillaUac the
h .. otar. 0
.....a per hectare a isi ••
the banal
bual area
qual to:
equal to:
at the
area of the
stand:
O . ppx lxl . lBAF

F
wher.
where p
p is the
the JlIlIIb.r
number of trees
trees around
around tho
the .... pliac point
sampling point for
for lIbiob R ~
which R.q. < •
R and Q are .......
Rand" urad in
measured in the
the horizontal
horizontal plan
plan of
of the
th.. observer's
ob ••rver' •eye.
•yw. In inelined
In inclined
terrain aa oorr .. ction baa
oorrection has to
to bbe
.. introduced
introduced for
for ne..,.
every tre.
trae in in relation
relation to
to the
the dope of the
lope of the
.ight
sight line of the tree.
tree. St.rl. g
Simile l e pu«!.
&Nile Rtl!!.! do
and prisa,
gauss and do not
not permit
puwi t automatic
_t ....tio
correotion
correction whereas the Bitterlich
Bitter rob relesoopes
relucop!! aake
.ake proTfiion tor it.
ston for it.
23
23 Specie.
Species identification
Specie. id.ntification
Specie's identifioation poposes .om.
•• _ some probl...
problems in i~entori •• of
in inventories of tropical
tropical mixed
.1xed forests.
torelt••
'lb. relaUnly
The large number
relatively large mIIIb.r of
of tree
tree species,
.pecte., the the restriction
r •• triotion ofof botanical
botanical kmowledge
Jtngwledce to to aa
fIV individuals',
few individuals, the
the .imilar
similar appearance
appearance of trees
tr .... of
of different
dittereat species,
_plote., oaks
.ake speoiem
_peote.
identification particularly
identification perticularly difficult.
difficult. Bnerth.l
Nevertheless •• _ good identifioation
id.ntification of of the
the ptimise
opeoi ••
is a fundamental
fWlduental prerequisite
prerequisite of ~ forent
of agy 1~.ntoryl
for •• t inventory: i • much
it is .uah more
mor. nerious
aerioua in in most
.o.t
ca. .s to .ake
cases mistake coneerning
make a mistake concerning the
the species
_peote. of of aa tree
tree than
than to
to make it about
.ak. it about one or
0,", or
Beveral of its
several i tB dimennions.
dimensions.
In -11Y
many tropical fore_t inventoriee it 18
forest illVentorie. is hardly f.&Bible
feasible to
to oOllbine
combine perfeot
perfect
botanical .atiBfaoto..,. efficiency.
botamioal work and satisfactory effioi.noy. Ind •• d it
Indeed it his generally
generally too
too till .....o ..... ing
timeoonsuming
to .....
aoeure accurate species
ur. aa completely aocurate .pecies id8nt11'1cation.
identification. following indioatione
'lb. following
The indioa1.1oDl have
to
to b.
be kkept whe" looking
.• pt in mind when for aa compremise
looking for oo.promi •• betweer
bet...." the
theconflicting
confJ.ictillilrequirement's
raquir ..."to of of
botanical exactitude
exaotitud. eod of efficiency.
aDd uf .fficiency_
a) It is otten not
ia often ne~eo.....,.. to
not neoeseary to identify
id.ntit'J' all
all the tr... botanical/y
thl traes botanically within
within the
the
waole i""ento..,. 'ample.
whole inventory ... ple. In
In vi
view ot this,
... of thi., ,e-eral
....oral deviceo
dwlclD can b. adopted
0.." be adoptod
INch &8:
such as:
enumeration of aa limited
elNllerat!on limitednumber
.....ber of oommeroial and oo..eroialiublo
o .....roial and oomeeroialisable .peete.
species
("delirablo" opeoi .. ) in
("desirable" species) in the
the entire
enU ... inventory
im • .utory sample
.... ph and .macration of
aDd. enumeration ot sil
o.ll
&l"'o18s
epeciee in aa lubaulple
subeemple in in order
order to
to reduc
reduce.. th.. co.to
the mats ofof the
th& inventory
1nvento..,. and at
at
the
the .....
same tt.e
time to cbtain
obtain an acceptable
IIOc.ytable knowladgoo
knowledge at of the nori.tio
floristio OOIIpClDition
oomposation
of th .. inventoried
the for. .t. I
imeutoried forests;
~nuaeration
enumeration of all trees
ell tre •• with
with aa diameter
di ...ter larger than
than the atnt.aa exploitable
the minimum azploitabl.
diu.tar of the
and ot
diameter and the trove
tre ... of
ofthe
the'%14esirable"
"tie.trebl." .plchs
epeciss below
below thia di • •ter,
this diameter'
this dwlOO
~hi. device .eno.
eaves quite
quite aa lot of ti
lot ot •• use aa larp
time 'tree _bor of ....ul
number of _ . cID
mall treee do
not
uet Mn be .....
home to he ur.d and
neasured reoorded!
and recorded;
.peoi
ua4d
.. vi
opeoiee
used n804
with
need DOt
y...,.
th vary 11
not M
little
be id.ntifi
oocurrenoe aia
ttl. oooa:rrenoo
... vi
identified
which haTe
tl:l corteinty
with oo"Ginty aM
very 11
have YVy
<>an be ......
and oen
aa-
tU. atate of
little ot bo1nc
0""
,..,. IIZIIla"
merged
being
under one OJ' or
.""oral of _.t~n04·,
grou.p I ot:
sueernI grovels oundetereined", po ..ibly ~
possibly by botaeicel
botanioal families.
tMiU ...
'!h. lelection
The on" or the other of tbs
oeleotion of one th. two
ho f/rut
firlt devices
droo ... easomen
"",lll!IIen tb&t
that the
the
"doe1rable" ope01l0 cell
"desirablau *ponies """ b.
be paa-rectl.y Id.ntifi ...\.
perfectly identified.
--99-
~9 -
b) In order to to record
reoord 1less
... tre •• , IUId
tree', tald.ng into
and taking account the
into aocount the fact
fact that
that the
the
coeffioients of
ooeffioi.nt. of variation otof par
parameters r.lated to *maller
. . . tere related ••&ller diameter
di . .eter claseee
01..... are
are
ott.n
often lo ...r than
lower than tho
those for lar~
.. tor large di .... ter 01clams,
diameter ..... , it us.rul to
1e useful
i t is to adopt
adopt
ditter.nt ot sampling
Mi ... of
different wises ... pl1ng units
unit. (or(or of~t the
the sample)
...ple) a000rding
acoordinc to to diameter
di .. eter
01 ..... ' tor
classes: for inatlUlo
instanoe•• ach ...
eaoh pl1ng unit or
sampling or reoording
reoording unitunit may
....,. oonsist
oona1ot of ot two
or
or thr •• oonoontrio
three oonoentrio oircular
circular plot.,
plots, thothe .aaller
smaller oirole
circle being
being the
the ... pling unit
coupling wit
or tho reoording
or unit ot
reoording unit of tho
the ... l1.r di
sealler ...ter classes.
diameter 01 ......
0)
e) Onoe
Once the
the dittor.nt oharaot.rl.tio. of
different oharaoteristios of the
the enumeration
.numoration work
work has been deoided,
baa been deoided,
.ttorte &bould be aimed
efforts should al.od at securing
•• curing species
.peoio. idontifioation
idontifioation by
b7 every
eve>'7 poesible
po.oible
aoana, . .ongvhioh
mane, among whioh can b. quoted
0IU1 be quohd the
the following:
following:
thorouch int.nol."o training

thorough and intensive training of
of the
the treesphtters,
troeopbtt.ro, preferably
pr.terob17 in different
in diff.rent
parts ot the
part. of tho inventoried
i""entorled zone;
Bone;
liaited
limited number and permanence ot the
poraan.noe of the treespotters
tree.pott.re in
in order
order to
to obtain
obtain the
the most
aoat
hoao~neous data;
homogeneous data;
.. tabl1.ha.nt of
establishment of aa oorresponding
oorre.ponding list
li.t of
of local
local (vernacular)
(.".rnacular) names
nu .. andand
.0hntif1.0
moientific names:
Ma • • : thh in
this ~n.rall7 a
h generally a long
long and diffioult task
and difficult t .... k since
8in.ce the
the
ari hria of
criteria cl ... it1cation used
of claesification used by
b7 the
the botanists
botani.t. onon the
the one
on. hand
hand and the bunh
and the bush
poople oth.r are different,
people on the other r.aultir~ in
diff.rent, resultirg in many
.a07 discrepancies,
discr.pancies, e.g. •• g.
8..".ral
eevoral local DI&..
local names fortor the
tho same
...e speoies
.pooioe depending
d.pondingon onthe ~ arel
the age .ex of the
and sex
treo, or
tree, the other hand,
or, on tho on. local nasa
hand, one nue only
onl7 for
for several
o.."orol species
apooiee and
ond
.ce.ti ••• genera,
sometimes ~n.ra, the the traditional
traditional use ot which
use of whioh is
i. at
at the
the same
aam. timeti •• identical
identioal
Ih.i ted,
and limited;
........
assessment ot simple
nt of liapl. and practical field
and praotioal field identification
identification keys
ke7B based
based onon aa
liait.d number
limited nuabor of obaranteri.tio. ouch as
characteritics such as bark,
bark, slash ot bark,
.l..h of bark, leaves
l.a." •• and
and
fruit;
fruit;
preli.in&l'7 collection
preliminary ooll.otion of
of wood,
wood, leaf
leaf and fruit samples
andfruit ...ple.for
forreference
reterencepurpose's
purpole.
throupout the inventory;
throughout the i""onto>'7;
control checks
ohecko by
bi aa botanist
botani.t or
or the
the best
best treespotter
tree.potter in
in randomly
randoaly selected
oel.cted
.sampling
. .pl1ng un! to, immediate
units, i_odiah analysis
lU1&l70i. of
of the
the resulta
reoulta and
and consequent
coneequent further
furthor
inatruotiono
instructions toto the
the crews;
or.vo;
uso .70t...Uo botanical

use of systematic botanical oheok
oheole procedures
proc.dureo such
.uch as
as the
tho following
following which
which WILE
vas
Wled Sarowlt: a sample
used in Sarawak: ... pl. of loaves
loa."...... colleoted and
was collected am put
put in
in aa separate
.eparato bag
.oag
tor ..,,0>'7 tree
for every tro. of the sample,
of the ."ple, thethe bags b.ing further
baga being further despatched
d •• patched to
to aa botanist
botani.t
1Ibo aro •• oh.clr::ed the
who crosschecked tho local
local name
..... given b:r the
gi.".n by the treespotter
tree. potter and hi. own
and his own
id.ntification.
identification.
It r.otit1cationo in
If rectifications in the
the enumeration
.maooration workwork related
relat.d to
to species
opecie. identification
identification are
are to
to be
be
aado in
made in the
tho °ours,
oourao of
of the
the inventory,
i"".nto>'7, attention
att.ntion.uat be paid
*lust be paid toto the ~ they
the way th.7 ara
are introduced.
introduced.
In order
In ordor toto get
pt homogeneous
hoao. .n.o.... data
data in
in all
all inventory
imr.nto>'7 units,
unit., it h better
i t is bettor to
to avoid
aToid introducing
introduoing
th oorreotiono in
••• oorreotions
these in the
the inventory
i"".ntor7 units
unit. wherein
1Iborain the
tho enumeration
.maoeration work
work has .tart~,
alread7 started,
baa already
unl. . . .
unless nua .....Uonis
numeration 10 entirely
ontire17taken
talc.n up
up in
in these umb.
th... units.
2.4
24 .... urea.ut.
isaseroments
z.t1_Uon of
Eat/Nation tho volumes
of the YOl.... ofof the
tho trees
tr••• of thofield
ofthe fhldsample
... pl.arel
and of ~he stands
of the .tando ie10 made
mad.
tllroup measurements
through _ _ _ .n'" of oharoot..-iaUoa of
"f oharacteristios ot these tro .. , diameter
tho. . trees: diu.tor -- et _t
..t breast height
hoi«ht and
tho branohs-s-7TTe;lled
aa;r other
at any
to
.....
othor lerel
to •a pTOn
1..".1 of
level ot
given 10y.l
ral17 at breast
generally
of the
.10_.
tho itot_ or poexibly
of the stem, or
br... t height
h.ip.t only
onl7 on
po .. ib17 of the
or length along the
lo!l(tl! along
on standing
.tanding trees.
tre...
lIIranoh•• (on rolled trees);
tho stem
. _ or or the
the branchea,
.....,...
tr ••• ); height
br&llch•• , and
... nh are sede
Xsanurements
h.l.",.! up
bark thiáknoss
and bark
&&de either
thiolen... --
.i th.r on standing
tre .. or on
trees on felled
f.lled trees,
tr ••• , especially
•• poo1a1l7 for
fer the
tho assessment
... e .... nt ofof velume
yol... relationshipe.
relaUonahipe.
- 100 -
241
241 Keaaur_ent units.
Measurement unit.. ']he use of
The of the
the •• tri c ";yilt... is highly reco_ended asas iit
n_:tp_nishily_Lmetricsteecoendedmm t is
is
the .ost
most practical and .... o.t countries
as most oountrie. have adopted it i t or intend toto adopt
adopt it
it
ln near future.
in the near tuture. Convaraion
Conversion to vol,.e .... lght units
volume and weight units through appropriate relation-
relation-
8hi~ is
ships i8 aleo
a180 easier
easier with
with the
t he metric
.etricsymetem.
8ystem. Di . .eter is generally expressed
Diameter expreesed in centimetres,
oentimetres,
or
or &o.eUIOe&
sometimes in in .etrea.
etres. l'''lgth are
Height and length are practically
practically aleeee
alwa;ys expressed
expressed in
in metres
lIetree and
and
hark thickness
bark thicltness is
ia often
often given
given in in millimetres.
.tlU.etres. Diu.ter increllent in
Diameter increment deteNined in
ie determined
eentl.etreB
centimetres oror millimetres.
milli.etrea.
In countries
countriea where the
t he British
British System
Syst_ is
is preeently
preeently ueed,
used, it ie advisable
i t is adrisab] e to
to convert
the
the linear rresults
eaults directly obtained from
frca the
the measurements into
into metric units
unite as for the
vol,.e reaul ta .
volume resulte.
242 Measurement clasees
242.
242.11 i-.g1ned that
It could be imegined that all
all measurewenta
.e.. ur_ante araare taken
taken to
to the
+,he &realest
.... alleat poaeible
po.. ible
di.cernible unit
discernible un! t or part of
or part of unit.
un! t. '!hl.s would be unrealistic,
This unrealiatic, mainly
llainly because
b.cauae
.eaaur_ent errora in
measurement errors i n a forest
fore8t inventory
inventory areare often
often greater
greater than
than the
the nearest
neare.t unit.
unit. ia this
As this
.1ght
might also be .ore expensi ve , many
more expenmive, lIe.. ~.nt. -- with
aany measurements with the
the exception
exception of
of bark
hark and diueter
and diameter
lncr.ent
increment .... ur.ents -- are made by
measurements olass.s .
by classes.
']he upU tude of

The amplitude of the
the elegises
clas •• s uaed
used for
for diuehr,
diameter, height
height and length .e .. ur ..ent 10
measurement is
detel'llllned
determined in ln the light of such
light of such factors
factor. as:
ae:
-- instruaents
instruments and dBYice.
devices used for meaburieg
..... uring and thelr accuracy;
and their aocuracy;
- enY1ron.ental conditions(
environmental condi tione auch
such as vi.ibillty tree form;
and tree
visibility and for..;
- skill training of
kkill and training of the
t he crews;
cre... ;
- ho.ogenoity and
homogeneity ca.parabillty of
and comparability of data
data from
from different
different inventories.
inventorie ••
IIlIgarding the lamt

Regarding l ... t oonsideration
conll1deration the
the following
following remarkm
rflOlaru can
can be
be made:
aade:
a) 'the
the uplitude
amplitude of
of the
the diuetar ol... e. used in the aetric
diaaeter classes aystem is
metric system 18 generally
5 or 10
10 am,
oa, the
the minimum
.1nimu. diameters
diueters being
being aa multiple
multiple of
of 2.5
2.5 om.
ca. due
However, due
to the different .ini
to diuet~adopted (5 om,
.... diametereadopted
minimum 011, 7.5 am,
OB, 10 CIII, 15
10 cm, 011) it
15 as) is
i t is
always feasible to ..ut.
not alV1l,Y1l e . .y comparisonn
mike easy between inventories;
COIIpari.ODD between lnventoriee;
b) wh. n using
when lIIIing Britieh
Brl tish meamurements,
.eaaur_ent., oneon• • hould try
should try to
to use
us. class
cl.... limite
11111 ta
approxillat.ly
approximately equal to clase 01.... limits
li.it. in
1n the
the metric
.etric system,
eyet. . , which
whioh means
aeane diameter
OluB •• equal
caresses to 2 or 4 inches,
equal to l nohes, and length
length or or height
h.lght classes
clu ••• equal
equal to to 5 or
10
10 ffeet;
••t, 1he
the attached table shows.hon the
the minimum
IlinillUlll standard
atandard clase
ol... s limits
U.l t. which
whioh are
re~.Dded for
recommended for FIC)
]I'iO lnventcries
inventories in
in the
the •• tric and Britiah
metric .,.t... ;
British systems;
c)
o) wh.n inv.ntor,. users
when the inventory u . .re are interested
iater •• ted only
only in ln volume
vol,...... U_t •• , the
estimates, the use
us. of
cl ...ea of equal bual
classes uplltDde (basal
basal area amplitude (b...l areaarea classes)
cl ..... ) instead
1natead ofof diameter
diameter
cclasses
l ..... Ilq
may beb. recommended;
r .. ~.Ddedi the TOl . . . .stimates
volume aU. .tea obtained
obtained through
through volume
vol,..
r.latloDlhi~ are
relationships are indeed
lDd.ed statistioally
8tatl.tlcally more .or. valid
Yalld when
wh.n they
th.y are
are derived
derlved from
fro•
•enumeration
DUB.ratlon with basal bual area classes than when
cl..... than wh.. n derived troe enumeration
d.rlv.d from enum.ration with
diu.tar clu ••• i banal
diameter classes; bual area ar.a classes
el"" ... can
can bebe used
us.d for
for instanoe
lnatano. in
ln an
an inventory
inventory
of tropical Iliad mixed he:rdwoo4a
hardwoode for for tre .. abov.
trees above the the .tnt.um .xplo1tabil1ty diameter
minim= exploitability diu.ter
(TOl,..
(volume e.tl . .te. above
estimatem above this
this di ...tar) whers
diameter) Whereas.. diu.tar
diameter cl...... ..... used
assets are uaed for
for
ttrees:
...... below
below this
this di ...tar, II1nc
diameter, sinoe. .estimates
.tiaate. of of ..... bera by di
numbers ...t.r clauses
diameter 01...&8 of
th... stems
these at_a are acre u . .t'I1l for
more useful ~eat purposes
for management ~ ••• than than velum*
TOl,.••• U_t ...
estimates.
Koreonor, mach
Moreover, . u.oh aa tarsier;
ayet... can canbe be applied
applied lnaofar
ineofar .. as ooaparabll1
oompartbilityty of inventories
lDnntoritt.
ia po •• ibl., i.e. when
is possible, 0'"
wh.n one is inter •• ted only
1a interested only inin the
the comparison
oo.pari.on ofof volume
vol. .e
•• ti.at •• above the minimum
extimatem .tnt.um exploitability
.xploitabl11ty diameter.
diueter.
-- 101
101 --
standard
StAndard Minimum Diameter and Hei
Height
ht Class Limits
Limits
for Inventory Calculations
Calculations and
and Results
Results
Diameter
Metric System Approx.
Approx. equivalent Actual equivalents
equivalents
cm.
cm. in Rritish system
system in cm.
in em.
ins
ins..
o0 -- 55 o0 - 22 0.00 -- 5.06
5.08
5 -- 10
5 2 -- 4 5.08 -- 10.16
10.16
10 -- 15
10 15 44 -- 66 10 1 5 • 24
. 16 -- 15.24
10.16
15
15 -- 20 6 --
6 68 15.24 -- 20.32
20 . }2
20 -
- 25
25 68 -- 10
10 20.}2 - 25.40
20.32 -
}O
25 -- 30
25 10 - - 12 25.40 -- 30.48
30.46
etc.
etc. etc.
etc. etc.
etc.
He;.ght
Height
Metric
Metric System Approx.
Approx. equivalent Actual equivalents
Actual equivalents
cm.
CID. in British syetem
syetem in em.
in cm.
ins
ins.• .
o. } -
~
~ 0.0 1 -- 0.305
0.305
- 0.3 0 1 0.0
0.0
o.}
0- }
3 0.3 - 1.5
1.5 o0 -- 10 1 - 55 0.0 --
0.0 0.}05 -- 1.524
0.305 1.524
1.5
1.5 - }.O
3.0 5 - 10
- 10 } .046
3.048 1. 524 -- 3.048
1.524 3.046
,-
3
6
6
-
-
6
6
99
10 -- 20
20
20 -- 30
20 30
3.048 -
o6.096
.096-
-
-
6 . 096
6.096
9. 144
9.144
99 -- 12
12 30 -- 40
30 40 9.144 -- 12 . 192
12.192
12 - - 15
15 40 - 50
40 50 12.192 -- 15 . 240
15.240
15
15 -- 16
18 50
50 -- 60
60 15.240 -- 18.288
18.288
16 21
18 ,- 21 60 - 7010 18.288 - 21.3}6
21.336
21
21 -- 24
24 70 -
10 - 80
80 21.3}6 --
21.336 24.384
24.384
24
24 -- 27
21 80 -
80 - 90
90 24.3e4
24.384 -- 27.4}2
27.432
27 -- 30
21 }O 90 -- 100
90 100 21.432
27.432 -- 30.480
30.480
}O
30 -- 40
40 100 -. 130
100 130 30.48 -- 39.62
39·62
40 -- 50
50 130 -- 160
130 160 39.62 -- 48.77
48.17
50 --_60
60 160 -- 190
160 190 48.77
48.17 - 57.91
51.91
et-c.
efc.
- 102
- 102 --
242.2 Und.... tlUldabl;y the

Understendebly tho preoiaion
preoi . ion ofof the
tho irventory
illY.rio.,. result.
r.sult.! is affeoted b;r
18 affected by tho
01... grouping
class grouping of
of the
tho bamio
ballio measurement
....UNa.nt data
data and that the
and that tho larger
larger the
tho classes
01.....
tho .or
the . significent
more e1gnifioant thotho 'corresponding
corre.ponding errors.
.rro.... 1 thorough
A thorough analysis
1Ul&1;rah of
of this
this type
t7P8 of error
i.
is &ads
made in
in "FOr •• t Inventory",
'Wrest IUYento.,.·, vol.
YOI. II
II by
b;y Loetsch,
Lo.t.oh, Zehrer
ZShr.r and (page. 85
Ball.r (pages
aDd Haller 85 to 90),
to 90),
ahioh Gan
which pr ••• nted coneisely
O&n be presented oonci •• l;y aa
.. follows:
follova.
th.... are two

there two components ot this
cooopo .... nt. of thi. error;
error;
- a systematio
.;rat..Uo component
coooponent (bias)
(bi.. ) originates trooo ths
orilinat" from the difference
dittareno. between
b.t. .en the
tho actual
actual
mean di_.ter of
.&an diameter of the v •••
tho tiesa within
within aa diameter
di_.hr clams
01... and tho midclass
aDd the aidel... diameter,
di_.ter,
&Dd/or trooo the
and/or from tho differenoe
dift....IlOB between
betw.,, ·tha ..... basal
ths moan bual eres
aras ofot the
tho traes
tre. . of
of this
thh
di_.hr olass
diameter olu. and the basal
aDd the bual area
ar.a oorresponeing
oorre.pondi".totothethe'tideless
.idol... diameter;
di_.tarl these
the ••
ditt.rello. . oome
differences trooo the
000. from the distribution
di.tribuUon of ot the
tho diameters
di_.te... within
wi thin the
the diameter
di_.tar class;
clu.;
- randoo component
a random cc.o. from
oooponent comes trooo the tao;; that,
tho fact thet, in
in aa forest
tore.t iuventory,
i"".llto.,., only
onl:r aa sample
...ple
ot tre •• of
of traes ot aa given
linn diameter
di_.ter class
ola. . im18 msamured
....uradand
aDdthethosatina-te
.. Uaate ofot the
tho mean
••..,
di ...t.r of
diameter ot this
thi. alas.
01... (and
(aDd of
ot the
the mean
..... basal
bual area)
aras) has
hao aa sampling
...pling error
error (in
(in
general the
general tho estimate
•• U . .t. of
ot the
tho mean
..... diameter
di • •tu of ot the
the class troa the
elu. from tho sample
... ple is not
iB not
equal to the
tho actual
actual mean
..... diameter
di ...ter ofot this
thi. class,
el... , itself
U . . lt different
dittared from
!roo the aide
the .iei-
di...tor in
01... diameter
obis, ~ oases
in many cu •• -- see
•••• bon).
above).
I 18 oomplioated
Iti is oooplioated toto have take this
hay. to tak. thi. typo
t7J>O of
ot error
error into
into account
aocount inin the
tho error
.rror
oalculation of
oaloulation at the
tho final
tinal results.
r ••ulto. The bbest
!h. •• t .olution i. to adopt small
solution is ...11 classes
01. . . . . .since
ince the
aacni twt. of
magnitude at these
th•••• rro... increases
errors iner..... with
vUh the _pli twt. of
th. amplitude ot the
tho olasoes,
olu ••• , and to consider
aDd to cOll8ider that
that
tho corresponding
the corre.ponding errors
errore are
are negligible,
noglili ble.
243
243 M ... ur• • nt proceduree and inatruments.
Measurement It is not intended
1& not intend.d to describe
de.cri b. and
ooa..nt on
comment On th-47.;17:711otruments
t e v ouo natraa.nt.uned tormeasturing
ueedfor ....uring diameter,
di ...t.r, height,
h.ight, length
l.ngth
and bark thickness,
aDd thialcn. .s, but
but rather
rather to
to give
giv. some
soo. information
intoNation and advioe on
aDd advice on measurement
....ur • • nt
prooedurea vhich are
procedures which are more
acre directly
dir.ct1;y relevant
relevant to
to inventories
1mentorie. in in mixed
..ixed tropical
tropical hardwoods.
bardvoodo.
Mor.
More cooplet. intoraation is
complete inforaation 1. available in forest
for •• t .enouration
mensuration aDd fore.t iar.nto.,.
sud forest inventory
pubUoaUclIB .....
publioations as 11 as
well as in
in advertising
adYerti.ing leaflets
leafl.t. published
published by
by the
the manufacturers.
aanufacture....
243.1 Diameter measurements
243.1
243.111 Di ...t.r at br
Diameter ... t height
breast heiekl
Por re. .ollB mainly

For rewmons aainl;y of practioability
praotioabilit;y ealipers
oalipe'" are little
little used
uaed in tropical
tTOplcal for ..t
forest
iUYentcri...
inventorieot thetho fairly
tairl;y large sise at the
.18. of the trees,
tn •• , the
th. occurrence
occurrence of
of high
high buttresses,
buUr...... , of
of
aarial
aerial roeta, tho difficult working conditions
roots, the conditio .. uit.
make the us. oaUper. little
use of calipere little adapted
edapted
to th••• fore.ta.
these forests.
Girth ta!!!ll
Glirth tapes are
are used
used on
on felled
felled tr ... aDd
trees and on
on .tanding
standing tr.e.
trees with buttn •••• le
buttresses .. than
les;
approrlaately
approximately 22 metres
•• tr. . high.
high. Regarding the
Regarding the use
uo. of
of tapes
tapea in
in tropical
tropioal forest
forest inventories,
lUYentorie.,
tho following J.:idiom:ions
the following indioaUona are are vorth
worth •• nUoning:
mentioning:
- ti bragl... tapes
fibreglass tape. often
ott.n prove
provo to b. tho ao.t
be the out tabl.;
oast suitable;
- aa book
hook at tb.
the :taro
..ro of
of the
the tape
tape pel'lli
permiteto tho
the .... urea.nt at
measurement of large
large tn •• b;r
trees by
per.an;
one person;
OM
- ri.k
rink of tilt from
!roo the
tltto horisontal
herhontal plan of ..........
meamurementnt and
aDd ofot loosenees
looune.. of thethe
tape 18
ie r.laUn17 hiCh with large
relatively high tr... and
large trees crest oare
aDd groat .,...• • uot b~
"mat be eurc10ed
exercised in
han". the
having th. tape
tape well
...11 stretched
.u-.taMd in
in the
the horisontal
hori.,n,tal plan
plan ofof measurement;
.... ur • •ctl
- _.pero along the bole are va..,.
crespore very **moon thq INat
aDd they
_ 0 I l and b. out
muat be cut at the
the height
height of
of the
the
. . . .la• • Dt
measurement or the
or "h. tape
tape meat
_ t byb .. pat
pIlt below
b.low them
th_ if thi. is
i t this 10 feanible;
f ... ibl.;
-- 103-
103 -
- graduations of
graduaticrm of diameters
diameters in in length
length units
un1 t . (centimetres
( centi.etre. or
or inches)
inohe.) or
or diameter
diameter
clua
class lim! ts "W!!t
limits indicahd on
must be indicated on one
one face
face of of the
the tape;
tape; Purchase
Purcbaae of
of tapes
tApe. with
with
aa blank face where limits
blank face Hili ts of
of the
the adopted
adopt.d diameter
di .... ter classes
cl..... are
are further
further marked
lIo.rked with
apeoial ink
special is recommended.
ink is reoollDl"rxled.
For trees
For treee with
with "diameter
"di .... ter at
at breast
hre.. t height"
h.ight" higher
higher than
than 22 metres,
.... tre., procedures
proc.dur.s and
and
instruments for measurement
i natruaents for meaaur..ent of of upper
upper stem
.t.. diameters
diuete... have
have to
to be
b. used.
us.d.
243.12 1.122tráltim diameters
KLQy aophi.ticat.d inotru..nt.

Many fairly sophisticated instrument, of of YarJinc
varying degr... of accuracy
dapeen of accuracy have be.n
been
devi •• d for the meesurement
devined of diameters
•• aauraeent of di .... ter. at
at various
various heights
h.ight. of
of the
tho bole.
bol.. Th
The••simplest
i.pl •• t
one.
ones are not necessarily
neoe.earily the
the least
l ... t accurate
accurate and .uoh depends
and much dopeDde on
on the
the say they are
~ they are handled
handl.d
consequently on the training of the
and oonsequently tho illYento"y
inventory •staff.
taft •
When the
the reference
refer.nee height
h.ight isi. relatively
r.latively small
..all (measurements
( .... urea.nt. ofof diametern
di ....t.r. above
above
buttre •••• ) aa simple
buttresses) .i.pl. graduated
graduat.d rule
rule atat the
the top
top of
01' aa metallic
•• tallio oror wooden
wood.n pole
pol. heldheld close
010 •• to
to
the bole and facing the
and facing the observer,
ob ••rv.r, with
with the
the sero
.ero in
in coincidence
ooiDCid.noe with
with one
one side
dd. of of the
tho bole,
bol.,
oan be considered
can conoid.red aa suitable
.uttabl. instrument
inotrum.nt in in the
th4 case
0&8. of of measurement
....ur...nt by di .... t.r clannes.
by diameter 01......
Aa the observer
As the obaerv.r in in aa tropical
tropical forest
for •• t cannot .taM very
cannot stand v.ry far
far from the tree (generally
froII the (generally not not
.ore 15 ••
more than 15 tr•• ), parallax error is
metres), 10 not negligible:
n••l1pble: graduationo
graduations of of the
the rulerule have
have toto
b.
be corr.ct.d
corrected to take the parallax error .rror for & a given
p v.n horizontal
horioontal di.t&nO.
distance bet ....n the
between the
ob.erver
obaerver and the'the tres
tre. into
into acoount.
acoount. 8i.pl. device has
Thi. simple
This b •• n used
hu been used inin many
.. al1T forest
fored
imrentorie.
inventories in 1I •• t Africa.
West Africa. Th. Finnish
The !"abol1C oalip.r
PinDilih parabolic caliR!1' and oth.r simple
and other .illpl. instruments
inat...... nt.
baa.d
based on the prinoiple of the Bilt.ore
Biltmore .tl
st ck can al.oa so b. be uso4
used tor
for .... ureM.nt 01'
measurement of
di ...t.r. above
diameters abave buttr ••• ea or
buttresses or at
at r.lativ.ly
relatively ..all height ••
mall heighte.
Inetrum.nta
Instruments for .. e.. uring diameters
measuring di ...t .... at any height are more
~ h.ilbt .or• • 0phi.ticato4 and
sophisticated .or.
and more
expensive. of increasing
In order of inor...ing sophistication
.ophi.tication the
the more
.ore interesting
int.r•• ting ones
on•• are:
ar.,
Wh•• ler pentanriem

the Wheeler pontapr1 .. which
whiob consiste
oonei.t. of of aa metallic
•• tallie railrail with
with one
one fizsd
fiZ8d and on•
and one
liding prism,
•sliding priell, the
th. distance
di.tanc. between
bet...n the
the two
two prizes
pri .... being
being equal
equal to
to the
the measured
.... uro4
di ..eter; the only
diameter; only drawback
drawbaok: of thiR simple
01' this 8i.pl. and pr.cia. instrument
and precise inlltr..nt is that the
1e that the
rail
rail IlUBt
must be aaas long ..
as the 1I&J:1.. di ...t.r to bbe. .....
maximum diameter =ed, whioh doe.
measured, does DOt
not
perMit it .....
permit its tor the
use for 'th. biggest tre •• in
bigp8t trees in tropical
tropical inventories;
i .....ntor1e.;
inetl"Ullent. suoh
instrumente hoh as
.. the
the w.Diatromb"
"D1at1'Ollb" wherein
wh.rein two
ho indioea
indio..areareputpv.tininopti
opUcal
cal
ooineid.no. with the
ooincidenoe the edges
edp. ofof the
th• • tan and
item and are
are at
at aa fixed
tixo4 horizontal
horizontal distance
di.tanee
fro. the
from the eye
eye ofof the
the observer
ob.erver (the
(th. indices
indic...... 1'1 Ued on
are fitted on aa bar .liding on
b&r sliding on aa rod,
rod,
di.tanoe between
the distance bet.... n the
the eye
eye at
at the
the end
.ndof01'the
therod
rodaxil this bar
and this being such
b&r being noh that
that
it. proj.otion is
its horizontal projection i. constant);
oOnlltant);
the
the BUlti-purpoae
multi-purpose Bitt.rlioh
Bitterlioh r.l ..oope whiob
relesoope perDit• •simultaneous
which permita ieultan.ous .... ur...nt
measurement
the height
of the h.ight axil
and of
of tho
the di ...ter of the
diameter tho stem
.t_ at at this
thi. height4
height I tbtthe wide-scale
wide-.cale
aleam
rol .. copo has
tropical forests,
prov.d to be useful
hu proved
fore.t., although
us.ful for
althongh visibility
for measurement
vi.ibility in
.... ur... nt of
in these
of upper
the •• foreste
uppal' stem
fo .... t. is
.t.. diameter
i. not
di .... ter in
al~ sufficient
not always .uftici.nt
to
to penli
permit aoourate ....
t accurate v • •nt.. ;
measuromente;
the Barr and Stroud dendrometer

d . _ . t . r has -«tdf71ng optios,
hu sagnifying Opti08, ....... pl1 i-iJO&«ll
uses split-image
coinadence is-77,7i57;711.
and I. a ver,r prool •• but
coincidence and bQt rather expensive
expenaiv. instrument.
in8tZ'UII.nt.
243. 2
243.2 Height ••aourea.nt.
IttlshIJImEnovEls
Height .... ureMenta in
measurements in a forest
for .. t inventory
im.ntory are
are JIIId.,
made:
a)
a) on all tr... (or
all tres, (or aa fraction of t:..
fraction 01' tam) ot the
.. ) of the sample
&&IIpl. in
in connection
oonn.oUon with
with measurements
.... ur ... nia
of upper at
01' .. diameters
stem di ...to... when the
tho volume
vol• • of ot the
tho standing
.tanding trees ot the ._pl.
tr .... of sample isis
uti_ted by
estimated pOII.triO formules
by geometric torwulu wising
\IOing these
th. . .... ur ..ent data;
measurement data;
1 0~ --
-- 104
b) on all trees (or(or aa fraction

fraction ofof them)
them) of
of the
the sample
sampl e in
in addition
addition to
to the
the d.b.h.
d.b.h.
when the vvolume
o lUllle of the
the trees
-tree s of the sample is estimated through volume volume
equatio DB using
equations using diameter
diameter and
and height
height as
as independent
independent parameters;
par_etere;
0
c) on
OD a relatively small
a small subsample
8ubsample of
of trees
trees in
in connection
connection with
with measurements
.easureme nts of
upper
upper stem diametera,
diameters, the volu.e trees being estimated
volume of these trees eatimated by geometric
geometric
fo ...ul..... , and
formulae, and the
the volume,
volume, d. b.h., and
d.b.h., height data being u.
and height t iHzed for
utilized for the
the
aaa8a8Bent
assessment of volume equations
equati ons by
by regression
regr8sBion analysis.
Height .easure.ents,
measurements, like measurementF.
measurements ofof upper
upper stem
stem diameters,
diameters, areare iindiret
ndir~ c t
.easur . .enta .ade
measurements made by optical
optical ineiruments
instruaenta (contrary
(contrary to to d.b.h.
d.b.h. which
which isis generally
generally aa direct
direct
and rapid .easur_ent)
aDd consequently time-consuming.
messurement) and are coneequently time-cons","i ng. When seleoting
When selecting the
the .. ethod of
method of
voluae
volume estimation in a forest inventory,
iaventory, it
it should
should be be carefully
carefully checked
checked whether
whether these
the.e
addi tional measurements on all the
additional the trees of
of the
the sample (or(or on a significant
.ignificant part of th ... )
them)
are justified.
jWltified. In .. any inventories
many inventorie. of
of mixed
mixed tTopical
t:;o{'ical hardwoods
hardwood. it haa been
i t han been found
found that
that itit
1s
is aore
more etficient to use "local volume tables"
efficient to 0)
tables" ll) by epecies
species with
with measurement
measurement of
of d.b.h.
d.b.h.
only on all
all the treee
trees of the aample
.ample than
than to use
uee velume
volu.e equations with d.b.h.
d.b.h. and
and height
height
as
as independent
independent parameters wi th measurement of
with of d.b.h.
d. b.h. and height on all the trees
treee of the
the
sample: the increase in precision
preciBion is
is small
small in
in relation
relation to
to the
the consequent
consequent increase
increase in the
enumeration cost (see
(aee below paragraph 342.2).
All tor the

As for tbe measurement
measurement of of upper
upper stem
BtfIID diameters,
diameters, maey
man;y inetruments
instrlDents exist
exist and the less
leas
expensive and sophisticated ones
expeneive once may be particularly useful in certainoertain conditions
conditions and
and
especially in eome
.ome tropical foreet
forest inventories.
iuventoriea. Direct
Direct measurement with telescopic
teleacopio poles
i.
is po •• ible only for
possible fer small heights
heights -- for
for greater
greater heights
heights (total
(total height,
height, bole
bole height,
.erohantable
merchantable height of usual trees) trees) indirect
indirect measurement
",easurMent byby hypeometers
b,yPeolleters has to be Wled.
baa to used.
'lb.
The CMhton Cltetor is
Christen bypsemeter 18 a very
very cheap
cheap andand handy inst~ent
instrument which is recommended
recOllaended for
tropic
tropical forest inventories when the the precision
preoision required
required ie
is not
not very
very high.
high. Other well-
kDOWII bJpeoIIatora
known IlUch as the Blua
hypeometere such ...Leiea or !lap.
Blume-Leiss Begs hueometere
hlp!!oaators are
are more
lIore precise
precbe but
but
.... ur...nt. are more
meamurements .ore time-ooneuming
tille-ooneuaing and soaetille. require
and sometimes require too
too great
great aa distance
distance between
between
the observer and the the tree
tr•• in
in tropical
tropical foreets
forests with
with aa thick
thick undergrowth.
undergrowth. Clino•• ters,
Clinometers,
elina..ter, can
IlUch as the Suunto clinometer,
such can be
be used
used also
also but
but the
the heights
heights cannot
cannot bebe read
read directly
directly
and have to be oalculated from the
calculated from the slopes
.lopes measured
....ured with
with the
the instrument.
instrument. 'lbe Bitterlich
The
rdaseope
rslascope is 18 used
uaed also for
for height
h.isht measurements
.eaaur... ents generally
generally inin connection
conneotioll with
with upper
upper stem
st_
dl. .eter .e.aure.enta.
diameter measurements.
243.3 Bark .easurements

Bark !measurements
111 diameters,
All eli_etere, at
at breast
breast height
height and
and on
on the
the upper
upper stem,
st .... , are
are meaeurements
.. easur_enta over
aver bark
bark on
on
.tandi. trees,
the standing treea, but
but merchantable
.erohantable volumes
volumes do do not
not include
includ. the the volume
volume ofof the
the bark. The
The
problem 1e
is to relate the
the volumes
volumes under
under bark
bark of
of the
the tree
tree with
with the the diameters
diaaetere over
over bark and
po.sibly al.o
possibly measurem.nts of
also with measurements of the
the bark.
bark.
the volume
If tbe volUile of
of the
the standing
.tanding trees
treea of
of the
the sample
s . . ple is
is estimated
estiMated without
without the
the help
help of
of
YOluae equatione,
volume equations, volumee
yol_e. under
under bark
bark have
have to
to be
be estimated
est1atated from
from volumes
vol,.es over bark using
aver bark uaing a
a
ooavertlion factor oaloulated
convertion caloulated from
f..- bark
bark measurement
.easur.... nt atat breast
breast height.
height.
It voleme
If vol. . . equetions
equatiOns are
are ueed
used and from aa sample
established from
and eetabliehed s . . ple of f~lled trees,
of felled trees, the
the
b. .t solution
beet .olu·tion is
h to
to estimate
.sti_to the
the volumes
vollllles under
under bark
bark pf
'If these
these sample
a . . ple trees
tree. and
and to
to relate
relate
the.e vol
these rolumes r~.Bion analysis
.... through regression analyah to to the
the d.b.h.
d.b.h. over
aver bark
bark (and possible height
(aDd possible
aDd other upper stem
amd st.., diameters
di_et.re over
over bark).
bark). this case bark
In tbie bark thickness
thickness isb measured
.easured with
with
aa rUl.
rule on the fees
fac. of the logs.
lop.
'lbe most
The IIO.t common
,,-,-o n bark pugea for
barIr;: gauges for measuring
•• asuring bark
bark thickness
thiekneee at
at breast
breast height
heisht on
on standing
standing
treea have been
trees b ••n designed
deoign"d in in Sweden.
Sweden. Riu. underestimation and
Rieke of underestimation overeatillation in
and overestimation in bark
bark
t h i _ . _11l'8IIenta
thickneee moasurements are numerous
,.,. ..roua end lIuch care
tInd much aDd training
oare and training is
i8 necesaary.
n.. c ....ary.
(1) Volume equations wherein volomo ie a function of d.b.h. only.

- 105
105 -
33 Volume estimation
31
31 D.finition of
Definition of volumes
volume.
It i8
is of the utmost importance
importance to to define
derine the volumes
VOlum~B referred to in an inventory
clearly and objectively. There
There are unfortunately too too many inventory documents
m~ inventory documenta wherein
wherein
it is
it is not
not clearly stated which is the lIIinimUlU d. b.h. of the corresponding trees.,
minimum d.b.h. trees, which
which
portions
portion's:ofofthe
thetree.
treesare
are consid.red
coneidered (are
(are branches
branches includ.d? what is
included ? what is the
the minimum
minimum top
top
?), whether or
diameter ?), or not
not the
the volume
volUMe ofof bark
bark is
is included,
included, whether
whether the
the volumes
volumeR are grOBS
gross
exclude defective
volumes or exclude defective parte,
parte, which
which the
the criteria
criteria are
are for
forexcluding
excludingparts
parts aeas defective,
defective,
wbether the "net" or "utilizable"
whether 'tutilizable lt volumes correspond
correspond toto what is likely
what is likely to
to be extracted
erlracted or
do not
do not exclude
exclude the
the logging
lOgging losses,
los ••• , etc.
.tc. It is eaeily
.asily underutandable
understandable that the definition
definition
by an adjective such "grose l1 , "net"
Buch as "gross", "net" or "industrial"
"industrial" isi8 generally
generally not
not sufficient,
suffiCient, and
must be
munt be completed
oomplet.d by by aa clear
clear explanation
explanation of of the
the adjeotive
adjeotive iteelf.
itself.
The
The drawbacks
drawbacks of a lack of definition or of anan incomplete
inco.plate or unprecise
unprecia8 definition
are serious.
are serious. For instance
For instance when
when the
the inventory
inventory results
results are
are used
used for
for aa feasibility
feasibility study,
study,
miSinterpretation
misinterpretation ofof the
the concept
concept of
of volume
volume jeopardizes
jeopardizes the
the whole
whole study.
study. In particular,
In particular,
this happens when the incompletely
this incompletely defined
defined inventory
inventory volumen
volumes are
are considered
considered as extractable
extractable
volumes
volumes although they are "gross"
"gross" cr
or "net"
"net" volumes including
including logging
logging losses.
losses.
'!he
The follOwing wer. included in the
following definitions were the first
fir.t edition
edition of
of this
this Manual as
as
standard definitions for
standard for all FAO forest
all FAO forest inventories:
inventories:
Gro •• volume:
Groes volume: the volume of a specified
specified portion
portion of
of aa tree
tl'.e without
without bark(1)
bark( 1)
or deduction
or deduction for
fol' defects;
d.fect.; wh.n
when us.d, tGTm should be qualified
need, the term
by aa word
word or
or statement
.t.. t .... nt specifying
.peoifying the
the portion
portion of
of the
the tree
tr •• to
to which
which
r.fer., e.g.
it refers, e.g. total
total tree
tr.e gross
groe. volume
voluae (2).
(2).
Net
Net volume:
volume: the volume of a specified
specified portion
portion of
of aa tree wi thcut bark
tree without bark and
and with
with
deductions for defects
deductionn made for defects or
or unueable
unusable material; t.rm should
aaterial; the term should aleo
aleo be
be
qualifi.d according to
qualified according to the
the portion
portion of
of the
the tree
tre. to
to which
which it
it refers.
refero.
Tbtal
Tetal volume:
volume: the
the volume inoluded stem of
included in the main at ot &~ tree;
tree; tor
for deliquescent-
formed trees, up to
to the crown
crown point;
point; for excurrent-formed trees up
excurrentformed trees to the
up to the
tip of
tip of the
the tree.
tree.
Branch volume: for

for excurrent-formed trees, the
excurrentformed trees, the volume
yolume of
of all
all branches;
branohes; for
deliquescent-formed trees, the
deliquescentformed trees, the volume
volume above
above the
the crown
crown point (and a~
point (and any
branches which may occur below).
may occur below).
Industrial volume: the

Industrial volume: the potentially usable
ueable net volUllle wood, without
volume of round wood,
d.duction for losses
deduction for 10•••• due
due to
to utilization
utilization standards
otandards of
of logging
logging and m&nufacturil~
and manufacturing
processes;
processes; it
it equals
equals the sum
sum of log volUMes volume.
volumes plus other usable volume.
Log
Log volume:
volume: the
the net
net volume of a tre~ suitable for
tree conaidered suitable for veneer loge, sawlogs,
ven~er logs, savloge,
.l.eper logs, piling
sleeper logs, piling and
and poles;
poles; this volume may aleo
this yolume al.o be used
UIIed for
for pulpweod,
pulpwood,
chipboard or other industrial
indUBtrial use.
other
Other usable
usable volume: the net
net volume of a tree not
not suitable
8uitable for
for purposes
pu~Bes listed
li8~ed
under log
log volume bit
but usable
usable for
for poeta,
posts, pulpwood,
pulpwood, chipboard
ohipboard and
and for
for other
other
industrial uso.
u.Je.
(1) Gro •• volume.

Gross includ. bark volume in
volumes include ~any inventories.
in many inv.ntories.
(2) Gro •• volume.

Gross veIl as
volumes as well a. all
all other
other volumes
volua •• refer
rer.r to
to aa minimum
minimum d.b.h.
d.b.h. of
of the
tho
relevant trees and to aa minimum
a180 to
and also minimum diameter
diU!leter at the email
at the amall end
end of
of the
the atem
at_ and
e.ncl
branches.
-- 106
10 6 --
add! tion to
In addition to the
the above definitions
detini tlol'l8 the
the following
follovi ng remarke
rel'flarka can
can be ",ade.
made.
a) It is that the
18 suggested that the adjective "commercial"
"co_erc!al" when
when added
added to
to the terms
terM8 "industrial",
"industrial",
"log"
"log" or "other usable
UII.ble volUine"
volume" or to specified portions of thethe volumes,
volulIes, distinguishes
distinguishes
volUMe which
volume which can
can be
be economically
economically removed
re.oved under
under given
given conditions.
conditions.
b) Tb 8"t1.ate
Tb ooa.ercial or eerchantable
estimate commercial merchantable volumes it is 18 necessary
necessary to know the the
merchantability specifications
merchantability specifications for
for aa given
given species
opecie. or
or group
group ofof opecies
speci •• atat the
the time
tiNe of the
inventory (i.e.
(i ••• for known and specific wood wood products
products and
and situation
.ituation ofof the
the wood Market),
market), for
.. given
a given situation
situation of ot logging
logging emd.for
and' !or the
the inventoried
inventoried area
area or or for
for aa neighbouring
neighbouring and similar
similar
area. Tb ".888
Tb voluaee it is
assess the merchantable volumes 18 generally necessary
necessary to to complete thethe
operation itself
inventory operation itself by
by meaourements
measure.ent. in in the
the logging
logging units
units ofof the
the extracted
extracted logs,
logs, and
ot the losses
of lo •• e. in
in order
ord.r to
to determine
deteroine the
tbe ratio
ratio ofat the
tbe extracted
extracted merchantable
merchantable volumes
volwoe. to the
inventory volumes.
volumeo. particularly true
This is particularly true in
in inventories
inventories of of mixed tropical forents
foreate for
for
which no
which no tradition
tradition ofof exploitation
exploitation exists
erl ate and changes in
and changes in market
lD&rket and infrastructure are
and infrastructure are
.ignifioant.
and significant.
rapid and "CollUlercial" volumes are inventory results which can be
"Commercial" be given
given only
such "utilisation
when such "u1:ilisation studies"
studies" (or
(or "recovery
"reoovery studies"
studies" oror "harvesting*intensity studies u )
"harvesting-intensity studies")
thoroUBhly carried
are thoroughly carried out.
out. If this is not the
i8 not the case
case the
the adjective
adjective "commercial"
t'comllez'cial" is
i8
inappropriate and
inappropriate aDd must
must not
not be
be used.
used.
c) In no (lase
oaae should
should the
the expression
expression "net
"net volumes"
volumes" be used or understood as synomymous
aynomymoUB
ttc~ercial volumes".
with "comercial volU!les u • The
The only quality assessment (or grading) of the 8t~nding
assesslnent (or standing trees
trees
ot cannot provide
of the sample cannot provide aa satisfactory
satisfactory estimate
estimate ofof the
the merchantable
merchantable volumes
volUMes as these
as these
latter are
are determined
deter.ined also
al.o by by the
tbe internal
internal defecto,
defect., the
the logging
logging damage
damage (splits,
(splits, broken
broken
tree., etc....)
trees, etc •••• ) and other
other faotors
faotors which
which cannot
cannot be preci8~ly predicted
be precieely predicted from observation of
fro. observation of
tbe trees of the
the treea tbe sample.
SaMple. Drilling of trees
Drilling of tree. at
at breast
brea.t height
height for
for rot
rotdetermination.
deterMination. (see
(see
42 below)
paragraph 42 beloit) is
i. useful for for the
tbe assesoment
as •••••• nt of
of decay
decay occurrence
occurrence mbich
'.'hicb provides
provide.
additional information
inforoation onon thetbe quality
quality of
of the
tbe standing
standing trees,
trees, but
but still
still other
other parameters
parameters
~t aacertained for
must be asoertained for aa valid
valid assessment
&Bsess_ent of
of commercial
commercial volumes.
volumes.
d) ~.
The aetual uufuln••• of the
actual usefulneos tbe assessment
.......,..nt of
of "net
"net volumes"
volUMes" thus
tbUB does
do •• not
not appear
~ental,
fundamental, theBe are generally
as these generally different
differ.ent from
frOM the
the commercial
commercial volumes
volumes which
which are
are in
in most
among the
inventories among 'the most
moet important
important results
results toto obtain.
obtain. This is all the more
Thie More true &8
as 80
some
••
• ubjectivity and
subjectivity and personal
personal bias
biaa is
i. almost
almost unavoidable
unavoidable in in the
tbe assessment
as.es.ment of
of net
n.t volumes.
voluee.. In
~ forest inventories
many tropical forest inventories procedures
procedures such
such as t.he following
as the following can
can be adopted:
be adopted:
1. uoe the
use tbe inventory
inventory measurements
,....ur ..ent. themeelves
tbemoelve. excluding
excluding basic
baaic quality
quality data,
data, to
to
deteroine grove
determine groBe standing
.tandingvolume's
yolu.e. objectively;
objectively;
2. uoe the
use tbe baeic
haoic quality
quality data
data to ol... if~ (or
to olassify (or "stratify")
"stratify") these
tbese gross
gros •• tanding
standing
volUOl" by
volumes by quality
quality classes
cl...... (or
(or grades),
grade.), the
tbe basic
haoic quality
quality data
data being
being obtained
obtained
by ob •• rration of
observation of external
erternal defects,
d.f.ct., by
by decay
decay information
information at
at breast
breaot height
beigbt on
on
.tanding trees
standing tree. and
and possibly
po •• ibly also
al.o by
by detailed
detailed quality
quality analysis at a• subsample
analyois of subsample
felled trees;
of felled tree8;
3. perform reoovery etudy

per!o!"ll a recovery Btud.;r by making
_&king a• • urvey of
ourvey of the output in
the output sample of
in a.. sample of
logging units,
unite, aa partial recovery
reocyery factor
factor being
b.ing determined
det.rained for
for each
eacb of
of the
the
foroar gradomi
former grade~ or
or quality
quality cl ..... of
classes of tbe
the .tanding voluaes.
standing volumes.
32
32 Volu.. unite
Volume unit.
VolUMe •• tl ••te8 can

Volume estimates can be
be expreased
.xpr•••• d either
either inin cubic
cubic unita • hewing the
~n1t • showing the total
total contents
content" ofof
a tree portion specified),
tr •• (or portion .pacitied), oror in
in terms ot the
tero. of tbe quantity
quantity of
of the
the ultimate
ultimate products
product. which
which
can be processed
prooe •• ed from the tree
fra. the tree or
or section.
8eotion. Horth ~erlcan
The North American board footfoot unit is such an
product volume.
end product
el:ld vol_e. 1he IWO of an estimated
The WItt eBtt_ted end product volume has the advantage
has the advaotap of of a•
........ nt of
direct assessment of final
final producto
prOductB expected,
expected, and
and thus
thus facilitates
facilitates evaluation.
evaluation. However,
-
- 107 -
-
this
this type
tyTe of .eaaurement
measurement u.ni
unitt has shortcomill88 in that it shows the
bas significant shortcomings tho estiuted
estimated
output in terms
tertia of only
only one
one product,
product, sawn
sawn boards
boards or
or lumber,
bmber, and for sea/logs
and for aawlogs thie
this vollllle
volume
the .amount
depends on the .ount of
of defects
defects inin the
the log,
log, the
the skill
skill of
of the
the sawyer,
sawyer, the
the thicknese
thicknes8 of the
saws
SQVIB used,
ueed, the thickness of of the
the lumber
luaber sawn
sawn and the
the amount
amount of
of taper
taper in
in the
the log.
log. There is
There 1s
indeed aa general
general implicit agreement in tropical forest inventories to limit the volume
estimation at the exit of of the
the logging
logging unit
u.nit or
or sometimes
sometimes to
to the
the yard of the
yard of the wood
wood mills.
mills. In In
view of the above and other
other limitations
limitations itit seems
seemB logical
logical to
to follow
follow this
this latter
latter custom
custoa and
to abandon the use of endend product
product volume units.
u.nits. Additional results
Additional reaults in
in board
board foot
foot units
u.nitl
will be given only when it is is considered
considered essential.
essential.
As for linear
linear measurements (see
(aee above
above paragraph
paragraph 241)
241) the
the use
use of
of the
the metric
metric eyetem
system
(cubio Metres
(cubic metres as volume units)
u.nits) is
ia highly
highly recommended.
recommended. In countriea Britiah
countries where the British
systeM
system is
is still in use,
use, it may
may be advisable
advisable toto produce
produce results
results in
in cubic
cubic feet
feet and aleo
also in
maqy of these
cubic metres: many these countries
countries intend
intend toto shift
shift to
to the
the metric
metric system
system in
in the
the future,
future,
statistics on
and international etatistics on wood
wood resources
resources could
could be
be facilitated.
facilitated. uae of the
The use the metric
metric
eystem both systems
syetem and of both system. in
in countries
countries tieing
using the
the Britiah
British aystem has been recommended as a
system bas
in all forest
standard procedure in foreat inventories
inventories carried
carried out
out by
by FAO.
FAO.
33
33 Classification of volume estimation
estimation techniques
techniques
1he
The values
valuee of the known parameters
parameters measured and recorded
aeasured and recorded in
in the
the sample
suple are
are used
used. to
esti.ate the means and totals of
estimate ot these
these parameters
parameters or
or of
of other
other related
related characteristics in
characteristics in
area and
the inventoried forest area and in
in parts
parts of
of it.
it. and total
Mean and total volumes
volumes are
are among
..ong the
the
main estimatee 10 obtain
estimates to obtain from
trom the
the inventory.
inventory.
All observations made in in the

the sampling
sampling units
units for
for volume
volume estimation
estimation are
are obeervations
observations onon
tree8.
trees. In the firet
first step of the vol~e estimation
the volume estimation process
process these
these observations
observations are
are used
usod
either for ... e.sing the volumes
assessing vol,.ea of of the
the trees
treea in
in the
the sampling
aampling units
units (and
(and consequently
conoequently the
the
oOITesponding
corresponding volumes of the standstand inin the
the sempling
aampling units)
units) or
or for
for directly
directly estimating
estimating the
the
stand characteristics
charaoteristice in
in the
the sampling
sampling units.
units. AA simple
simple example
example of
of this
this latter
latter case iB the
case is
sweep with aa Bitterlich relascope made made at
at aa point
point in
in aa plantation,
plantation, the
the sampling unit being
sampling unit being
and th~
the point and the stand characteristic
characteristic being
being its
ita basal
basal area
area at
et thie
this point;
?Oint; the elementary
observations are made on the treestrees around
around this
this Point, but the
point, but the individual tree volumes
individual tree are
volUllea are
no t (aed
not cannot) be
(a;d aannot) be estimate-1
eatlm9ltft'\ frftm this eimple
from this etmple ohRervation.
observation.
The estimation of the

the individual tree volumes
individlWl tree volumes in in the
the first
first case
case or
or the
the direct
direct
stand volumes
eBtimllti on of the stand
estimation volumft8 in e~ch Rumpling
in each PaMpling unit
\tnl. t in
in the
thfl seoond
second case
case can
ca.n be
be made
made
fo~ulR8 (such
either ty formules (SUCh as geo~etri c formulas
as geometric formulas for
for volumes
volumes of
of simple
simple solids)
solids) and
and
procedureB, provided
graphic proceduree, provided that
that Rufficient
sufficient detailed
detailed measurements are made;
measure~ents are made;
or by quantitative relationships
or relationships between
between the fe~(l) measured parameters
the few(1) parameters and the
the
volumes, such
volumes, such as
as volume
volume equations
equations established
established by regression analysis.
by regression analysiS.
In view of the above two

Iu considerations aa general
two considerations general classification
classification of
of volume
volume estimation
estimation
technique.
techniques could be the following:
following:
1.
1. techniques on
estimation techniquee
volum~ estimation
volume on aa tres basia
tree basis
11. without "quantitative relationehips"
wi thout "quantitative relationships"
12. wi "quanti. tative relationships"
th "quantitative
with relationships"
2.
2. estimation techniques
volume estimation techniques on on aa stand
stand basis
basis
21. wi thaut "quantitative
without "quant.i tative relationships"
relationships II
22. wi tb "quantitative
with "quantitative relationehips"
relationships"
the expreseion
tho expresaion "quantitative relation.ohipe"
relationships" being synonymous with relations
synoumous with relations derived
derived from
from
( 1)
(1) _Qat caves
In most e&ae8 for
for estimation
estimation of
of individual
irdividual tree
tree volumes ~easured parameters
the measured
volumes the parameter. are
are
li.ited
limited to
to di ... ter at
diameter at breast
breaat height
height and
and height (total,
(total, or
or merchantable,
.erchantable, etc.).
etc.).
-- 108
108--
other trees or stands(1)

stands(1) and of restricted
restrioted application:
application: thethe volume equations, for
volume equations, for instance,
instance,
are generally valid for
for aa given
given region,
region, for
for aa given
given site
site quality,
quality, for for aa given
given species
species or
8o~etimes for
group of species, sometimes tor a& given
given range
range of d.b.h., eto.
of d.b.h., eto. (The
(The principles of this
principles of this
olassification are taken
classification are taken from
fro", "Planning
"Planning aa forest
forest inventory"
il1Ventory"bybyB.ll. idusch,
Busch, but the
classifioation
classification is presented in in aa different
different order.)
order.)
The following development

developoent will
will be
be restricted
restrioted to
to the
the problems
problema of
of volume
volume estimation
estimation on
this type
a tree basis as this of volume
type of volume estimation
estimation is
1s more
more frequently
frequently used
used in
in forest
forest inventory,
inventory,
in the
especial~y in
especially the tropics
tropics where
where most
most of
of the
the stands
stands are
are mixed
mixed and
and'uneven.
uneven.
34 e.timation on
Volume estimation on aa tree
tree basis
basia
341
341Geometric formulas
fol'llulas applied
a Had to to standing
otandi or or felled
felled trees.
trees. The total
The total volume of
volume of
stem (or
a stem
. or its
its volume
volume up
up to
to a& minimum
minimum diameter)
diameter ieis expressed
expressed by the well-
by the well-
known formula:
known tormula:
v • f.g.h
where f,
where f, gg and
and hh stand
stand respectively
respectively for
for the
the form
form factor,
factor thethe basal
basal area
area at
at breast
breast height
height
(or above buttres.es) and the
above buttresses) the total
total height
height of
of the
the stem
stem (from
(from the
the stump
stump or
or from
froM the
the
or up
buttresses) or up to
to minimum
minimum diameter.
diameter.
it is
If it is generally
generally possible
possible to
to determine the basal areaarea at
at breast
breast height
height and
and the
the
effectively and
height effectively and with
with reasonable
reasonable accuracy,
accuracy. this
this is
is not
not the
the case
case for
for the
the form
form factor,
factor,
since the form
form of
of the
the stem
stem is
i. not
not easy
easy to
to characterize
oharacterize and
and may
May not
not be
be uniform
uniform all
all along
along the
the
stem.
stem. In addition
addition the
the volumes
volUMes to
to be
be estimated
estimated may
may include
include the
the volume
volume ofof the
the branches,
branches, and
and
in thi. the ratio
thie case the ratio of
of the
the volume
volume to
to the
the product baeal area
produc~ basal area xx height
height is
is even
even more
more
difficult to estimate.
e.timate.
~ost obvious
The most obvious way
way of
of computing
computing thethe volume(s)
volume(.) ofof aa single
single tree
tree is
is to
to divide
divide it
it
(virtually with an an optical
optical device
device if if it
it is
is standing)
.tanding) inin sections
seotions of of equal
equal or
or unequal
W1equal length
length
(logs or "frustums" of
(logs of the
the stem, br&Dchee in
81;eftl, branches in certain
certain cases),
cases), to to estimate
estimate by geo.etric
by geometric
formulae the voluae
formulas the of these
volume of theae individual
individual parts
part. and ~hen to
and then to add the volumes
add the voluae. soeo obtained.
obtained. The
The
geo... trio formulas
geometric fo ....ulas giving
giving the
the volume
vollDle of
of aa section
seotion from
from its
its length
length amd diameter. at
and diameters at the
the ends
endB
and/or a~
&nd/or at mid-length cannot
cannot give
give completely
oompletely accurate resul~s as
accurate results as aa log
log is
is never
never identical
identical
to one of the
to the simplest
simplest corresponding
corresponding geometric
geOlletric solids.
solid.. llut their accuracy is generally
But their generally
.urfioient
eufficient with respect to to the mea.ureBen~ errors
the measurement errors and
and it
it is
is all
all the
the more
more true
true as
as the
the number
number
of sections is higher.
'!he usual
The uaual geometric fol'llulas are:
geometriC formulas are:
gb +~
Smalianis formula:
Smalian's formula: v L
2
Huber' fannuls:
Huber'sB formula: v - gmL
g".L
gb +~+~
gb 4gm gu
Newton'
Newton's fonaula:
B formula: v • L
66
where: v is
is the volUMe
volume of the
the log
IL , 2
gb is
~ the cro8_eo11onal
is the area at
crosssectional area baae : gb • ~~2
at base : 4 01
gm • ~ dm
1r d 22
gm ia
in the cross-sectional middle: g,.
at middle:
croee-eectional area at
gm 4 1\
1r 22
~ ie
gu the cross-sectional
is the area at
eroBe-sectional area top:
at top: gu .1!:.ddu
~ 4 u
L is the length of the log
10
(1)
(1) However these
these trees
trees or
or stands ~u.t belong
standa must belong in
in principle
prinCiple to
to the inven~oried population.
the inventoried popula~ion.
- 109
- 109 --
(Th .. volUllles
(The volumes considered can be
oonsid ..r .. d can be volumes
volumes over over bark
bark or
or volumeu
volu.es under under bark
bark
wi th, in this
with, thi. latter case,case, the di ...... ters d_, d , d being
th.. diameters b .. i"l:>g m..asured
measured
under bark.)
bark.) db'dm'
" m du
und"r U
Th ..... three
These thr .... formulas
fonnulas ara
ar .. valid if th.. log
i f the log cancan beb .. assimilated to aa fruetUIII
frustum of
of
revolution.
paraboloid of revolution. Newton'. formula is
Newton's is also
also applicable
applicable if if the
tho loglog is
i8 approximately
approximatoly
aa frustum
f'rustUIII of of cone
con .. or
or of
of neloid;
neloid; for th .. s .. two latter
these latter oases,
oas .. s, Huber's formula
formula gives
gives an
und ..r .. sti...tion of the volum
underestimation .. of the
volume th.. log whereas
wh ..r .. as Smalian's formula giv .. s an
gives en over-estimation
over-estimation
which is i. twice
twic.. as bigbig aa
as the underestimation
und..r .. stimation of Huber's Hub ..r'. formula.
formula.
The use ofof Newton's

N..wton'. formula
f ormula is is highly
highly recommended
reoo ..... nd.. d when
"b .. n the
the loge ar.. long,
logs are long, i.e.i.e. when
wen
th.. number
the nuzber of logslogs per
per tree
tre .. isis email,
small, and and of of course
cours .. when
when the
th.. whole
whol .. stem
stem is is not
not divided int~
divid.. d into
sections. ~is
This .. eana that
means that to to .. stilll&t .. the volUII
estimate volume .. of aa stem
stem up to a given
up to giv .. nminimum
miniJIIUM top
di ..... ter there must
diameter IllUst be
b .. at
at least
l .. ast two
two diameter
diSlll .. ter measurements
.... asur""' .. nts -- atat stump
stUlllp height
h .. ight or "bov~ the
or above the
buttr .. ss .. s, and at mid-peint
buttresses, mid-point between
betwe .. n stump and the
stUlllp and th.... inimum top
minimum top diameter
diam .. t ..r -- and the the
....asur.... ent of
measurement of' the
the height
height from
frOll the
th.. stump
stUlllp to to the
the minimum
..inimUIII top
top diameter.
di"", .. ter.
Ther .. are
There ar .. three
thr .... usual
usual waye of dividing
n.ys of dividing aa stem:
st ..m:
division in sections of .. ~l length from

equal frOll the
th... twnp, the
etump, th.. last ssection
.. ction of·ten
often being
being
assimilat .. d to a simple
assimilated .impl .. fraction of this
this unit length;
l .. ngth; this procedure
procedur .. is
i. the most
cOIIImon in
common in forest
forest inventory;
inventory;
divi.ion eectiollll such

division in sections suoh as the
th .. difference
differenc .. between diameters at large
betwe .. n their diameters large and
and
...all ende
email .. nds ie constant: the
is constant: th.. lengths
l ..ngthe of
of the
th .. seotions
SMUO"" are are generally
generally different
different unless
Ul'.l88s
the tree
tr .... form
fOrM is
is conic;
conic;
division in
division in sections
... ctions of
of unequal l .. ngth tieing
un..~l length using the
th ...... asurem .. nts at
measurements at breast
breast. height:
h .. ight:
in aa European national forest inventory the
EUropean national the following diametere
diameters are measured on
all trees
tr ..... of the eample:
sampl .. : stump
stUMP diameter,
di .... t ..r, diameter
diam .. t ..r at
at breast
br .. ast height
h .. ight (1.30
(1.30 m), m),
diameter 2.60 m, diameter
di ..... t .. r at 2.60 di ..... ter at at merchantable
m.. rchantabl .. height
h .. ight (or (or minimum
minimUII diameter)
diam .. t ..r) andar.d
di .... t .. r at mid-point between
diameter 2.60 m.. and
b .. tw.... n 2.60 and the
th.. merchantable
m..rchantabl .. height;h .. ight; thenth"n the th.. tree
tr .. e
volum .. is
volume i. computed
oomputed by by applying
applying Newton's
N..wton's formula
formula to to eaoh
.. aoh of
of the two
th.. two loge,
logs, the tho
lowor log with a
lower a length of approximately
approximat .. ly 2.6 2.6 .... tr ... and the upper one from
metres from 2.602.60
metr ... to
metres to the
th .. minimum top
top diameter.
diam.. t .. r.
~ .. instruments
The us ..d for m
instrum .. nts used ..asuring upper-stem
measuring upp ..r-stem diameter
di .....ter and height h .. ight forfor estimation
estimati on of of
volum
volumes .. s of standing
standing trees
tr .... s were
,,"r .. presented
pre.ented briefly
briefly in in paragraph
paragraph 243. 243 . ~
The .. BiH ..rlicb
Bttterlich
rralescopes
.. lascopes used ueed with a tripodtripod prove prov.. toto be
b .. very
very useful
useful dendrometers
d .. ndroJllet .. rs forfor the
the simultaneoue
simultaneous
aeaeurement
measurement of of' diameters
di . .et ..r. and lengths
l .. ngths of
of the
th.. varioue
various sectione.
.. ections. Volum
Volumee .. s of standing
standillg sample
"""'ple
tr.... e for the
trees th.. aesessment
&8s .. eam"nt of of' volume
vol,. .. equations
equaUODll in in tropical
tropical forest forest inventoriee
inv.. ntories have oftenoft .. n been
computed from !rOIl relasoope m.. asurement. on
relascope measurements on standing
.tanding trees,
tr ..... , when
when felling
f'elling of of trees
tree. for
for thie
purpoee was
purpose wu notnot possible.
po •• ibl .. .
342 Vol,,",e equaUoDll

Volume equations
342.1
342.1 Introduction
The
The expre.nion ItvolUllf) equatione"
expreesion "volume i. used
f.quatioJlll" is than the
UIIed rather than the more
.ore common Qn8 *volume
o~on one 'tvolum4t
tabl .. " in order to indicate that
tablee" that only
only equations
equaUons (or
(or formulan)
f'orMulae) giving
giving the
the volume
vol,,",. of
of a" tree
tree
("dependent
("dependent variate")
variate") .as function of'
. aa funotion of the characteristics
oharacteristio. (mainly di ..eter at breast
(mainly diameter br .... t
height and height) and derived
d erived from statistioal
.tati8tioal regression
regreooion analysis,
analysi., are
are detlt
dealt with
with in in
thi. paragraph.
thie
'n1e
The expr . .. ion *volume
expreamion "volume tablea"
tabl . . - includes
inolude. indeed
indeed not
DOt only 1;h~ veleee
only the volu.... tables
table. drawn from fro ..
this tn>o of
thi. type o f' equation,
equatioD, but 0.1.0 those
but also those which
which were
... re (and e.t•.bl1.h..d by
someUlDe. still are) entabliehed
(and soma-tunee by
graphical
grephical or "soOll-graphical " methods (like
or "eemi-graphleal" (like Keen
Ke.n and ""«e's method)
and Page's •• thod) whioh
which ehould
.hould Lo no ·longe
larger...
be ""ed,
/sed, .as
. they
th..y include some personal
personal bias
bi. . and
and dodo not
not allow
allow for
for aa sound ... U ...:t!.on of
sound estimetiou of the
the
. taUsU cal error.
etatistical error .
- 11 0 -
'1!le
The ad'YaDtllj!8
advantage of of the
the ....
uee e of volUOle equations In
volee eqaations in forest
fo...e"t inventory
invedo17 in 8Vident; they
is evident; they
pe",.1t, from detaiJ.~d
peemit, !'r0ill detailed aeM~ent"
meeeuremente on aa liaited
limited """,ber
number of of treee
trees judiCiously
judiciouely selected
selected within
within
the
the foreeted
forested area ("" . . pIe trees"),
aree ("sample tree,,"), thethe objective
objective eetimation
e"tiMation of of the
the volume
volmoe of ~uch larger
of aa much larger
eumber ot
auaber tree. in
of treee in thethe sampling
...pling umits
units aed finally the
and finally the estimation
... timation ofof the
the total
total and mean
and mean
volUOlee within
volumes within the
the inventoried
inventoried area.ar.a.
'1!le
The oolllltruction
oonetruction of vol .... equatione
volume equatione is difticul t, time-consuming
is a• difficult, till ....co:JII\llling and .nd expensive
expensive
t ..k.
task. Onoe
Once it baa bean decided
has been decided inin aa forest
tore.t inventory
inventcry to to eltimate
e.timate the the volume
volume of of the
the trees
trees
of the ... ple by uee
sample ot volume
use of ~tions (and
TOlUOl. equatione not by
(and not by additional
additional meanurements
.. e ....ur ... ent. on
on the
the trees)
trees)
th.re 18
there is a • tendency
tendenay to
to reduce
reduoe the
the work
work related
rel.ted toto the
the assessment
usea ... ent of of volume
volume equations
aquatio ..
without
without .,.11d
valid re . .oWl .
reaaoes. Por iDBta!lCO, it
For instance, it way
. .y happen
happen that
that volume ~tioDB are
value" equations are already
.ftilable and that
available that the
the need
!lead for
tor their
their adjustment
adjutaent or or for
for new
!lew ones
ones is not not felt.
felt. It is
is very
illporU-nt,
important, hc",,",r,
however, to.to oh.ck oaret'ully whether the equations are valid,
check oarefully valid, in general,
general, and
and
.pplicabl. ~ioular case
appliceble in the particular oaa. ofof the
the inventory
inventory to to be carried
oarried out. In paragraph
In paragr.ph 342.4
342.4
.""'e indications
some indicatione will
will be
be given
ginn onon the
the statistioel
stat18tical velidity
.,.lidi ty of
of volume
TOlue. equations.
equations. for
As for
th.ir
their .pplication
application to a • given inventory mamyqueaUone
i"...nto17 .....,. questions have to be answered po.itiv41y:
positively: is is
form ot
the tora of the trees
tree. in the inventoried zone zone similar
aiailer to that of the trees of another another region
region
naed
usea tor
for the TOlUOle equations (in
volume equation* (in the oase at velum*
o. .e of volume equations with diameter
di. .eter and
and height
height ....
as
ind.pendent
independent vari.t •• )?
veriatos) ? I. the average
Ie the average height
h.ight per
per diameter
di. .et"r clase
clus ofof a• given
given speciee
.peciee the
the same
e . .e
the two repOIlll
in the region, (in the ewe oaaeof "local wvolume
at"local" TOlUOletablee
t.blee for
torone
onespecies
speoiee with
with only
only d.b.h.
d.b.h . as
..
ind.pendent
independent variate)?
varlets) ? Is Ie the species composition
apache ooapoei tion in the inventoried zone zons similar
siaUar to that
of
ot the
the region
region otof the asample
. . pl. tree.
traes need for the
used for the volume
volUOle tablee,
t.blee, when
when the
the volume
volume equation
equation isis
UIIed tor the trees
used for tre •• whatever
whatenr the th. species
apaoie.? ? IfIt the available
.vail.ble "local"
"local" volume
vollllle tables
table. are
are for
for
groups at
group. of apaci.a,
speciee, is i" the representation
repre•• nt.tion of of each
.ach species
speci •• in
in the
the group identical in the the
inv.ntoried "'118 and in the area
inventoried sone are. for
tor which thethe velume
TOll... e tablee
tablea were initially
im tially constructed
conetructed ??
eto •••
ato.,,
!U oh.ck the applioability

To check applicability of of the ~lable volume
the available vol"... equations
equatioDB objectively,
objectively, a field
field
teet
test 18 is atrcngly
strongly re ...... nded.
recommended. '1!lis
This II&y direotly determining
may be done by directly detel'llllmng thethe volume
TOlume ofof aa
uu.ber
number ot of Jud1clo~ly
judioionaly .el.cted
selected tre.. troa the forested
trees from tore.ted area to to. be inventoried
inventoried UIIing
using the
the
"same
. . . .measurement
. . .urea.nt standards
.taJ>darda and .ethcde as
and methods . . employed
_plcyed for tcr these
thee. volume ~tions.
vol.... e equations. '1!le TOllllles
The volumes
ot these
of tll_e trees
tree. are
are siso
alllo read troa the
read from the volume
vol..... equations
equations being
being tested.
tested. '1!le percentage
The peroentage ofcf
divercwnc. of
divergence ot the
the individual
1!1d1v1c!ual actual
actual volumes tram those
T01UOle. from at the
tho.e of the equations
equations is ie then
then computed.
ccaputed.
Theae
These percentage.
percentages II&y tabulated and
say be tabuleted ayeraged for
and averaged tor the a . .e species
the same speciee or or group
group of
at species
apecie.
by diameter
di",e ter (and po.llibly also
(and possibly height) classes.
alllO height) cl....... If they
If they reveal
renal aa eigmificant
significant difference
difference
.....
in. volume,
in
unto.
TOlUOl., the ~tiona .
the equations Rey
q beb. considered
ooneidered not not epplicable
r.pplioable or or requiring
raquiring adjustment
adjustment before
1n 1Iappropriate set
in inappropriate ot volume
. .t of volUOle equations or, or, more generally, bad volume
genera14, bad TOl.... e equations,
equations,
wh.th
whether constructed tor
... ccna~cted for this
this inventory or not,not, ..,. significantly reduce the reliability
may "lgnifioantly reli.bility
ot reooulta.
of the results. '!!lie ie
This the more
h all the lIore true .as. the sampling
s . . pling error
error due
due to
to the
the inventory
inventory
... pling itself
Dimpling itaelt is lowl in this
ia low: W. lease
oaae aa large
large compon.nt
component of the total errorerror (including
(including thethe
.... ~.nt errortl)
measurement errors) ..,.
may unexpeotedly
unexpecteay be be due
due to the use
to the ue of of the
the volume
vclUlle equations..
equations.
The aethode ... ed for

methode used tor volume
volua. estimation
e.ti. .tion byby volume
volUlle equation
equation are
are statistical
etati.tical methode.
lIethod••
S at them
. . . of
Soma th_ -- method
•• thod ofot least
l ... t squares,
"quarea, prinoipally,
prinoipally, butbut also
alBa oome ""o~p&1'U!etric" multi-
OOIDe "non-parametric" IIulti-
...nat. anal7eis methods
variate analysis ••thode end a~toaatio olAa.ification
and automatic, olassification - - connist
consiat purely
purely inin metheraticul
mAthem.tical
~at1ona and
oompmtetionm and are nead for
.... used tor the
the assesement
.. aea_.nt of of the
the equstions.
-matlo".,. Regresoion analysis on
Regreacion analytie
contrary serves
the contrary tor the
. .n .. for the applioation
application of ot the
the equation
equaU on to to the trees in
tlul treeB in the sampling
SMpl1ng umits
un1 to
and O&11nCIt
oannot be applied without reetriotive oonditione.
without re.triotlve ""aditions. In
III other worde
word.. it ia alwaye
i t is always poseible
poeeible
to .. tabliah by
0o-tab/Ash by aa .matheaatioal
.th...tioal •• thod aa relation
method relntion of .. IItat18tioal nature
a statietioal nature between
between thethe volume
volume
and .cae charaoteriot1oe of
eome characteristios of sample
.... ple trees,
tr ... , but
but if
it we _nt to
we went to know
know the
th." etatistical
utatlotical error
error
oorresponding
oon •• ponding toto the
the applioation
app/ication of this equation to a.. tree
thh equation tree or
or group
group ofof troom
trees inintbe.
th~
population,
popula tion, some conditions
.""e condi mustbe
tiona .nat be t'ulfilled
fulfilled which
which we nhall deal
we shall deal with
1d th ie
illparagraph
parngraph 342.4.
- 111 -
342.2
342.2 Basict:pes
Basic types of voluneets
of volume equations
The lIost
most signlfioa.nt
significant lIeasured volume(s) of a tree
oharacteriatic to which the vOlume(s)
meaeured charaeteristic tree 18 (.,.. ,
is (are)
related is
is its d.b.h. Therefore all volume equations
equatioDB will
will have
have d.b.h.
d.b.h. and pos8ibly
and possibly
exponents
exponents and
and functione
functions of d.b.h.
d.b.h. asas independent
independent variates.
variates. often one height -- either
Very often
total height or bole height or any aey other specified
specified height
height -- and exponent. or
and exponents or functions
funotioDl ofot
this
this height are added
added to
to d.b.h.
d. b.h. Finally other characteriotics
Finany other oharacteristics are
are introduced
introduoed in
in the
the IIOSt
most
ones, euch
elaborated ones, such as
as bark
bark thickneea
thickne.s or
or some fo~ quotients
Bome form quotients (i.e.
(i.e. ratios
ratio. between
between twy
two
diameters at different
different heights
heights ofof the
the stem).
stem).
Thus volUlie
Thue can be grouped into the tree
volume equations can tree following categories:
categories.
a)
a) "local"
"local" volUlle which relate
volume tables which relate the
the volume(s)
vOlume(s) of
of aa tree
tree only
only to
to d.b.h.
d.b.h. or
or exponents
exponents
and funotions d.b.h. (such
functione of d.b.h. (such as basal area). common ones
The two most common ones are:
are.
2
2
v • ao *ld
a o +"ld
b1
log v
y • b
bo + bllog d
o + bllog d
or v
Bod
b b
o o
o
(with Bo .• 10 0 or ae wh.ther logarithms are
whether the logarithms are decimal
decimal or
or naperian)
naperian)
with.
with: d.
d di ...ter at breast height (d.b.h.)
- diameter (d.b.h.)
.0'
ao, al, b o ' b1
ai' bo' bi e• constants
conetants
b) "standard" volume
"standard" volume equations
equatione which
which inolude
molde asasindependent
indep.ndent variates
variat.s d.b.h.
d.b.h. and
and aa given
giv.n
height, and
height, and funotions
functione of
of these
these two oharacteristios.
twe oharacteristics. The most common
oommon "standard" volume
volume
equation is.
equation is:
v • 0co
0
+ 0ld~
+ c1d2h
with d . diameter
d diameter ,at
.at breast
breast height
height (d.b.h.)
h - total height,
height , or
or bole
bole height,
hai ght, or
or any .erchantab16 or
any merchantable or other
other height
height
Co
co
and. 01 -- oonstants
and o1 constants
0) lIore elaborated volume

more elaborated volUlle equations
equation. specially
speoially developed
developed for
for research
re.earoh purposes
purpos •• or for
national
national forest surveye
surveys and which include
inolude d.b.h.,
d.b.h., one
one or
or eeveral
several heights
heights and other
other
charactaristios.
characteriatics.
Whioh of theee
Which theae types
types of
of volume
vol.. e equatione
equatione to
to ohoose
ohoose for
for aa given
given forest
foreet inventory
inventory is a
difficult
diffioult question.
queetion. In .anJ
many tropical for.st inventories the choice
tropical forest choioe i.
is often between
between
'"looal"
"local" volume equations for every apecies
species or
or group
group of
of epecies
species and
and possibly
pouibly by part of the the
iD't'entoried
inventoried area and "standard"
"standard" volume
vol... e equations
equatione for
for all species
speciee or
or for groups of species.
apecies.
Tha... 1&
There is no
no gen.ral aolution, and each
general solution, each case
cue suet
.ust be
be etudied
atudied carefully
carefully taking
taking into
oODlidaration
consideration the total preciaion
pr.oision required,
required, the
the costs
ooata involved
involved in
in both
both solutions
.olutions and
logi.Uo probl_a.
logistic problems. However, regarding
regarding this
thh problem/
probl_ t twy
two remarks
ra.arka are
are worth
worth mentioning:
.eIlUoning.
a) It hu
has baen
been found in in some
aOlle mixed
.ixed tropical
tropical hardwoods
hardwooda (e.g.(e.g. semi-deoiduoue
s_i-deoiduous andand
...argr.en foreste
evergreen for.at. in w .. t Africa)
west that, for
Afros) that, for aa given
gi... en species
apeoi •• or
or possibly
posaibly group
group of
of species,
epeoies,
tbe average
the a ...arajIB bole height
height (from
(irca top
top of
of buttress
butt re .. to
to orown
crown point)
point) inin every
every diameter
di ... ter class
class
abo.... a certain
above o.rtain diameter
diueter (say( .q 50 oenU•• tr •• ) waa
50 oentimstrea) .... nearly
n.arly constant.
cOJllltant. Sino. the
Since the most
lIoat
i.portant
important vol ..... are generally those
volumes tho .. of trees
_ •• above
above thisthis diameter
diu.ter (which
(which is,
18, in
in_IVmany
oountriea,
countries, the .iui .... diu.ter
mini:0mm diareter of of .xploitability)
exploitability) the the inolusion
incluzion of bole h.ight
height in the \he
...oluae
volume equation loes do •• not
not appear
appear essential,
••••ntial, provided
provided thatthat the
the number
number of
of trees
tre.a inill the
the sampling
a ... pliD«
- 112--
- 112
un! ts of the
units th. corresponding
corr •• ponding species
.peoh. in
in each
....,h diameter
di ...ter class
01... is .""up
1...,. enough and that the
18 large
v&r1.b1li ty within
variability wi thin each
.ach diameter
di ...t.r °lams
01...... oWld this
around thi. constant
oonetant mean rel.ti....ly small.
18 relatively
.&an is _11.
b) '!h.....
The at a• "standard"
use of ".ta.odaz.d" table
t.bl. i.plh. th. .measurement
impliem the at a• height
. . .ur • • nt of h.ightononevery
.....r,.tree]
tr••
th• •
within the "pling units,
sampling unit., or at least
1... 10 on
on aa part ot them.
part of th.. '1'h"
The additional cost 00.10 is
18
.ignitioant since
significant .inoe the
th. time
ti•• required
requir.d for
tor enumeration
.nua.r.tion may ~ be b. double
doubl. or even
.....n longer.
lancer. On the
On th.
other haDd th. reduction
hand the reduction of ot the
th• • "pling error
sampling .rror due
due toto the
the use
.... ofat a• "standard"
".tandard" table
t.bl. inat8&4
instead
ot •a "local" table
of ~ be
tabl" may b" insignifioant
i ..igniticant in in relation
r"lation to to the
th. total
total error which inoludes
inolud•• th •
the
... pling error of
sampling ot the
th" sampling
... pl1ng design
d ••1gn and th" measurement
and the .... ur• • nt errors.
.rrore.. In such
In BUoh oases
au •• the use u"
. ot local. TO 1_. tables
of looal.volume pray•• to
t.bl •• proves to be more
.or• • tt1ohnt mince
efficient aino" the
th. increase
inore..e of ot the . .pling error
th. .sampling error
i ••
is ore than
more than compensated
ooapene.ted byby the
th" reduction
reduotion of ot the
th. cost.
00.10.
342.3
342.3 Combined types at
COIOb1ne4!:pe. of TOl• • !!(Q!tione
volume equations
In some
""'",, recent
r.c"nt inventories,
1nventori •• , the
th. volume
vol." equation
equation approach
.ppro.ch is not as
18 not ... illpl" as
simple ... tho ...
those
d".oribed .boT.
desoribed above and oo..i.t. in
and consists 1n a• •or. or
more or less
1".. complicated
oo.plicat"d oombination
ooabination of at "standard"
".tandard" and
"local" TOl ...." equations.
volume aquatio... The llain
'DI" purpo •• of
main purpose of this
thi. type
type of of 'prooedure
procedure is1. to
to avoid
.void the the
." ........."nt ot
measurement th. "'00l1li.
of the second ohuacterl.tio (h.ight) on every
characteristic (height) ....."r,. tree
tr". of the im.ntor,.
inventory ... ple
sample
whil" trying
while tJ71.ng at the th" same
."" time
ti.e to
to reduce
r"duo" the
th" sampling
.ampling error
"rror due du" toto the
th" use
uee of
of volume
...olUIII"
equatio"".
equations. IIan;r proceduree of
Many procedures at this
thi. type
type oan
oan be
be oontemplated,
oontemplat"d, and 1.po•• ible to
and it is impossible to
li.t and describe
list d".cribe them th. all. tollowing two
The following two examples
"Dllpl". give good illustration
gi..." a• good i11uetr.tion of of this
thi.
type ofat approach.
112-1_22.
1.10 e!!I!Ple. Vol
Volume at the
. ." equation of th" PAO/UHDP fore.t 1nventor,.
FAO/UNDP nationwide forest inventory in We.t
West
JIal~i ••
Malaysia.
•a)) De"or1ption at the

Description of th" measurements
."..ur.ent • •ad"l
made:
d.h.h. over
d.b.h. oyer bark (D.) and
bark (D8) h"ight class
and height 01... on
On all
.11 the 41,200 trees
th" 41,200 otthe
tr" •• of th" inventor,'
im.ntor,.
... pl.;
sample;
- d.h.h. (DB),
d.b.h. (D.), diameter
di ...t.r at.10 16
16 feet
f".t (D16),
(D16), diameter
di .."t.r at
.10 32
32 feet
f •• t (D32),
(D32), diameter
diameter at
.10
orown point
crown point (De)
(Dc) (all
(.11 diameters
di. .ehr. over
DY"r bark)
bark) and bole height
and bole h"ight (11)
(H) on 16,600 trees tr.".
out at 41,200
out of at the
41,200 of th. inventory
im.ntor,. sample
."pl. (subsample)
(.ub .... pl.) for
tor determination
det.rainat10n byby geometric
,..."tric
toraul.. of an eetimate
formulas •• t1I1.t. V, ot the
V. of the volume
volUllle of
of the
the standing
"tanding tres;
tr•• ;
- d.tailed measurements
detailed tor socurate
...........n1o. for accurat" determination at the
dehraination of the volume at the
...01_. of the bole (VF)
(Vp)
on 720
on 120 felled
t.lled trees
tree. out ot 16,600.
out of 16,600.
b) Proo.dure followed:
Procedure tollowed:
- ........ nt of one
amseastent on. equation
aquation (by
(by method ot leamt
••thod of 1...,10 Squares)
.quare.) between
betwe.n VF Vp and Ve,
V., V.
Ve
b.ing
being calculated troo! the
calcul.ted from the measurements De, D16,
....ur• • nbDist D16, D32,
D32, D0
Dc and H &ad"
.l1li. /I made on
on the
the .tanding
standing
tree., troa tb.
trees, from th. 720
120 felled
telled trees:
tr ••• 1
2
Vp
VF • •a + b V. + e0 V.
Vs2 ; ;
application at this
application of th1. latter
latt.r equation
"quation to
to the
th. 16,600
16,600 traes for tr•••
tor determination at their
deteraination of the1r
( •• U_ted) VF;
(estimated)
- ......
eseessment at local ...volume
_nt of 01... equationm
aquatic.. (by
(by method at leeet
••t!>od of le.. t squares) 1>7 species
.quar•• ) by .pech• • l1li.
and
he1ght clams
height troa the
01... from the 16,600
16,600 trees at the
tre •• of typel
th. type:
ai ++ bt
Vp .• al bi D. + ot
0 De2
D.2 (1 - 11 to total number ot species
uuaber of .pe01e. i% height
h.ight claseee);
olu ••• ),
VF Ds +
1 (i .
- .pplication .cd these

applioation_af th... local
local velume
....,lua. equations
aquatio.. to
to the
the 41,200
41,200 trees at the
tre •• of the inventory
1m.ntor,.
... pl. for
eamp/o tor the
the estimation at the
•• ti_t10n of the volumes
...01••• in
in each
••oh sampling unit.
eaapling unit.
- 113--
- 113
2nd eXlllllple.
2nd exaralte. equatio"" of
Volume equations th~ PAO/UNDP
of the FAO/UIIDP inventory
Inventory in in the
the kupea
Aure. Mountains
Mountair... ir
in
Alg1lTia (by
Algeria (by te
theSpeeded)
Spanioh consulting
coneulting firm O.T.I.).
fil'lll 0.T.I4).
aa)) of the
Description of the meaeurements
measurements made:
in the sam pling units of eaoh

the sampling each compartment:
compartment: measurement of diamet.,l'
measurN'lf!lnt diameter at breast
height
height over bark, Da' on all trees
bark, D treea and
and mmanueement of total
m8e~ur~ent of 10tal beigbt
hei ght HHon
one~ Flub-
~ub
sample of trees;
trees; 8
detailed measurements
detailed measurements for ..c ('ur8.t~ determination
fo r accurate det.,rminati o nof
ofthe
t.hevol
volume
une (V) of n~ small
( V) o, small
Bubsample
suboample of trees (33.6~
trees (33·6 Pinushalep~nal!.!
haleonsin trMB 51 pedrus
PJld 57
tres and Cedrus teems),
t.,.ees) .
b
b)) Procedure foll owed:
procedure followed:
"standard" volume equation (by

assessment of one "standard" (by the method of least squAres)
squares) for
for
two species,
each of the twe speoie., from the small
.mall subeample
Bubeample of trees:
tree.:
2 2
2
V . + bH
• aa + + cDs2
bH + cD. ++ dD
dD. H for ~
for Pinus halepene.i.
hale ntis
a' +
V •- a' + b'
b' D 2 H
Ds2 for Cedrus
•
application of
application of these
these "standard"
tletandard" volume equations
equations to
to the
the subeample
sube_pIe of
of trees of each
trees ':>f each
the estimation of their
compartment for the their volume V3;
V ;
3
aoseSSMent of
aesessment of five
five equations
equations (by
(by method, l~aet squaree)
method of least squares) between
between Hn end
and Ds, oach
D t each.
equation corresponding to str .. tum (site
to one stratum (Bite quality):
quality): •
b." D
" 2
H ai +
+ b.
1 B
+ o.
1
D
13
(i
(i -- 1 to 5)
allocation of seseh
allocation of ~ R c h oOP\"lpartJ!lf'l
compartment nt to
to onl!' the five
one of the five strata td.th the
ntrat& with use of
~be use tn...
of the
height measurements
measurMtl!9nts inin the ftubsaI!'p1
eubsample e of the oomparbf'lnt;
the nempartrent;
assessment of one "local"
&80eS8ment "local rI volume equatien
equation per species
speoies apd Bt-r attm betw.!!on
&JXl per atratue between
De from
Vs and Ds from the Bubsample of
th~ subsample of treee
tre es of
of each
ea oh 'species
npecies and
end of ail nO~pArtments of
~ll nerpartments
tho
the stratum considered:
consid.red:
2
VB -
V a.'"
a-'" + b.
b."I II D + c
Ds c.'"
-'" D
D. (j e" 1 to total number
(j number of
of epeoies
opeot •• x
J .. tl'"tum elassen)
stratum clasae.)
• J J •
application
applieation of
of theae "local" volUliI~
these "local" volume "quatiollll
equatione toto •.all
11 tthe
h" tree.
trae ofof the
tho inventory
l.r.vento17
sample for the eetimation
eAttmation of the
tho ·volume. th~ campling
i n the
velumes in eampling units.
units.
The type of approach 1l1Wltrated

of approaoh illustrated byby the
the abeve
above twn
two sample:::
.... ple. can
can bbe.. oonoid.red
ooreidered g1lnerally
generally
as
ua ..more
ore efficient than a eimple
o1mple conventional
oonv.ntional approftch
..ppro ..ch UBi ng only
ueing only one
one type
type of vol .....
volume
equatio",".
equatione. However,
However, their relatiTe .ffiohllOY oannot
relative efficienoy olLllnot be .....u ..d precisely
bo aseemeed precisely as the tho cOflIplex
camele'
prooedure
preoedure ..makes
ake. tho
the oo.putation
oomputation of the sampling
.ampling error too difficult if not impoaeible. impo •• ible. It
is he etmoat
te of tthe importance, .as
'\"bIoet lmportano., for the simple
. for aimple epproach,
tlpprolt.Ch, to
to asoertair
u o«rt ..ir.. fulfilment
tulfi l ",.n't ofot the
tho
conditions
conditions required
required for
for the
the WI.
use of .tati.tical
statistical methods
methods at each••oh step
.tep ofof thethe pr000dare.
proo.d\~-".
342. 4
342.4 3tati.tio&l aspeote
Statistical "'peota of
of the
the volume equAtion appro&~h
volume ecelation approeeh
In .a~ forest
In maey fore.t inventories usinguoing the
the volume
volume equation
equation approweh
approAon for fo r tha
tho estimation
•• timation of
the vol ... (.) of the
voluae(e) tho trees,
tree., inauffialent
inouffiohnt ooneideration
oonsideration is ginn te
is given t o> thn
tho etatietieal
nt.U. U""l Imports,
... p_c t .,
wed ,"are
and more preoisely
preoieely to the the :statistical
ataUdied r8q1li releirementa, mhich """t
r .... nto, whieh must be be 1'ult'illtod lo ~t
fulfilled ·to get re U " bh
reliable
eN t i • • t.. ef
estimates of the
the vol..um
Tolu...andandofofthethe .ampli~
:sampling erroro of
ex...Fore ef the..
theee Bati.Atee.
estimator. to now
Up to nav there
there
1. .widenoo in
ie no evidence in forest
foroet literature
literaturethatthatallallthane
the.easpects
aepo ot.)'..ave
have bOGnbeen tl' oat~, ~
tseated, and there
there i. is
an urgent n.ed
an urgent needforfor8 a clarifioation
clarification of of all
allthe
therelated
relattodproblems.
probl..... The following
~~ follo"ill(f
oo n. ider •. t i onll are
conalderations are no
no wore
more than pM~l
general indt oa tio~ and
lndinatione and renemmendatione.
l".OClIrIIM~ :odat i oM.
114 --
- 114
-
Seleotion of the
Selection of the sam
...ple trees
le trece
Geographic distribution of of tho

the ploto from "hich
plots froll ehich ~lle oample trees
te sample trees are 'selected should
are .elected .hould
pr.ferab17 be
preferably b. based
baaed on
on an
an objective
objeotive sampling
s .. plingdeeign
deeigneither
eit'>.ratatrandom
rand.OIlororsystematic),
.,.et..aUo, or or on
on
a stratified
ItraUfied random
randOll or
or stratified
.tratified systematic
e;rat_atic design (h1 forest
d.sign (by forest type,
t;rpe, for
for inntance).
instance).
Conoentration .ample felled
Concentration of sample felled treee
tre.a inin aaver,. li.iied number
very limited nuMber ofof locationm
locatione within
within thethe
for.at
forest area
eres is
ie often deoided
decided upon torfor evident logistic and
evident logisti~ and .conomic r.&fions.
economic reemone. However. it
However, it
auat
aunt be realized, sven if
realized, even it the location of thesetheae large plots
plots isis determined objectively --
determined objectively
should al~
which ehould the case
always be the O&Ie -- that
that the ~ore concentrated
the more conoentrated the the sample,
.ample, the
tho larger
larger isi.
likel:r
likely to be the sampling error.. Agmin
... pling error.. Apin forfor logistic
logistic and
and economics
eoonOllio reaaone
reasons thethe a_ph trees
sample trees
nl.cted close
are often melected clo.. toto roads
roads oror to
to openings;
openiDglj in in sunh
lu"h oases,
<'&8e., aa bias
bias in
in volume
vol ...e
e.tiaation aa7
estimation ooeur as
may occur as the
tho growing
growing conditions
conditions of of the
the trees
trees are
are different.
different.
Regarding the
Regarding the distribution
distribution per per species
.peoie. and/or
and/or per per diameter
diameter class
clus thethe problem
probl .. is
i •• ore
more
oo.plioated.
complicated. ~ representative distribution
A representative dietribution of of thethe sample
sample trees
tree. (i.e.
(i.e. proportional
proportional to to the
the
tae occetterenoe)
tree oOC'.U'l'&no.) ..among
ong thethe.peohe
species and/or
and/or thethe di .... ter cl&8s
diameter appGartI intuitively
class appears intuitivel:r thethe serest
surest
m.thod, if not the best.
method, beat. However, some
However, oonsiderations may
SOlI. coneideratione ma;yprecludeth.
preclude the use1120 of aa
repr
representative e .. ple; tor
••• ntative sample; for instanoe, euch a sample
inmtance, such BAmple oftenoften results
results inin aa large
large uncertainty
unoertainty in
the vol ... e ••
volume tiaat •• of
estimates of the
the biggest
biggest trees
tree •• inoe these
since theBe ereare little
littl. represented
reprelented in in the
tho population.
population.
It aa7
may b.
be aor. .ffioient to
more efficient to solve
.olve thie
this problem
probl.. by b,. proportioning
proportioning the the eumber
r.uaber of
of sample
s .. ple trees
trees
di..eter clame
per diameter 01... to to the
the relative
relative volumes
vo11ll'les of
of eaoh
eaoh class
cl ... in
in the
the whole
whole population
population (which
(w!dch isis
~ cases close
in many clo.e to to aa Reyman's
Neyman'. allocation).
allocation). In each location,
location, thethe °ample
s&l1ple trees can be
.elected by
selected h1 relamcope
relascope in in such wa,. ..
ouch aa way as toto approach
approach more more cloeely
closel,. this
this optimum
optim... allocation.
allocation.
rejeotion of
The rejection of trees
tree. from
from the
the sample
.ample becauee
because such such characteristics
charaoteristice as a. crooks,
crook., leaning
leaning
tree., fork.d
trees), forked treea, etc. mumt
trees, etc. must be
be done
done on
onaa soiled
sound basis.
basi.. A general
A general principle
principle is ie that
that nono
a.. pll tree
sample tr•• should
should be rejeoted if
be rejected if the
the corresponding
oorresponding volume volUlle equation
equation is is applicable
applicable tp an:r
t~ any
tr.e of the .
tree . . . standards
same .tand&rde within
wi thin the
the forested
foreated area.area. ~e onl,. exception to this
The only this rule
.hould be when
should wh.n the
the tree
tree cannot
cannot bebe aocurately
aocuratel,. measured
.. easured (for(for inetance
instance when
"hen creepers
creepers andand
foliaceous epiphytic
feliaceous epiphytic vegetation
vegetation make
make diameter ~e&Ourements unreliable).
diaMet.r measurements unreliable).
~.re is no universal answer as

There .. to
to the
the number
number of sample trees
tree. to be selected for ~
selected for any
on.
one voluae
volume equation. larger the
The larger tho number
number the
the more
More precise
precise will
will be
be the
the estimate, but
eoti~ate, but
it aloo
also dependl
dependm on a~eany other factors euoh ..
factors such as tbe diameter and the height range of the tho
trees, the .i
trees, •• of
sise of the
the area,
area, the
the number
number of
of forest
forest types,
types, tbe
the variation
variation ofof mita
.ite factors,
factors,
.tc.
to. "Local" volume
volua. equation.°
equations in
in liaitod
limited areas for aa given
areas for given speoiee
.peoie. or
or group
group of
of species
opecics
haTe
have bet!1ID
been oOIllltruoted 100, or even less,
constructed with 100, les8, sample
eample treee.
trees.
Probl. . of regression
Problems reve.lion analysis
anal;yail
a) Onoe ... ple trees

Once the sample tre.. have
have been
b •• n selected
.elected and .. e..ured, and
and measured, and their
their volumes
volUlle. computed,
COMputed,
the soatter
scatter diagraM
diagram with thethe volumes,
vol..e., V, V. on
on the
the y-axis and the
y-axi. and the main
"ain independent
independent variatee,
vari .. te"
d.b.h.,
d.b.h., or (d.b.h.)2x
(d.b.h.)2x H,
H, onon the
the x-axis
x-axi. is i8 drawn.
drawn. AA first
first visual
visual observation
oblervation will
will give
give
an id.a
idee of the strength
strength and
and form
fora of
of the oorrelati()n, and
the correlation, and will how
.how any
&n;y need for
for .. ore
more
...ple tre
sample •• in certain
trees oertain elasees
<>l.. a •• of
of the
the independent
independent variete
variate end tho poseible
and the pos.ible abnormalities
abnorMalitieo
whioh aay
which reault from measurement
may result M. . . ureaent or oomputation
oomputation errors.
errors.
~e ob.ervation of
The obeervation of the
the scatter
.catter diagram
diagrao will
will also
alBOshow
ahowififititha-s to be
has to be 22111
split in two
in two
lIore pert.,
or more po.rt. oorre" pondil18 to
correeponding to different
different portions
portione of
of the
the range
range of values
values of the
the dep"ndent
dependent
variate..
verities. thie is
If this i. the
tho ease
caoe there
there will
will be
b. aa need
need for
for two
two or
or more vol"",e equations.
",ore volume equationa.
bb)) If the
the variation of the vol ... within a class
volume clas9 of the
tho independent
indep"ndont variate
variate inoreaa ••
ineresmes
wi th this
with thl. variate, i t will b.
varlets, it n.o"II&l7'
be necessary:
.ith.r to
either ~fOrM the
to transform tho dependent and ind.p.nd.nt variates
and independent variat •• (for instanc. ~ the
instance by the
use l~t;alc transformation)
uo. of a logaritgaO tranoforaation) in
in order
ord.r to
to get
get aa more
lIore satisfactory
.atisfactory scatter
.oatt.r
diagr_j
diagram;
or to weigh!all
.. i.ttall the
tho varlates
variat •• in
in eaoh
each class
cl... of
of the
tho dependent
dependent veriates
vmriatel by b7 a quantity
quantit7
propo~ to
proportional to the
tho inverse
iov.re. of
of the
tho staedard
.tand&rd devietion
d.... l .. ti.cn of
of tht
tho volumee
valUlOle8 in
in thte
this clase;
cl".1
or to
to uee
use both
both prooederes together.
pro oed'~.8 together.
- 115
- 115 --
canst.noe of the vari

The constanee ..nce of the dependent variate within
variance wi thin each
eaoh class
clus of thethe
independent variates
variates is is aa prereqvieite
prerequisite of of regression
regres8ion analysis.
anal1"iB. this condition
If this oondi tion is
is not
not
fulfilled, the etrength
fulfilled, strength of
of the
the relationship
relationship between
between the
the volume
volume and
and the
the independent
indeoondent variates
variates
evaluated and
cannot be evaluated and the
the sampling
saMpling error
error cannot
oannot be
be determined.
deter.1ned. Generally, thethe variance
of the volume
voh... e in
in each
eaoh class
class ofof the
the independent
im.ependent variates
variateo can
can be
be said
aaid to
to be
be proportional
proportional toto
(dbh)2 (or to a larger
larger exponent
exponent of of dbh)
dbh) or
or to (dbh)2 xr HH(or
to (dbh)2 (or to
to aa larger exponent of
larger exponent of this
ihis
product). '!he
The regression batween V
regreesion between V and dbh for inet""ce ("loc.. l" volume
instance ("local" vol. .e equation)
equation) of the
model: V V ._ a ++ b(dbh)2,
b(dbh)2, with
with a.. variance
varianoe proportional
proportional to to (dbh)4
(dbh)4 inis transformed
transformed in thethe
following regression:
regrenion:
V _ _a_
a +
+ bb
(dbh)2
(dbh)2 (dbh)2
(dbh)2
(wherein the
the variates have been weighted
.... ighted by - ·'-2 which
"hich is
is proportional
proportional to
to the
the
(dbh) 2
(dbh
inverse of the atandard
inverse atandard deviation
deviation of
of the
the volume
volume).
.
c)
c) Then ae .odel equation has
model of volume equation to be chosen.
has to chosen. The choice of the most
moat suitable
suitable
faciIrt&ied by observation of the
model is facilitated the scatter
scatter diagram
diagram of
of the
the ,,"ighted
weighted aDd/or
andLE
transformed variates:
variates if the curve :
c V
r._V- _1_ _7 1
J
. (dbh)2 (dbh)2
, (dbh)2
(dbh)2
of the above example

enunple shows
shovi ae. parabolic tendency toward
parabolio tendency th~ r-axie,
toward the it may
x-&Xio, it mAJ' be convenient to
to
adop
adoptt the following amended
"",ended model:
V a +b b
+ +-- c
.2
-" --2 +
(dbh)2 (dbh)- (dbh),2
(dbh) (dbh)
"h'
vh!ch will
ch wi 11 result finally
finally in the following
in the following volume
volume equation:
equation:
V -. aa ++ c(dbh)
c ( dbh) + b(dbh)2
+ b(dbh)2
A,..other
Aaother way conetructing ttus
_y of conotructing ho model is dra" up
to draw
is to up a list lIost sigrificant
lbt of the most significant
W6ig.bted
weighted (or transformed) sxpreasions
~ranafo",ed) ~rpr of the im.ep"nd"nt
... ione of independent variatee, for
for instance:
instance:
1 1 H (erpre.sions, respectively weighted

(expremeions, ,,"ight"d
--- constant / obh H.
(dbh)2 dbh
(dbh) 2
(dbh)-----2
11 conetant, dbh, (dbh)2, (dbh)H, (dbh)2H, H)

by - 2 ,of.
, oft
((dbh)
dbh)2
arn to apply the

and to tho so-called multi
aultiple otepwise
lo ate se re~ession
re eseion analysis. C""'puter progr""""es
Computer programmes
for thie ••
for this method ni.t which
thod exist "hiob provide
proTide e.. set
set of
of vo
vo ume
,.e equatione, tho first
equations, the ~ne including
first one including
only r,ne rpr ... ton ofofthe
on• •ey:presnion tha independent
independent ..variate
arlah
a
(for
(for ill.O\""o.
instance-V-2
-1-- - -&-2 + b)
b)
(dbh)
(dbh)2
(-CZ?
(dbh)
and eub8equan~ ones differing

and each of the subsequent differing from 0.,..
the former
!J'ooI the 117 the
for.er by inolusion of
the inclusion of an
an additional
additional
variate.
varlet*. The llast
'!he ... t on.
one i.
is the ao.t COPipl.h and precise,
most complete precbe, but the pin in preoision from
the gsin precision from
tthe premoding one aq
he preO<>ding 0'" may not be significant.
dgtdf'1oant. InterpretWon ofofthe
Interpretst!.on th.computer
ooaJNtor outputs
outputs and
and
aelection or
.election ~h. inputs
of the input. inin these pro~ •• require
th••• proKrammes require the
the assistance
.... i.tanoa ofof a• • tatiatician.
statistician.
~oaI. ornJ1.rA.i.n"';n
ocn'traan',n raT' car t~
t.11IIWid~
addedtototbe
the.odel
model inin ,\h••• pro~
these •• , 8uch
programmes, fixed value
as aa fixed
such &8 value of
of
the c~
tho DDt.nt in inc
canetent In oquD~loDO.
tne equntlons.
- 116
- 116 --
Wi th the
With the development
developoent ofof automatic
automatic data
data processing,
proceesing, the
the use
use of
of weighting
weighting (including
(includIng
the research
the research of
of the
the best
best weight)
weight) and of stepwise
and of .tepwise regreseion
regression analysis
analysis should
.hould be
be practised
praotised
to an increasing
to increasing extent.
ext.mt. 'lhese techniques allow
These techniques allow for
for aa sound
sound estimation
e.ti ....tion of
of the
the
statistical errors
statistical errore in
in the
the use
uss of
of volume
volu.e equations.
equations.
Statistioal errors in
Statistical errors in the
the use
use of
of volume
volu.e equations
equations
'lhe
The validity
validity of the adjuotment
of the adjustment by rsgression analysis can
regression analysis can be
be tested
tested byby the
the value
value of
of
. the
the .ultiple oorrelation coefficient,
multizle correlation coeffioisnt, which
whioh is
is equal
equal to
to the
the correlation
oorrelation coefficient
cosfficient when
when
the
the dependent
dependent variate
variate (volume)
volurt is • function of
of only
only one
one expression
expression ofof the
the independent
independent
variates, for instance:
variatee, for instance: V. V . a + b(dbh)2.
b(dbh)2. 'Dlis
This adjustment
adjustment will become More
will become more valid this
valid as this
ooeffioient approaches
coeffioient approaohes 11 (maximum
(mamimum value of the
value of the coefficient
coefficient inin the
the case
oase of
of aa perfect
perfect
adjuatl1ent) •
adjustment).
Eotimation
Estimation ofof the
the variance
variance and standard error
and standard error of
of the
the mean
mean value
value of
of the
the volume
volume given
the equation
by the equation for
for given
given values
values of
of the
the independent
independent variates,
variates, and
and estimation
estimation ofof the
the standard
standard
error of
error of the
the application
application ofof this
this value
value to
to the
the trees
trees of
of the
the inventory
inventory sample
sample with
with the
the same
same
characteristics, are
characteristics, are given
given by
by rather
rather sophisticated
sophisticated formulas,
formulas, and
and advice
advice from
from aa statistician
statistician
would have to to be
be sought
sought for
for detailed
detailed information.
information. The problem posed
The problem posed by
by the
the combination
ooabinstion ofof
the error
the error with
with the
the error
error due
due to
to the
the inventory
inventory sampling
sampling isis aa difficult
diffioul t question
question which
which does
does
not seem
not 8eom to
to have
have been
been very
very much
much dealt
dealt with
with in
in the
the forestry
forestry literature.
literature. Here too,
Here too, the
the
advice
advice of a specialist
of a speoialist must
must be
be sought
sought as
as it
it is
is necessary
necessary toto know
know what
what is
is the
the incidence
incidence of
of
the volume equations
equations on
on the
the total
total error
error of
of the
the volume
volume estimates.
estimates.
Groupl!!(
Grog of of thsspecies
the species
In certain cases,
In certain cases, and
and especially
espeoially in inventories of
of mixed
mixsd tropical
tropical hardwoods,
hardwoods, it
it ie
is
not possi ble to
possible to assess
assesa separate
separate volume
volUMe equations
equations for
for each
each different
different species.
species. Various
Varioue
solutions are poseible:
solutione are posaible:
assess separate
.eparate volume equations
equations for
for the
the most
mo.t important
important species
.pecies and
and apply a
oommon volume equation
common equation for
for the
the remaining
remaining ones;
ones;
.- &esess
assess separa te volume
separata volume ·equations
equations for
for the
the most
Ilost important
important species
.pecies and group each
and group each
of the
the remaining species
remaining species with
with one
one of
of these
these speciee,
species, by
by aa comparative
oomparative study
study either
either
of the
of the form factor
form Un
factor (in the
the case
case of
of "standard"
"standard" volume
volume tables)
tables) or
or of
of the
the diameter-
diameter-
height diagram (in
diagram (in the
the case
case of
of "local"
"looal" volume
volume tables);
tables);
group the species by homogeneous classes
by homogeneous classes in
in order
order to get more
to get More sample
eample treee
trees for
each volume
volume ~quation.
tquation.
This last
last grouping
grouping can
can be
be done
done more
more or
or lees
le •• objectivele
objectively by comparison of
by camparison of scatter
scatter
d.iagrams corresponding
iagrame corresponding to
to different
different species,
species, by
by aa oovariance
oovariance analysis byby groups
groups of
of two
two
speoies (when
mpecies (when the ~ber of
the number of species
speoies is
is maall),
88&11), or
or by
by aa statistical
statistical method
method of
of auteastio
autca&tio
classification (multivariate analyrie
classification (multivariate analysis plus
plus cluster
cluster analysis).
analysi.). 'lhe
The two
two latter methode are
are
the beat
the best and the
the most
Most comprehensive
comprehensive and objeotive ones,
ones, but they require a sufficient
expertise
expertise and thethe aveilability
availability of
of appropriate
appropriate computer
ooMputer programmes.
programme.. Here too,
Here too, the
the
... 1stanoe of
aesietance of aa statistician
stat10tician is
is necessary.
necessary.
343
343 VolUBle
Volume uti_tion
estimation by taper functio,",.
by_Lsker funstione. Taper functions are
Taper functione are amoessed
811888Sed by
by
regrt. • • i on enalyeis
regreseien analysis and rn~ra1l1 give,
&Ild generally give, for
for aa species
apeciee or
or aa group
group ofof species
apeoies in
sn given
given area, the ratio
erea, the ratio ofof the
the diameter
di&RIeter of
of the
the stem at a given
stem at given height
height to thethe diameter
diameter .at
at
~e&lt h.1~t (or a~b the buttresses), .xpre.sed &8 a function
breast height (or above the buttreesee), expressed as a function of this of th1. given
liven height.
hei,ht.
Withiu the name
Withiu the ...e apacies
epooies or ~oup of
or gToup of apeoies
_peoies there ~y be
t hero may be different taper funotionn
different tapar funotiorA accordieg
acoording
to the
to the diameter
di ...ehr olaseem.
oluns .
- 117
- 117 --
Once the taper functions

functions are
are determined,
determined thethe volume
volume of
of aa tree
tree in
in aa sampling
sampling unit,
unit,
d.b.h. and bole
whose d.b.h, bole height
height (or
(or other
other height)
height) has been measured
has been measured can
can be
be easily
easilycalculated
calculated
whole stem
by dividing the whole steon into
ioto fruatums
frustums of
of equal
equal length
length and
aDd adding
addingtheir
their volumes.
volume.. The
volumes of
volumen of the
the individual
individual frustums
frustums are
are calculated
calculated by geometriC formulas
by geometric formulas using
using the
the diameters
diameters
given b7 the
given by the taper
taper function.
funotion. rather lengthy
The rather lengthy computation
computation ofof the
the volume
volume ofof each
each tree
tree of
or
the sample
the sample is not
not aa problem
problem when
when an
an electronic
eleotronic computer
computer isis available.
avai l able.
The
The remarks made
made in
in paragraph
paragraph 342.4
342.4 on
on the
the statistical
statistical aspecto
aspects of
of volume
volume equations
equations
are equally
are equally valid here since
valid here since regression
regression analysis
analysis isis used
used in
in both
both cases.
cues. In particular,
In particular,
the problem
the problem of the
the grouping
grouping of
of species
species (and/or
(aDd/or of
of diameter
diameter classes
classes within
within the
the same
same species)
species)
can be solved
solved in
in the
the same way. The
Bame way. The solution
solution adopted
adopted should
should be
be the
the most
moat objective
objective
possible,
possible, taking into
into account costs
oosts and other
other limiting
limiting factors.
ractors.
344
344 Seleotion of
Selection of the
the most
moat suitable
suitable volume
volume estimation
estimation techni
technique.
e. is no
There is no
general answer
answer as
as to
to the
the best
best volume
volume estimation
estimation technique to be
tech~ique to be used in a
forest
forest inventory.
inventory. Vol~e estimations
Volume e~timations by additional measuremeltu
by additional on the
meaBureme_l~u on the trees
trees of the
the
sample
sample or by
by use re~ssion analysis
une of regression analysis (volume equa~ions, taper
(volume equations, taper functions)
functions) both have
have
advantages and shortcomings which
which are
are summarized
summarized below.
below.
The main advantage of

The of volume
volume estimation
estimation from
fro. additional
addi tiona! measurements
me ....ur... ent. on
on standing
standing
trees
trees is
is that
that there is no aampling
sampling error on the estimation
estimation of the volume,
volume, the only sampling
error being that
that arising from the sampling design of the inventory. There are some dra_
draw-
backsi the
backs: the main one
One is
is the
the additional
additional cost
cost due
due to
to aa longer
longer enumeration
enumeration work,work, another
another one
one
being
being the
the additional
additional measurement errors which may be important
measurement errors important and difficult to
and difficult t o assess
assess
precisely.
precisely.
Methods based
Methods bas ed on
on volume
volume equations
equations and
and taper
taper functions
functions introduce
introduce anan additional
additional
component
component to
to the
the sampling error which may be significant with respect respect to to the
the other
components
components (other ssampling
ampling and
and measurement
measurement errors).
errors). also be
There may also be some
Bome bias
bias at
at one
one or
or
several of the steps ofof the
the construction
construction ofof volume
volume equations:
equations or of taper functions.
functions. The
The
advantages
advantages are important: in comparison
are important: comparison with
with the
the direct
direct method
method ofof volume
volume estimation
estimation itit
generally
generally costs
costs consi derably less;
considerably les8; the volume equations can be uned used for
for further
inventories
inventories and other purposes
purposes and
and will
will remain
remain' as
as aa tool
tool for
for theforeeter
theforeotor which
whieh can be
can be
r~fined later on;
refined later meaBure~ent data
on; the measurement data collected
collected forfor the
the construction
construction of of volume
volume equations,
equatiOns,
which are
are generally more detailed than in the the other
other method, may may serve
serve asas a basic material
material
for
for fur ther mensuration
further studies.
mennuration studies. These
These advantages are of of particular
particular interest
interest in
in many
many
developing countries of the tropical
tropical world where
where forest
foreat mensuration
mensuration is is aa new
new research field and and
where
where mensuration data and volume tables are lacking.
lacking.
44 Quality assessment
41
41 Preliminary remarks on quality
guality assessment
assessment
411
411 Definition of auality
Definivaloflity assessment ina a forest
asseasment_in inKnEkm. The
forest inventory. The previoun
previous sub-
sub-
chapter dealt
chapter dealt with
with thethe methods
methods used
used in
in aa forest
forest inventory
inventory toto estimate
estimate
objectively gross volumes of the the trees
trees within
within the
the sample
sample (total
(total gross
gross volume,
volume, or gross
volUMe
volume of the
the bole, or up
bole, or up to
to a.. minimum
minimum diameter),
diameter). these
these volumes being afterwards
volumes being afterwards expanded
expanded
to the
to the whole
whole inventoried stands
stands according
according to
to the
the sampling
sampling design
design used.
used. Each tree
Eaoh or part
tree or part
of
of aa tree
tree has,
has, in
in addition to its
addition to its dimennions,
dimensiOns, other
other characteristics
characteristics such
such as shape, aspect,
VW shape, aspect.
defect and decay,
defect and decay, which make its wood more or or less
less useful
useful and for given
and valuable for given purposes.
purposes.
The
The classification,
classification, quotation
quotation or or quantification
quantification ofof these
these characteristics
characteristics andand the
the recording
recording
prooes.ing of the
and prooessing the corresponding
corre.ponding data
data -- which constitute quality
which conntitute qualit7 assessment
assessment -- are
are thue
thus
neoessary
necessary to
to provide
provide the
the users
uners of of the
the inventory
inventory results
results with
with more
more meaningful
meaningful and
and detailed
detailed
lnfomation.
information.
-- 11
118-
8 -
412
412 Assessment of "net
"net volumes"
volUl'l!ea" and usefulness of
of this
this conce tt with sB cial
with
reference to forestforest invento
inventory of mixed tro tropical
ical hardwoodshardwoods. . Very often
Very often
defects of the standing
external defecto standing trees are classified in in two
two main categories - - those
thoae which
whioh
are acoeptable
acceptable with regard to a given type of utilization utilization of of the the wood and those which make
the oorresponding
corresponding portion of the tree unusable for this utilization. The volume
The volume of
of the
the
parts of the
parta the tree
tree with
with this
this class
class of of defect
defect -- "defective
"defect! va parte"
parts" -- and sometimes of
a.nd sometimes of the
the
itself are
whole tree itself are subtracted
subtractad from from the
the grose
gros. volume
volume and and the the reduced
reduced volume
volume is
is called
called thethe
flnat volUlle"
"net (see paragraph
volume" (see paragraph 31).31). In many
In m&..ny' inventory
inventory reports
reports estimates estimates of of "net
"net sawnwood
volume",'; or
volumee". "=.Jt P~;-fO..,;J
or 'le-It p7-lo-dv:l-.ll1l ... s'" a.e
vclins' tl~.,.,b obtbdi,d
~'e thw.. >Jbtb.lu~U U
1..., cied ........ tlon
iedtion vipor.ions
1,1 por.;ionsclab..:.:ied
cl&oD':';~ed anao
defective for sawnwood
sawnwood or or plywood
plywood production
production from from the
the corresponding
corresponding gross volumes.
grOBS volumes.
Al though this
Although this is
is aa common
common procedure,
procedure, the the validity
validity andand usefulness
usefulness of of the
the concept
concept ofof "net
ltnet
volume lt are
volume" are doubtful
doubtful in in thethe case
case of of inventory
inventory of of mixed
mixed tropical
tropical hardwoods,
hardwoods, for for the
the reasons
reasons
given below.
There is
ia always a subject.ive assessment, which must be reduced to
subjective component in quality assessment,
aa minimum by a good classification
classification and
and quotation
quotation of
of thethe defects.
defects. This is particularly
important in tropical forestry since thethe inventory
inventory people
people are
are most
most often
often on
on the
the management
or ownerShip side and not
ownership side not on
on the wood utilization
utilization side.
s i de. Net sawnwood volumes given
Net given by
by the
the
inventory may not
not correspond to the
the volumes effectively
effectively ueed
used for
for sawnwood.
sawnwood.
Even if we
Even we consider
consider as negligible
negligible the
the bias
bias coming
coming from
from the
the viewpoint
viewpoint of
of the
the inventory
inventory
people,
people, there are other reasons why
why the
the so-called
so-called net
net volumes are
are eignificantly
significantly different
different
from
from the volume of ueable
usable material, among which
material, among which can
can be
be quoted:
quoted:
quality assessment
quality assessment of
of standing
standing trees
trees most
most often
often does
does not
not take
take into
into consideration
consideration
the inner defects which are not visible andand which
which cannot
cannot be
be safely
safely predicted
predicted and
observation; even for the external defects
precisely estimated from external observation; defects
quality assessment
quality asse.sment may
may be
be invalidated
invalidated by
by difficulty
difficulty in
in evaluating
evaluating the
the defects
defect. on
on the
the
part of
upper part of the
the tree;
tree;
of the mixed tropical

in most of tropical hardwoods
hardwoods there
there is
is an
an incomplete
incomplete knowledge
knowledge of
of site
site
and environmental
quality and environmental factors-which
factors ·which may
may have
have aa bearing
bearing on
on wood
wood quality;
quality; this
this
is different from
situation ie from that
that of
of many
many European
European forests
forests which
which have
have long
long been
been
detail by
known in detail the foresters
'Dy the foresters and
and the
the loggers:
loggers: assessment of a precise
preoise
percentage of
percentage of logging
logging losses
losses and
and rejected
rejected wood
wood is
is much
much easier
easier in
in these
these stands;
stands;
there
there are rapid and significant changes in in the
the conditions
conditions of
of utilization
utilization ofof
hardwoods (changes
tropical hardwoods (changes in
in the
the domestic
domestic and
and international
international markets
markets with
with lower
lower
being accepted
qualities being accepted when
when demand
demand is
is high,
high, modifications
modifications in
in the
the local
local wood
wood
processing facilities,
faoilities, mechanization and changee
changes in
in the
the sizes
sizes and
and practices
praotices ofof
the logging units,
units, etc.):
etc.): thus the specificatione
specifications of
of the
the defective volumes
volwoes used
for
for .. sessing the net volumes may not
assessing not be applicable one
one or
or two
two years afterwards,
afterwards,
between "net
and differences between "net volumes"
volumes" and
and usable
usable material
material may
may increase
increase even
even more.
more.
For all theee

these reasons
reasons -- and
and as
as already
already mentioned
mentioned in
in paragraph
paragraph 31
31 -- assessment
assessment of
of
"net
"net volwnes"
volumes" does not appear to be of very
very great
great help
help in
in mixed
mixed tropical
tropical hardwoods,
hardwoods, at
least in economic
eoonomic terne.
terms. this must
Nevertheless this Must not
not be
be considered
considered as the
the only
only purpose
purpose
quality assessment which
of quality which has other useful
has other useful applications
applications in
in forest
forest inventory.
inventor,y.
413
413 other qualitTaBSeSsment
Other applications of quality in forest
assessment in forest inventory.
inventory.
Co.parison
Comparison of the qualities of
of the
the same
same stand
stand at
at intervals
intervals
Quali ty assessment
Quality ASsessment is
1s useful for
for controlling
controlling (or '-mom toring") the
(or "monitoring") the growing
growing stock.
stock.
inventories of
In repeated inventories of aa given
given forested
forested area,
area, quality
quality assessment
assessment makes
makes possible
possible aa study
study
the evolution
of the evolution of
of the
the stands
stande with
with regard
regard to
to the
the quality
quality characteristics
characteristics and the defect
and the defect
oocurrenoe.
ooaurrence. For such a comparative
oOMparative study,
study, and
and provided
provided that
that the
the quality
quality classification
olao.ification
standing volumes
of the standing volumeD is
1s meaningful,
.eaniQgful, the
the equivalence
equivalence between
between the
the volume
volume of
of the
the
- 119--
- 119
ttno~defeQtive" the usable

"non-defective" classes and the usable material
lIaterial is
is not
not required;
.required; what 1s important
what is i.portant is is
that, for
that, for instanoe, "score" in
instance, a better "score" in the
the second
second. inventory
inventol7' as
as caapared
c<*pared to
to the
the first
fira1;
a real
~eans a
inventory means real improvement
iMprovement with
with regard
regard to
to quality
quality characteristics
characteristiee and d.fect
aDd defect
occurrenoe.
occurrence.
Comparison of qualities for several stands
Quali ty assessment
Quality assessment is
is also
also useful
useful for
for comparing
comparing two or more
two or more inventoried
inventoried areas.
areas. Here
Here
too, there is
too, is no
no need
need for
for an
an equivalence
equivalence between
between the
the volumes
voltunee of
of the
the "non-defective"
"noD-def'ective lt classes
olasael!l
and the usable mat.rial, indicatora must be relevant.
material, but the quality indicators r.levant.
Stratification of the standing

Stratification standing volume for
for further
furth.r studies
.tudie.
Th. stratification of the standingyolumes
The atanding .. luoes into different
differ.nt quality classes
clas.es may b.
be
eatimationa related
useful in estimations r.lated to
to quality.
quality. Thia is
This is particularly
particularly so ao in
in the
the case
case of
of the
the
of aa "recovery
assessment of "reoave factor"
faotor" (or
(or "conversion
"conversion factor"
factor" or or Phitilization
"utilization factor"),
factor"), i.e.
i.e.
the ratio of the usable (or or "extractable",
lIertractable", oror "commercial")
tloolll'llercial") volumes
volUID8s to
to the corresponding
inventory volumes (gross
(gros. or possibly
poa.ibly net
n.t volumes).
volum.s). Th.
The conversion factors
faotor. of
of the various
various
olass.a are in general
classes gen.ral significantly
significantly different,
diff.r.nt, if if the
the quality classification
clas.ification is ~eaningful,
meaningful
and the
and the estimation
.atimation ofof aa global
global conversion
conversion factor
factor isis thus
thus improved
improv.d by the quality
by the quality
clasa1fioation.
classification.
of the
Some indications of the assessment
assessment of
of recovery
recovery factors
factors are
are given
given below
below in
in subchapter
subchapter
55 "Recovery studiea u •
"Recavery studies".
42 M.thod. of quality
Methods of quality assessment
&Bseasment
For the sake

sak. of presentation,
pr.aentation, these
these methods
m.thoda can
can be
bo divided
divid.d into methods
M.thode of .. s ....ent
assessment
defects and
of external characteristics and defects methods of
and methods of assessment
assessment of
of inner
inner defects.
defects.
External characteristics and defects can
can be
be recorded
recorded on
on standing
standing trees
trees as
as well
well as on felled
felled
estimation of inner
trees whereas the estimation inner defects
defects on
on standing
standing trees
trees can
can be
be made only through
through
partial and somewhat imprecise
imprecise observations.
In a particular forest invent~ry there

for.at inventory there may
may be
b. quality
quality asseesment
asaessment (external
(ext.rnal and
poasibly charact.ristics and defects)
possibly internal characteristics def.cta) on
on all
all trees
tre.a of
of the
the sample
aampl. (or
(or of a aub-
sub-
SaMple)
sample) and quality aseessment
asseasment on a small subsample
aubaampl. of
of felled
f.ll.d trees
trees which may
may be the aample
the sample
trees for the volume equations.
equations. Rogression
Regression analysis between the two corresponding
categori.a
categories of data can then beb. used
uaed to improve
improve the
tho quality
quality data obtained
obtain.d from
fro. the
oba.rvation
observation of the
the standing
atanding trees.
tre.s. There may be
b. additional quality
quality indicators
indicatore recorded
r.cord.d
felled trees,
on the felled trees, but for the
~~t for the common
common ones
ones the
the system
system of
of quotation
quotation or
or quantification
quatttification and
the same
recording must be the to permit
Bame to penni t the
the comparison
comparison of
of the
the data
data from
from standing
standing trees
trees and
from
from felled trees.
tr~eB.
421
421 Assessment of
of external
external characteristics
characteristics and detects
and defects
421.1 Recordigg
Recording undt aBsessment
unit of assessment
aBsessment of
For assessment of external
external characterietice
characteristics and
and defects
defects on
on standing
standing trees
trees as
as well
well as
&8
may be
on felled trees two basic approaches may be adopted:
adopted:
1) the section
section concept:
concept: the
the stem is divided into
into a number
number of
of sections,
aeotions, each
each of
of an
an
relative or
absolute, relative or variable
variable length,
length, the
the quality
quality of
of each
each section
section being
being assessed
&Bseased
separately;
separately;
2) the tree
tree concept:
concept: the
the stem is classified aocording to a series of selected
etem is selected
quality or
quality or defect
defect classes.
classes.
-- 120
120--
421.11 section concept

The section concept
a)
a) Section! of absolute length
Sections lessth
'DIe length
The length of
of the
the sections
.ectiol18 in
in aa stem
.to.. r"",ains conetant according
remains constant according ~oto cho .. n
Chosen
.peoiricatiol18 depending on
specifications depending on local
local requirements
requir.... nt. (see
( •• e Figure V-2). J.A .tandard
Figure V-2). standard loglog length
length
of five
of five .etre., or about
metres, or about 1616 feet,
f.et, is
ia often
often used
uaed as as the
the length
length of aec~ion.
of aa section. The gre ••
The gross
volume of each section
aection isi8 assessed
...ea.ed either
either by Means of
~ mewls of taper
taper functions,
functions, or on the bali.
basis of
a percentage ofof the
the gross
gre•• volume of the
vcluo~ of the total stem
atom derived
derived from a.. ple trees
from the sample treee uaed
used for
the formulation
the for.ulaUon of of the
the volume
vcl"",e equations,
equations, or or possibly
po88ibl;r by lIe.. uring the
~ measuring the diueter
diameter at thethe lIid-
mid-
point of
point of the
the section.
eection. Care is
Care i. necessary
nece •• ar;,. to
to allocate
allocate defects
defeet. toto the
the appropriate
approprillte sections.
.ectiono.
FiN. V -2
Figure V
Quality Assesement
Sutlitl !as.lament - - Con.taRt
Constant Siction.
Section,
L0 9 ~o 0 "0 1")
e'au
.".
CD D
...
0 C
...
0 B
...
0 B
*
0 A
....
- 121
121 -
bl
b) Sections of relative
r e l a tive length
length
Quali ty &8ses
Quality ... ent by
assessment by dividing
dividill8 the stem
at ... into
into sections
sections ofof relative
relative length
length isi.
Figure V-3.
illustrated in Figure V-3. In thi
this.... thod the
method the I1UIIIber
number of ot notions
sections in the at ... rremains
stem ... ains
constant,
constant, wbile tbe length
while the l'lI8tb of each
eaob section
aeotion varies
vari.s inin accordanoe
accordanoe with
witb the
the length
length of the tbe
stem. Section limits
11.1 ta are determined by usingusing a section
section ruler. 'lbie inatrunent
This instrument may be
used
used indepemently
independently of the distance b.tw ... n the
between tbe tree
trea and the observer.
and the oba.rver. WUh increasing
With increasill8
number
number of
of sectiona, &8aea.ment under
sections, quality assessment UDder this concept
concept becomes
become. correspondingly
oorrelpondingly More more
detailed
detailed am
and time
time coneumill8
consuming and
and a180
also leaa reliable as
lees reliable as the
the allocation
allocation ofof defects
detects to to the
the
appropriate sections becomes More
appropriate more difficult. Figure divilion into
show. a& division
Figure V-3 shows into three
three
.ectiona,
sections, aa rrumber
number whicb
which might permit !!Ood
good progress of work wi tbout losing
work without loeill8 too
too much
tluch of thetbe
indicative
indicative nature
nature of the results.
results. The grose
gross volume of each stem section•• ction is
ia estimated
from
from taper
taper functions
functions or from the data of the tbe sample
aampla trees
trees used
used for
for the
the volume equations
equations or
by direct
by direct measuremant
measurement of of length
length and
and mid-diameter
middiameter of of each
each section,
section, this
this last
last solution
solution being
beill8
time-consuming.
timeconsuming.
Figure V-3
Quality AsseEsment - Relative Sections

Quality Assecsment Sections
>
QuaIl',
1.09 ~o
cion
.,...
0"" -- D
SO eloar
5,(1'01'
'. . 1,.f "*
~;
CD B
"~
..!-;~: . :
"itt 0) A
- 122--
- 122
e)
c) SeoUona of variable length
Sections 10Th
The divi.ion
The division of of the
the stem
.tem is
i. governed
govern.d by the location
~ the location of
of the
the important
important defects,
defeots, thethe
purpo.e
purpose being to to separate
•• parato the
the logs
loge of
of material
material deemed
d••med ueable
u.abl. from
from the
the defective
defeotive portions.
portions.
Th1a method io
This illustrated in
iii illustrated in Figure
Figur. V-4.
V-4. Th. limits
The limi t. of
of each
each section
secUon would
would have
hev. to
to be
be
determinllCl.
determined by eye using
~ eye uaing judgement.
jud&ement. TO d.t.rmin.
To determine volumes, the
the lengths
l.ngthe of
of the
the sections
•• ctio..
would have
heve to to be
b. determined
determined and taper functions
and taper f'unotiona uaed.
undo the.. functions
If these f'unctions are
are not
not
aY&ilable
available it it would
would be n.ce •• ary, in
b. neceesary, in addition,
addition, to
to measure
m.aaur •• nd- or
end- or mid-diameters
mid-diam.ters ofof the
the
•• o1:1oJW.
sections.
proollCl.ur. is
Thi. procedure
This ia accurate
aocurate and practical for
and practical for quality
quality studies
studi •• based
baaed on
on measurements
meaeurements
ot
of felled trees
tr••• but
but its
it. practicality
practicality is i. doubtful
doubtful if
if applied
applied to
to quality
quality assessment
as.e.am.nt ofof
atanding tre •• ;
standing trees; it
it i8
is time-consuming, diffioult and
time-consuming, diffioult and entails
.ntails aa great
great element
element of
of subjectivity.
subj.ctivity.
Moreov.r assessment
Moreover ......m.nt of of defective
defective parts
pari. and
and usable
usable parts
part. cannot
cannot generally
gen.rally be
be done
done with
with
preoi.ion, l.ast in the case
precieion, at least ot mixed
0 . . . of mixed tropical
tropical hardwoods
hardwoods as
a. has be.n shown
baa been shown in
in paragraph
paragraph
412.
Figur. V-4
Figure
Quality Assessment
quality Variable Sections
A:::lseosrnent -- Variable Sections
Log no.
Log no. Quality class
Cuality
T------- ----------y------- -
o .. j..D
+--------- ----------+ --------
o
0
-t---.-----
C
-------.- ---t-
Q) II
t-------- ----------t
A
-L _ ~~____ ~ _________.
-123-
- 123 -
421.12 '!be conced

The tree conoept
Figure V-5 illustrates

illuotrates the
the manner
manner in
in which
which the
the tree
tree concept
concept of
of quality
quality assessment
........ nt
applies
applies the quality ofof only
only aa epecified
specified lower
lower portion
portion ofof the
the stem
st.. to
to classify
cl... ity the
the whole
stem.
stem. The
The specified length of
specified length cf this
this chosen
chosen portion
portion ofof the
the lower
lower stem
.t.. does
do •• not
not ~ly
usually
exceed six
six to
to eight
eight metres.
metres. Usually, only
Usually, only one
on. epecified
specified length
leQgth is uoad for
i. used tor .aoh
bitch inv.ntor,y
inventory
though, in some instances,
though, instance., it
it may
may be
be necessary
necessary to
to specify
specify lengths
lengths according
accordingtoto species.
speci •••
In
In buttressed
buttressed trees the specified
trees the length is
specified length i. applied
applied toto the
the trunk
trunk above
above the
the buttress.
buttr••••
Volume is
Volume is presented
presented as
as total
tctal volume
volume of
cf the
the tree.
tree. In general, the
the lower
10..... portion at the
portion of the
stem
stem ccntains
contains the greater part ot
the greater the total
of the total volume and is
volume and is the
the part
part of
ot the tr•• of
the tres ot sr.at •• t
greatest
potential value.
111e
The advantages of assessing
advantages of assessing quality
quality by
by the
the tree
tree concept,
ccncept, as
as compared vi th the
COIIparad with the
sectional concept,
sectional concept, are:
are:
- quality class specifications
quality class specifications may
may be
be determined
determined most
mo.t easily
e..ily on
on the
the lower
lover
portion of the etem;
stem;
the possibilities for
for subjective
subjective bias
bi .. are
are reduced;
reduced;
the methcd is more
method is more rapid;
rapid;
the results of the quality assessment etudies
the results of the quality assessment studies can
can also
also be
be presented
pre.entad in
in the to....
the form
of stand tablea;
tablea;
- volume estimation
estimation is
is simpler.
simpler.
Figure V-S
Aa~eG5~~nt - Tree
Quality Assessment
quAlity Tree Appraisal
Appr&iaal
Vs
Remark:
JtallW'k. The qualU,.
Th. quality of
ofLog
l.oC No.
No. 1 may
IIQ' be
'ot ......od
ed from
fro. aa number
DVolibOr
------ of
or specified
.p.clrl~4 quality'classes.
~uality·clam~ ••• Th~ tr
The . .as
tree . .a.whole
whole
takes
hr. its qutlity
.. ita qu.~lit1from
from the
tb.. quality
qu.alit)· clacaification
clua1tie ..U.oD. of
or
Log No.1.
Log No. 1.
-- 124
12tl -
-
421.2
421.2 Quotations
quotationa
Once th~
Once "reoording unit"
the gross volume of a "recording uni til (tree,
(tree, or section
seotion of a tree) hal'} been
tree) han bee n
detemined,
determined, it has toto be classified
clusi fied in one ofof the
the various
vari ous quality classes.
classes. \ ~ '" ~ lloi
Th'" -,717,
Th-
number of quality claases
cl&88es must be decided carefully,
carefully, taking
taking into
into account the purpose
purpos P 0f nf
quality aasesement
the quality asBessment exercise,
exercise, the
the increaaed
increased risks 8u'b,~ectivityiiiherent
risks ofof subjectivity ina
irmerent in dr,tallr,!
a rl,.,t.::t l1 ... <!
ol&8eifioation and the
classification and the relatively
relatively aparee
sparse information obta~ned from
informationobta'..ned from aa very
very broad
broad
olusification.
olassification.
allocation of
The allocation of the
the voluMe
volume of
of aare-cording unit
recording uni t to
to aa given
given quality
quality class
class can
can be
be
done 1n way, directly
in a global way, direotly from
from aa global
global appraisal
appraisal ofof the characteri~tics and
the various characteristics and
defeotl, or
detecte, or in
in an
an analytical
analztical way
way by~ evaluating
evaluating separately
separately the
the different
different types
types of
of defect
defect
and Bubsequently
subsequently regrouping thethe corresponding
corresponding quotations
quotations forfor the
the final
final allocation
allocati on of the
the
to one
unit to one of
of the
the quality
quality claases.
classes.
An example
An example of
of the
the first
firet type
type of
of assessment
assessment is is often
often used
used in
in simple
simple classifications
classifications
concept, such
on a tree concept, auch as
as "trees
"trees rejected"
rejected" and
and "trees
"trees not
not rejected",
rejected", oror "sound",
ftsound" ,
"defective"ft or
"deteotive or "dubious".
"dubioU!l". aeeom type has been
The second been used inin West
West Africa with classification
classificatio n
baoie of
on the basis of sections
.ectione ofof relative
relative length,
length, the
the defects
defects being
being regrouped
regrouped inin three
three
oategoriess those
categories: thoBe related
related to
to the
the shape
ehape of
of the
the section
section (bends,
(benda, crooks,
crooks, oval
oTal cross-section,
cross-section,
.to), itl hsalthinees
etc), its heal thine •• (broken
(broken branches,
branches, rotten
rotten knots,
knot., etc.)
.tc.) and
and the
the aspect
aspect of
of its
its wood
wood
(grain,
(grain, Icars, twiet, sound
scars, twist, .ound knote
knots,, etc.);
etc.); each
each section
aection is
is ranked
ranked from
from one
on. to
to five
five within
within
of ths
each of tho three
three defect
detect categories
catogorie. and
and then
then these
th.se rankings
rankinge are
are combined
combined to
to form
form aa range
range
ot tiv. global quotations
of five quotatione for
for the
the whole
whole section.
.ection.
A thorough analytical
A thorough analytical appraisal
appraisal is,
i., however,
however, to
to be
be preferred
preferred to to the
the global
global approach,
approach,
whioh is
which ie more liable
liable to
to subjective
lubjective bias.
bien. The number of rankings
rankinge of of the
the quotation
quotation muet
must
be large
bs l.rge enough
enough to
to allow
allow for
for detailed
detailed evaluation
evaluation and
and at
at the
the same
eame time
time small
small enough
enough to
to make
make
'he ax.relae as
the exercise &8 reliable &.
reliable as possible.
possible. Five steps appear
appear toto be
be an
an acceptable
acceptable compromise.
compromise.
421.3 reoommendations for

Some recommendations for the
the assesement
.. eesement of
of external
external characteristics
characteristics and
and
d.fects fore.t inventory
defects in forest
If quality assesement
aaseS8ment isie to
to bebe made
made on
on aa subeample
Bubsample ofof trees
trees from
from the
the whole
whole inventory
inventory
.ample.
sample,, the
the selection
eelection of
of these
these trees
trees must
must be
be made
made on
on aa purely
purely objective
objective basis.
basis. Any
!ly8tematio prooedure
systematic prooedure such
such as
as "one
"one subplot
Bubplot in
in every
every sampling
sampling unit" or "one
uni ttl or "one sampling
sampling unit
uni t
flVery lIampling unit",
every nth sampling un! tn, or
or "each
"each 011
i th tree
tree within
vi thin each
each sampling
sampling unit" 1s recommended
uni til is recommended
i neotar as
insofar ao it do.. not
i t does not entail
.ntail any other bias.
&11)' other biao.
Subjeotive blaa in
Subjective bias in quality assessment
aseessment can
can bebe reduced
reduced byby several
several meane,
means, such
such as
as a
clear and
VfJ~ clear
very oomprehensive "quotation
and comprehensive ttquotation key"
keyll in
in which
which every
flVery defect
defect is
is mentioned
mentioned with
with
po •• ible degreee
possible degree. ofof gravity
gran ty and
and oorresponding
oorresponding quotations.
quotatione. preforable to
It is preferable to ask
ask the
the
f.told c...... to record
field crews reoord single
oingle defects
defect. and
and their
their degrees
dogro •• ofof gravity
gran ty separately
separately and
and to
to apply
apply
oorre.ponding quotations
the oorresponding quotationa only
only inin the
tho office,
offico, especially
o.pecially when
when these
these quotations
quotations result
result
from a a combination
combination ofof several
eeveral defects.
defects. Tb
Po make the quotations more more reliable
reliable andand more
more
hOllopDe""" it
homogeneous it is
il important
important to
to restrict
restrict the
the number
numbor ofof people
people inin charge
charge of
of the
the quality
quali ty
........
assessment work and
nt work ~o train
and to train them
th ... very
very thoroughly.
thoroughly. 'llle
The worl<:
work should be done by one mar. mar
or. ., preferably the
per crow, the crew
orew leader.
leader.
!he use
The UBe of
of binocular*
binoculare is18 recommended
reoommended for
for the
the observation
obeervation of of the
the upper
upper sections
sections of
of
the .tanding .tema when the section
standing stems section procedure
prooedure is
is used.
a..d. The obaerver
The observer must turn all around
tho tres,
the tr ••• , and
andat ataa certain
oertaindistanoe,
dietanoe, in
1norder
order to
to make
malee aa full
full inmpection;
iMpeotion; this latt~r
this latter
requ1rea.nt is
requirement 1s fundamental
fundamental but
but is
i. not al~ fulfilled
not always fulfilled in in inventories
inventories of
of mixed
mixed tropical
tropical
hardvoocb where
hardwoods aceeso ie
wh.... access i. often
often difficult.
difficult.
- 125
- 125--
422
422 Assessment of
Assessment of internal
internal defects
defects
422.1
422.1 Assessment of internal
Assessment of internal defects
defects on
on felled
felled trees
trees
The internal
The internal defects
defects are
are &valuated
evaluated on
on stump
stump cross-sections
cross-sections or or breast
breast height cross-
cros8-
sections and
sections and poseibly
possibly also
also on
on other
other cross-sections.
oross-sections. Volume
Volume ofof rotten
rotten parts
parts and
and
consequently
connequently of sound volume canoan thus
thus be
be estimated
estimated precisely.
precisely. The
The most
most important problem
important problem
is how
is how to
to quote,
quote, combine
combine and
and enter
enter in
in the
the classification
classification other
other internal
internal defects
defects ouch
such as
as
insect damage,
insect damage, eccentricity,
eccentricity, stains,
stains, splits,
splits, etc.
etc. Here, too, a satisfactory quotation
Here, too, .
key has to
to be
be devised
devi.ed whereby.the
whereby· the various
various defects
defects and their different
and their different degrees
degrees of
of gravity
gravity
can be combined.
can combined. Applicability of
Applicability of existing
existing grading
grading scales
scales isis worth
worth testing.
testing.
422.2
422.2 A.sessment of
Asseesment of decay
decay in
in standing
standing trees
trees
In recent
In recent years,
years, electrical
eleotrical or
or mechanical
mechanical drilling
drilling instruments
instruments have
have been
been used
used to
to
determine and
and measure
measure decay
decay at
at breast
breast height
height inin standing
standing trees
trees of
of mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests.
forests.
Results of these
Resulte of these observations
observations have
have shown
shown that
that decay
decay occurrence
occurrence atat breast
breast height
height can
oan be
be
detected with
with sufficient
sufficient precision
precision (relatively
(relatively few
few trees
trees with
with aa very
very small
small decay
decay or
or an
an
ecoentric decay are
eccentric decay are wrongly
wrongly classified
classified asas trees
trees without
without decay
decay at
at breast
breast height).
height).
However, precise estimation
However, precise estimation of
of the
the extent
extent ofof the
the decay
decay at
at breast
breast height
height appears
appears not
not to
to be
be
feasible, at least
feasible, at least in
in certain
certain forests;
forests; ecoentric
eccentric andand irregular
irregular shape
shape of
of the
the trees
trees and
and ofof
the decay, this.
decay, prevent this. Moreover, in
in some
some cases
oases there
there is
is only
only aa very
very loose
loose correlation
correlation
between
between diameter of the
diameter of the decay
decay at
at breast
breast height
height and
and its
its length,
length, so
so that
that aa direct
direct and
and
reliable estimate
reliable estimate of
of the
the volume
volume of
of the
the decay
decay and
and consequently
consequently of
of the
the sound
sound volumes
volumes appears
appeare
impossible.
impossible. Finally, problems
Finally, problems are
are caused
caused by
by the
the occurrence
occurrence of
of high
high buttresses
buttresses andand of
of
upper decay.
decay.
However, observations
However, observations showing
showing the
the mere
mere presence
presence of
of decay
decay atat breast
breast height
i:eight are
are very
very
useful.
woeful. They provide
provide an
an indicator
indicator of
of decay
decay occurrence
occurrence inin aa given
given forested
fcrested arma,
area, which
which
allows for Co~par18on
allows for with other
comparison with other forests.
forests. Tbey
They alao p~rmit a stratification
also permit stratification on on aa tree
tree
basis of
basis cf the
the standing
standing volume
volume into
into quality
quality clasees
classes (such
(such asas ·V'Olumes "without decay
volumes "without decay at
at
breast
breant height", "with
"with small
small decay
decay at
at breast
breast height"
height" and
and wheavily
"heavily decayed
decayed atat breast
breast height")
height")
which can be used for
for further
further studies and
and especially
especially for
for the aBSeBoment
assessment ofof recovery
recovery
factors.
55 Recovery studies
studies
51 Princi pIe
Principle
Regarding volu.el, the usual

volumes, the usual results
relultl of
of aa forest
fore.t inventory
inventory areare gross
gras. volumes
volu.ee upup toto
aa given diu.ter, expre.lld per
diameter, expressed per diameter
diu.ter clams
ola.. and group of
&lid group of diameter
diueter classes,
cl..eee, per
per species,
.peclea,
and per quality
and par cl... , for
quality olas., for eaoh
each inventory
iuventor,. unit
unit oror stratum
.trat\lll within
within this
thh inventory
inventory unit.
unit.
For
For .o.e important end-uses,
some important end-Ule., such
such as
. .sawnwood
.awnwood and
and plywood,
plywood, these
these gross
gross volumes
volumes represent
repreeent
overeeti.ation of
an overestimation of the
the aotualusable
aotualuoable volumes,
volUMee, i.e.
i.e. ofof economic
econo.ic value
value and which have
and which have to
to
be conoidered in
be conmidered in preinvestment
preiuveataent studies
.tudie. and allo in
and also in national
national andand subnational
subnational economic
economic
and planning programmes.
and planning progr...e.. Therefore it is il necessary
necesaary to to obtain
obtain anan estimate
estimate per
per species
speciee
.peoie. andper
or group of mpeoies and per inventory
inventor,. unit
unit of
of the
the ratio
ratio between
between the
the volumes
volumee which
whioh are
are
likely to be
likely to be extracted
extracted and tho groms
and the grOIl volumes
volume. given
given byby the
the inventory
inventor,. ,, taking co~
into con-
taking into
oideration tho prevailing
sideration the prevailing conditions
oonditione of of forest ~ent, of
fore.t management, of logging,
logging, ofof aooessibility
aooe.eibility
and infrutruoture,
infrxstruoture, ofot wood
wood utilisation
utilioation and ot domestic
and of dou.Uc and international markets.
&lid international lIarketa. TooToo
otten
often there
there iis
••trong
trong oritioism
oritioi •• of
of inventory
inventor,. documents
docuaente in in tropical
tropical muntries
oountriee because
becaUie the
the
information produo.d by th
information produced •• e .xpeDliye
theme operatiOn. is
expensive operations ia not ot direct
not of direot use
use for
for the
the
ooo.-io and planning
economic and planning purpomes
purpo ••• which
which should
.hould bebe one
one ofof their
their main
main objectives.
objective.. 18 As it
it is
1e
n.oe ••ary to
necessary to get
set an
an estimate
•• U.ate ofot thetzable
tho _bIe wood,
wood, economists
eOODotIi.t. and indUitriallote are
and industrialists are
&pplying an arbitrary
applying an arbitrary ratio
raUo to to the
tho gross
gra.. volumes
vol". •• (or
(or the
the so-called
8<>-called "net
"net volumes")
vol"",e.") whioh
whioh
1.
ta ..ldoa
seldom valid.
valid.
-- 126
126--
R.oovery factors
Recovery faoior. areare also
al.o useful
U8.tul for
for the
ih. owner
own.r andthe
and·ih •• anas-r of
manager of theih. inventoried
i~.ntori.d
fo ....i.. Proa
forests. ihe market
Pros the .....k.t prices ot the
prioe. of th. usable
U8abl. wood
wood heh. can
can determina,
deterlline, by b,. the
tho use
u" ofof the
ihe
re.uli. of the
results th. recovery
recov.ry study
.~ the price at which he can
the price can "sell"
".ell" the
ihe standing
.tandine volumes,
volue •• ,
iak1ne into aonsideretion
taking ooneideraUon the the legging
loging and traneport
trr.neport costs.
co.t.. More
Jlore generally,
senerall,., the th. informa-
iD1'oJ'lla-
tion provided
tion b7 aa reoovery
provided by reoovery study
study is
i. useful
U8.tul for
for the
the owner
owner or
or the
th •• a ..... r of
manager of the
the forest
fore.t
when dealing
when dealing with
with the
the logging
logging contractors.
coniraotor ••
The qu •• tion hae

question has be.n
bean rai.ed
roamed .. whether the estimation
ee to wheth.r •• ti.aiion of
of these
the.e ratios
ratio. should
.hould
be provided
be provided by by the
ihe inventory
inveniory people
people or
or whether
wheth.r it
it should
.hould be
be left
left to
to others
oiher. ouch
ouch ..
as
eoollClliat. logging epecialisti.
economists or logging .peciali.U.
It seems
•• aM. obvious,
obvioU8, however,
however, thet
that the
the people
people responsible
re.poneible for
for the
the inventory
inventory work
work
are the bbeet
•• t acquainted with the
ecquainted with the figures
figure. they
the,. produce,
produo., with
with their
th.ir validity and
end their
their
applicabiliiy, and
epplicability, and that
that they
the,. should
.hould therefore
therofore bebe involved
involved in
in the
the estimation
•• tisation of the ••
theee
ratio., either
ratios, either byb,. themoelvem
th...elve. or
or preferably
pr.f.rabl,. in
in cooperation
cooperation with
with logging
loging end
and otber
other
lpeo'lalilte.
epecialieto.
Si",11e. related
Studies related toto the
the estimation
eaUmaUon of of these
tbe •• ratios
ratio. are
are called
call.d here"reoovery
bere"recovary studies",
.tud1eo",
but their
but their prinoiple
prinoiple iis. the
the same
.... as. for
tor those
tbo .. celled
called in
in other
other documents
doo"",ento "forest
"fore.t utilization"
utilization"
.tud1ea
etudiee or "harvesting
"harve.Ung intensity"
lnhneity" studies.
.tudie••
52 Related problems
probl ...
In addition
In addition to
to the
tho estimation
e.timation of of the
tho extraotable
extraciabl. volumes
vcluee. (or
(or of
of the
tb. parts
part. of the
the
gro •• volUMe.
gross volumes which are left
l.ft in
in forests),
fore.i.), itii is
i. also
al.o interesting
iniere.ting to to know ihe
the percentage
percentage
of each
eaoh commercial
co.. eroial grade
grade of
of the
the extractable
extractable volumes,
volUM •• , s.s
.. tbe
the rrespective
•• peotive value
velue and
and
po •• lble utl1i
possible ••tl0. of the
utilisation ibe varloua grade. are different.
various grade. different. 1A recovery
recovor,. study
.tudy ahould
abould aim
aim
.t
at •• U.atlng these
estimating th... percentages:,
peroent&B •• , although
although inin .ome . . . . U&ding
SOMG 0cases grading ie10 net
not as
.. objeotive
objeotive ee
••
iit oould be.
t could be.
The extract.bl. yoluee. to
extractable volumes to be
be considered
ooneldered are
are those
iho •• whioh
.nioh come
oo.e toto the
the .ill yards if
mill yard. if
the
the wocd
wood i. be processed
io be
is to proce •• ed locally,
looall,., or
or to
to the
ihe harbours
harbouro if
lf it
it is
18 to
to be exported. In the
be exported.
ocase
.. e of dcae.ilc
domestic prooe •• lng ihe
processing oony.r.lon factor
the oonvereion factor of
of the
the mll1
mili isi. applied
applled to the extract-
to iho extract-
able voluee.
volumem given by
b,. the
th. inventory
lnventor,. in
ln order
order to
to relate
relate the
the output
output ofof the
the mill
s111 to
to the
tho
existing volue.e
e%1.ii~ given forest
volumee in a given fore.i area
area.
Due to
Due io the ohaDc1ng conditions
the changing oondi tione in
ln wood
wood utilisation,
Iltil1aaUon, in
in markete,
1Iarket., in
ln infrastruotere
lD1'r.. tl'llOi;u-.
aDd po •• l bly al.o
end pomeibly ln forest
also in fore.t management
aanac-ent and logging,
logging, the
the results
re.ul b of
ot a recovery
reoovery study
.twiy are
are
valid for
velid for aa relatively
rdaUvel,. short.hort period
p.riod and
and must
muat be
b. up-dated
uj>"datedwhen
Idle•• ignifioantchangas
significant cha", ••oocv.t.
000=.
EY •• within
Even wi thin aa given
giv.n region
region oror country
couniry the reoovery factors
~he reoovery taoioro vary acoording to
vary according io acooesibi-
aoo.. l1bi-
lity and to the possible
lity po •• ible utilisation
utillaailon ofot the
tho forests;
tcre.t.; it ii is ot utmost
1. of utmo.t importanoe
1.portanoe to
to
distinguie4 for
di.tiucv.1.~ lnetano~. between
tor instance, between the 0&&.
the ease ofot aa forest
tore.t used
uaed for
tor pulp
pulp produotion
produotion and
aDd thai
that
ot
of & tore.t uaed
a forest tor sawnwood
used for .awmtOod and
and plywood
plywood production,
produotlon, or Or between
b.t.... n the 0".
th. case of
of local
local
prooe •• l", and
processing and the o.. e ot
the oast, log szport.
of log export.
In ,lixed
In mixed tropicalhard""od tor •• t., recovery
tropioalhardwood forests, reoovery studies
.11141 .. nuat
flU8t be
b. performed
pertoX'IHd by .peci ..
by species
Or group' ot
or Vou~ of .peoh. of tho
species of the same
.... utilisation
utiliaatlon deetination4
de .. Unation. In In most
.o.t oases a reoovor,.
0 . . . . e. recovery
tao tor ooverine
factor oovering all opeol..
species or v.ry groupe of opeoies
very large groups .peol.. is1••• &ninel... ea
meaningless •• there
there .oy
may
be tr.endoue
tremendous ditt.r.no •• in
differences ln recovery
reoovery and
.nd in
in value perper volume
voluee unit
unit within
within theseth ... groupe.
uou~.
53
53 atAtti_mzsiaLl
Goueral procedure
531 .t'2 of
Jlain 'teem
Main £.oo....ry
ot aa recovery stuk
.!u4l
In .lxed tropical hard000de
mixed tropical hardoood. the
the recovery
reocrnry studies can be
.tv.die. can b•• plH in
split 1n three
three main
.ain parte:
peri&:
- estimation
- at the
•• i1s&tl0. of ihe selection ot tho
.eleoiloD of ih•• tanding trees;
standing tr ••• ; lf tor oertain
if for o.rtain species
.pecl ••• 11
all
ire •• which
tress whioh can be logged acoordlng to
a000rding io the .~.ni regulatione
the management ragulatlono areare effeotively
.tfeotive17 Called.
tor many otherwthar.
for &&QJ otherethere iei . aa eelection at the
.eleciion of the standing
.tanding trees,
tre •• , for lna~.no. those
tor instence tho •• which
whlcb art.
.r.
- 127
- 127 --
aoo~ed to
assumed to be
be rotten
rotten inside
inaide after
after tapping
t.pping the
the bole
bole with
with. hAeaer are
a hammer ape generally
generally not
not felled;
felled;
- estimation
eatim.tion of
of the
the percentage
percentage of
of trees
tre •• felled
felled but
but not
not used
u.ed due
due to
to splitting,
splitting,
breaking, significant
breaking, significant decay
decay not
not detectad
detected previously,
previously, bad
bad logging
logging conditione,
conditione, etc.;
etc.;
-estim.tion p.r inventory

-estimation por inv.ntory quality
quality class
01... of
of the
the peroentage
peroentage of of rejected
rejected volumes
vol~es and
poo.ibly of
possibly of percentages
percentage. of
of the
the different
different commercial
cOMmercial grades
grade. and
and further
further determination
determination of
of
the glob.l
the reoovery factors
global recovery factor. and
and grade
grad. percentages
percentage. for
for the
the whole
whole gross
grao. stock.
otock.
532 Implementation
Implement.tion
I
If logging units
f logging uni t. do
do not
not exist
exht inin the
the inventoried
inventoried area
ar•• or
or in
in a• similar
oimilar neighbouring
neighbouring
area, experimental logging
area, an exnerimental logging operation
operation may
may be
be carried
carried out.
out. This .olution
solution is expensive
but .llows an easier
allowe for an e.. ier planning
pl.nning of
of the
the study.
.tudy. InIn this
thi. case,
o..e, however,
hOlnOVer, the
the logging
logging is
is
not necessarily
not necessarily included
included within
within the
the commercial process and
co~ercial process and the
the output
output ofof the
the study
.tudy may be
~ay be
optimum recovory factorB.
recovery factors.
If aa survey
If survey of
of logging
logging units
uni ta ia
i. carried
carried out,
out, the
the sample
... ple of
of these
th... unite
units will
will have
have
to be
to be carefully
oarefully conetituted
oonatituted and atratified
.tr.tified according
acoording to to the
tho aain utilization destination
main utilization de.tination
of the
of the extracted
extracted wood
wood (e.g.
( •• i. local
100.1 processing
proo ••• ing or
or log .xpert.,
log experts, pulp
pulp or
or other
other industrial
indultrial .
uses) .nd
uses) po.sibly aleo
and possibly .1.0 according to the logging
logging system
.y.tam used and to the the aoces.ibility
accessibility if if
this varie
varies••significantly
ignificantly from one inventoried area
on. part of the inventoried area to the other.
oth.r. The
!lbe most
IIO.t
evid.nt procedure
evident procedure within
wi thin aa logging
logging unit
unit seems
...... to
to be:
be:
- before logging,
logging, the
the full
full enumeration
.DUlleration and
and numbering
nUlllb.ring of
of all
all trees
tr.es of
of the
the studied
studied
species .bov. the minimum
species above minimUII acceptable
.co.pt.ble diameter,
di ...t.r, with
with estimation
e.tim.tion of of their
th.ir gross
gross volumes
volum.s
.nd
and with quality amsessment,
........nt, in an area
.n ar •• which
which is
i •• oon to
soon to be
b. logged;
logged;
after logging,
- aft.r
me ... ur.... nt of
measurement
lOgging, the counting
of the
oounting of abandoned
tho extracted
.xtr.oted logs
loge and
.bandoned standing
.t.nding and
loggi,,!! losses
.nd logging 10. . . .and _ie.
f.lled treee
and felled
.nd wamte.
tre.~ and the
and the
R.oording and
Recording .nd prooessing
proo ••• ing of
of the
tho data
d.t. (with po •• ibl. use
possible use of
of aultipl. ragr •• sion
multiple regression
analysi.
analysis b.tw
between inr.ntory quality clergies
•• n inventory 01 ••••• o~.roial grades)
and commeroial grad•• ) has to be
baa to b. designed
d•• igned
oar.fully.
carefully. The total
total oost
oo.t ofof aa oonsistent
oonai.t.nt r.oov.ry study
recovery .tudy is
i. not
not negligible,
n.gligibl., and
and its
its
progr_ing and budgeting
programming l>ud«.Ung must be included
inoluded in the planning
planning stage
.tage of
of the
the inventory.
inv.ntory.
533 Example
!lb. following
The following graph
graph illustrates;
illuotrat •• tho
the .prinoiple
prinoiple and
and the
the proo.dur.
procedure for.
for a reoovery
recovery
study. It is i. adapted from
frOll a similar r.oovary study
.i~ilar graph drawn for a recovery .tudy performed
porforlled wi thin
within
the framework
the framework of of an
an l"AO/UHDP inventory in
FAOMNDP inventory in hill dipterooarp foresto
hill dipbrooarp tor •• t. of Sarawalt.
Sarawak.
-- 128
128--
for not
Reasons for not
felling trees
felling trees
'I'O'ML
TOTAL
STANDING aw og
3aw og ength
VOLUME
VOLUME considered too
too short
short
lame er considered
too small
o demand for this
No this
-1
species
-F3 j riker
1 er
Too
Too much decay
decay
expected
Y(
I VOLUME FELLED I
117TO'LUME FELIM VOLUME NOT FELLED
Da erOUB to fell
erous to
Damaged during
fell
duri ng the
the
felli
felling of other trees
1\ to get
Likely to get damaged
damaged j
duri f
Likely to
Likely to fall
rall in
in
umana able position
unmanageable Bi tion
Poieonous
Poisonous
"'1
\Nt Other reasons
reasons
I
leavi~
Reasons for leavinE
felled material in
the Forest
fo nd
not foy,nd
Log not
Log irretrievable
b\1ttrees j
Log considered buttress
fom
Log considered form
defect
h_
j
conaidered too
Log considered too
hea
heavy flllti
fluting
considered too
Log considered
Y
IVQtURE F'ELLi!D I
.II J:X'lRAC'lED
VOLUME FELLED & LEFT
,..
hea
'""::::::------l Log
Log
felli
felli
internal
damaged
deea
internal toóea
decaz
damaged during
during
-1
to~
considered too
Log considered
short _-.J
considered
Log diameter considered
a.all
too small j
Misjudgod by felling
Misjudged by rolling
crew
·Other reasons
129-
- 129
66 Accessibility studies
Accessibility studies
61
61 Introduction
to 5
Subchapters 11 to deal with
5 deal with the
the production
production of
of volume
volume estimates
estimates in
in aa forest
forest inventory
inventory
from
from data collected in
in the
the field.
field. In addition
In addition to
to the
the quantity
quantity and
and quality
quality of
of the
the standing
standing
and
and extractable volumes, knowled~
extractable volumes, knowledge of the
the physical
physical and
and Bocio-economic parameters which
socioeconomic parameters which have
have
a bearing on the forest management and
and harvesting
harvesting costs
coste is
is necessary.
necessary. par~eterB
These parameters
define the
define the accessibility
accessibility of
of the
the standing
standing volumes
volumes and
and future
future yields
yields of
of the
the inventoried
inventoried
forests.
Assessment of
of the
the accessibility
accessibility parameters
paraBeters should
should be
be carried
carried out
out within
within the
the
framework of the inventory
inventory for
for many
many reasons:
reasons:
the inventory results muat

the must be
be as
as complete
complete and
and meaningful
meaningful as as possible
possible and
and must
must
data on
therefore include data on accessibility
accessibility in
in order
order to
to give
give information
information toto the
the ueers
users
of the inventory
inventory which
which can
can be
be directly
directly and
and immediately
immediately utilized
utilized byby them;
them;
the inventory
the inventory crews
crews are
are collecting
collecting data
data inin aa large
large number
number ofof units
units objectively
objectively
located over the
the whole inventoried
inventoried area,
area, and
and are
are thus
thus in
in aa better
better position
position than
than
most of the
the users
users to
to record
record also
also accessibility
accessibility data,
data, particularly
particularly as as it
it may
may be
be
for further
appropriate for further computations
computations toto have
have accessibility
accessibility datadata and
and volume
volume data
data
recorded entirely
entirely or
or partly
partly in
in the
the same
same sampling
sampling units;
units;
it is much more practical

practical and econo~ical to
and economical to have
have accessibility
accessibility data
data recorded
recorded by
by
the inventory
inventory crews
crews than
than to
to perform
perform another
another survey
survey designed
designed only
only for
for collecting
collepting
this additional information.
this additional information.
Information on accessibility
Information on accessibility is,
is, like
like that
that on
on volume
volume estimates,
estimates, needed
needed at
at different
different
Bcales and levels of precision depending on the
scales the type of results required.
required. The method
The
used for
used for assessing
assessing accessibility
accessibility will
will vary
vary accordingly.
accordingly. However aa standardized
However standardized approach,
approach,
which unfortunately does
does not exist at present,
present, would greatly facilitate
facilitate the
the comparative
comparative
use and interpretation
une interpretation of
of acceesibility
acces.ibility results.
results.
For a given
given level
level of
of the
the forest
forest inventory
inventory (world,
(world, regional,
regional, national,
national, subnational,
subnational,
preinvebtment or
preinveatment or local
local level)
level) and
and aa given
given level
level of
of precision,
precision, the
the accessibility
accessibility study can
as providing
be defined as providing an
an answer
answer toto the
the following
following question (Nilsson, 1972).
question (Nilsson, 1972).
"How much wood specified

specified by
by apecies, dimensions and
Elpeciee t dimensions and qualities
qualities can
can be
be made
made available
available
markets (mill
at tentative markets (mill sites)
sites) within
wi thin alternative
alternative cost
cost limits
limits per
per unit
unit volume
volume ?"
?"
Given this definition, possibly

posBibly complemented
complemented by
by the
the introduction
introduction of
of the
the time
time factor,
factor,
the aethod
method used for assessing
asseBsing accessibility
accessibility in
in aa given forest
forest inventory
inventory must
~ust solve thethe
problems I
following problems:
1) parameters need
Which parameters need to
to be collected
collected??
2) parameters be quantified
How can these parameters quantified or
or classified
classified??
3) Which quantitative relationshipe

relationships have
have to
to be
be used
used to
to estimate
estimate the
the management
management and
extraotion costa
extraction coste from these accessibility
parameters??
It is
is clear from the above
above coneiderations
considerations that
that aa permanent
permanent dialogue
dialogue between the
the
inventory and the logging specialists
the logging specialistB muet
must be
be maintained
maintained in
in order
order toto design
design aa suitable
suitable
.. sessment within
method of accessibility assessment within aa given
given foreet
forest inventory.
inventory. is particularly
true for
true for the problems ofof the
the selection
selection and
and quantification
quantification of
of the
the accessibility
accessibility parameters,
parameters,
problem lies
whereas the third problem lies essentially
essentially within
within the
the competence
co~petence ofof the
the. logging
logging specialist.
specialist.
paragraphs we will
In the following paragraphe will deal
deal only
only with
with the
the selection
selection and
and quantification
quantification of
accessibili t y parameters.
accessibility parameter ••
- 130--
- 130
62
62 Seleotion of
Selection of accensibility
acoossibilitypa.
paraMetere
rsmeters
621
621 The cost
cost of
of logging,
logging, transport
traneport and
and forest
forest roads
roado varies
varies according
according to to an
an almost
alntost
infinite number
number ofof factors.
factors. Some of
of these
those have
have aa strong
strong influenoe,
influenoe, whereae
whereas
other are
other are of
of only
only minor
minor importance
importance and
and can
oan therefore
therefore bebe disregarded
disrogarded for
for the
the purpose
purposo of of
aa.o.sing aooe.sibility.
aesomeing acceeeibility. The practical
praotioal approach
approach is,ii, then,
then, to
to establish
eetabli.h thetho correlation
oo~lation
betwe~n the seleoted
between the .eleoied factors
factore and the logging
and the logging and transport coste.
and traneport cost.. Thil oan now
This can now be
bo made
made
by logging specialists
by logging 'pecialilts inin various
various wive,
weYB, the
the most
moet practicalbeing
practicalboing toto set
set up
up mathematical
~atho.atioal
_odol. for
models tor each
oaoh work
work operation
operation quantifying
quantifying the
the influence
influence on on the
the cost
ooot of the
the oelootod
selected
factors.
faotors. In ouch
In euch model
model building
building the
the logging
logging specialist
opecialist should
should endeavour
endeavour to to make
,oake use
use of
of
par..etors which
parameters whioh are
aro already
already measured
measurod in
in the
the inventory
inventory end
tnd should
should bebe rather
rather cautious
oautious in in
introduoing additional
introducing additional parametere
par. .eter. which
which might
might be
be difficult
difficult and costly to
and costly to measure
meaaure by by the
the
invontory orews.
inventory crewe. The advantags
The advantage ofof the
the use
use of
of mathematical
.. athematical models
modele isis that
that they
they can
oan be
be
inoludod in the
included in the computer
computer programmes
programme. ofof the
the inventory,
inventory, thus
thus enabling
enabling the
the accessibility
aooes.ibility
of the
the inventoried
inventoried foreste
forosts toto be
be asseesed
aa.essed simultaneously
simultaneously withwith the
the inventory
inventory resulte
reeult. on on
the
the quantity and
and quality
quality of
of the
the resource.
re.ource.
The acceesibility
The accessibility parameters
parameters can
oan be
be classified
clas.ified mainly
mainly into
into two
two groups,
groups, namely
namely the
the
fore.t
forest condition parameters
parameters and
and the
the socio-economic
socio-economic parameters.
parameters.
The values of
The of these
these parameters
parameters for
for aa given
given inventoried
invontoried forest
forest or
or for
for aa part
part of
of it
it
have to
have to be
b. combined
combined with
with production
production data
data in
in the
the mathematical
mathematioal models
modele for
for the
the assessment
aseesement of of
the
the managemsnt and harvesting
management and harvesting coste.
oosts. These
These production data
data have
have to
to be
be determined
determined forfor the
the
various forest
forest work
work operations
operations (mainly
(mainly logging,
logging, transport,
transport, road
road construction
construction and and maintenance)
maintenance)
work studies
tro~ work
from studies and
and production
production and
and cost
cost control
oontrol schemes.
echemes.
Other classifications can
can aleo
also be
be applied
applied to
to accessibility
accessibility parameters.
parametere. It is
It is
important, for
important, for inetance,
inotance, to
to distinguish
distinguish between
betwesn those
those ofof aa stochastic
stochastic nature
nature (e.g.
(e.g. volumes
volumes
by diameter classes)
clae.8s) which
which are
are estimated
estimated by
by field
field sampling
sampling andand those
those of
of deterministic
deterministio
nature (e.g.
nature (e.g. the
the distance
dietance of
of an
an inventoried
inventoried stand
stand from
from mill
mill site
site or
or market).
market). latter
The latter
are usually
are usually not
not measured
measured in
in the
the field.
field. Whether aa parameter
Whether parameter ieis to
to be
be assessed
assessed by
by aa sampling
sampling
prooedure or
procedure or by
by aa deterministic
deterministic method
method depends
depends on
on practical
practical factors.
factors.
other parameters
Like other parametere (see
(eee paragraph
paragraph 221
221 of
of Chapter
Chapter 3)
3) accessibility
acoea.ibility parameters
parametero oan
oan
be given continuous
continuous or
or discrete
discrete values
values through
through direct
direct measurements
measurements oror can
can be assigned to
be ansigned to
aa given class (especially
given clase (especially in
in the
the case
oase of
of descriptive
descriptive oror qualitative
qualitative parameters).
parameters).
622
622 forost condition
The forest condition parametere.
parameters. The forest condition parameters are
The forest are
physical parameters
physical parameters related
related to
to the
the trees,
troes, to
to the
the stands
stands and
and to
to the
the land,
land, to
to
the climate
the and to the location (with
climate and (with regard to
to existing
existing oror possible
po.sible Emcees
acoea. to the forest).
to the torest).
Mo.t of the
Most of tho tree
tree and
and stand
.tand parameters
parameters areare generally
generally estimated
•• timated byby field
field sampling
sampling'
prooedure. and
prooedures and many
many phyvioal
physioal data
data on
on the
the land
land can
oan also
aloo be
be collected
colleoted during
during the
the forest
forost
inv.ntory.
inventory. It ie
is important
important that
that the
the foreet
foreat inventory
inventory data
data bebe collected
collected inin suoh
suoh aa way
way as
II
to enable
to enable the
the resulto
reaults toto be
be applied
applied toto exploitation
exploitation area
area units.
units. Their
Th.ir precision
precision is
is
dopendent
dependent on on the
the sampling
oampling intenaity
intensity ofof the
the forest
forest inventory
inventory in in relation
relation to the size
to the size ofof
tho exploitation
the exploitation unit.
unit. obtain.d from low
Data obtained low sampling
.ampling intensity
int.noity over large area
over a large area can
can
aoourate estimatee
riv~ aocurate
give •• timat •• for
for the
the whole area,
ar.a, but
but do
do not
not generally
generally give sufficiently
accurate data forfor the
tho asmesement
as.o.ement ofof logging
logging costs
00.10. for
for parto
part. ofof that
that area.
area. fro~
Apart from
tho .ampling
the intenaity the
sampling intensity tho dietribution
di.tribution of of the
tho sample
oample has aloo to
baa aleo to be
be considered.
coneidered. AA
'1Wt ..atio one-stage
ystematic ono-etage sampling
.ampling design
do.ign is
i. often
often considered
ooneidered useful
uo.rul as it allows
I I it allow. for
for the
the
po •• ibility of changing
possibility 0hanc1n& the
tho limits ot the
liNits of tho exploitation
exploitation unite.
unit ••
622.1
622.1 Troo and stand
Tree parametor.
.'and strameters
Th••• are
Those aro stimated
•• timatod in
in all
all forest
fore.t inventories
invontori •• and
and are
aro mainly
mainly numbers
~b.r. of of etems
stom. and
and
tho oorr
the •• pondinc gro
oorresponding •• or
gross net vol~es
or net per diameter
volumes per diamotor (and po •• ibly height)
(and pcseibly height) cl&ls •• , and
classes, and per
per
.peote. lP'0upe of
speoies or groups of speoiee.
apeohe. Tho mean and
The .. nd total
total estimates
ostimato. must
must be
bo given
given with
with sefficient
sufficient
pr.oi.ion por
precixion exploitation unite
per exploitation unit. ifif they
thor are
are toto be
b. ueed
ueod for
for aaseaeing
...... ing acoessibility.
aco ••• ibility.
- 131 -
They iinclude
nc lude also parameters
parame ters of quality
quality (see
(Bee subchapter 4) which
subchapter 4) which are
are to
to be
be estimated
estimated to
to
determine the percentage
percentage per
per species (or
(or groups
groupe of
of species)
species) and
and per
per size classes of
size classes of the
the
trees
trees which will not
not be
be felled
felled due to
to their
their visible
visible defects
defects and
and which
which also
also Berve
serve for
for
eBti~ating
eetimating the extractable volumes by by meanr
means of
of aa recovery
recovery study.
study.
The
The results of the
the recovery study
study (mee subchapter 5) also
(aee subchapter also provide
provide physical
physical data
data
essential for the
the accessibility
accessibility study.
study. Since they are
Since they are collected
collected in
in logging
logging unite,
units, it
it is
is
possible to find out which
which volumes are
are to
to be
be considered
considered in
in each
each logging
logging operation
operation (felling
(felling ,
skidding truok hauling).
and truok
skidding and hauling).
Other tree and stand

stand parameters
parameters are
are important
important with
with regard
regard to
to accessibility
accesaibility but
but are
are
difficult to
to quantify, such as
as the thickness of the laimararLh.
of the undergrowth or
or the
the branchiness
branchiness of
of the
the
trees.
trees.
622.
622.22 Terrain and soil_parameters
soil parameters
The
The main
main characteristics ofof terrain
terrain and
and soil
soil which
which have
have en
an influence
influence on
on forest
forest
accesaibility are considered
accessibility are considered in
in the '~UFRO proposal
the "IUFRO proposal for
for international
international syttem
aystem of
of terrain
terrain
classification" and
and in
in the
the FAO
FAO note
note "Tentative
"Tentative checklist
cheokliat for
for describing
describing and
and quantifying
quantifying
loggir.g
logging transport conditions".
trRnsport and roading conditione". TheBe are:
These are:
a)
a) terrain parameters
pattern which
terrain pattern which can
can be
be described
described by
by geomorphological
geomorphological features
featurea such
such as
as
relief amplitudes,
amplitudes, regular
regular or
or irregular
irregular drainage
drainage pattern,
pattern, stream
stream frequencies,
frequenciea,
rock outcrops,
outcrops, etc.;
etc.;
single ph.ysiographic
area of a Single feature ("terrain
physiographic feature ("terrain unit")
unit") defined
defined by
by ite
its relief
relief
amplitude, its length
amplitude, its length and
and width;
width;
width and depth of
of rivers
rivera and
and creeks;
creeks;
(longer than
slopes (longer than 50 ~etrea);
50 metres);
ground roughness
ground roughneaa defined
defined by the frequency
by the frequency of
of obstacles
obstaclea with
with aa relief
relief amplitude
amplitude
exceeding 0.3
exceeding 0.3 metres;
metres;
~icrotopography
microtopography defined by the frequency of gulliea
gullies and
and slopes
slopes shorter
shorter than
than
~etrea;
50 metres;
area flooded with an indication
indication of
of the
the duration
duration and
and frequency
frequency of
of the
the floods;
floods;
b)
b) soil parameters
bearing capacity
bearing oapacity in
in moist
moist state
state for
for off-the-road
off-the-road vehicles;
vehicles;
suitability for road construction
oonstruction and
and maintenance
lIaintenance which
which takes
takes into
into account the
the
depth and the texture of the
the soil
soil and
and the
the stoniness
atoniness of
of the surface (1);
the surface (1);
susceptibility to erosion
susceptibility to erosion which
which is
is important when connidering
i~portant when considering in
in particular
particular the
the
oonstruotion and Maintenance
road construction oosts.
maintenance costs.
622.3 parameters
Climatic yarameters
The olimatic
climatic parameters for assessing
paraMeters useful for asa.ssing logging
logging coste
costa are
are related
related to
to the
the
following ite~sl
items:
the corresponding
rainfall, the corresponding characteristics
oharacteristics being
being the
the amount
amount and
and the
the distribution
distribution
annual rainfall
of annual rainfall and
and the
the maximum
maximum rainfall
rainfall per
per hour
hour and
and per
per day;
d~y;
(1)
(1) Deposi" G of
Deposie'e of gravel
gravel and
and quarry
quarry sites
sites .hould be recorded
Rhould also be recorded by
by the
the inventory
inventory
cre~ outside the
crews the sampling
sampling units,
units, especially when such
~specially when such deposits
deposits and
and sitee
sites are
are
ra.re.
rare.
-- 132
132 --
water
water discharge and its variation;
variationj
temperatures;
insolation,
insolation, with the important
with the important characteristic
characteristic of
of the
the length
length of
of sunny
sunny periodR
period"
during the rainy
rainy season.
season.
622.4 access parameters

Location and access arametero
The main location and access

&CCeS8 parameters useful for
p&rMleters useful for accessibility
accessibility assessment ar~:
aBSeABmetit are:
distance routes to
distance and transport routes to wood-using
wood-using centres
centres (milis,
(mills, cities,
citieR, densPly
densp.ly
populated areas,
areas, export
.xport ports);
ports);
data ooncerning existing and
concerning the existing and potential
potential transport
transport network
network inside
inside the
the forests,
foresta,
auch
such as
as the network density
density and
and the
the distance
distance of
of cross-country transport per
croBs-country transport per types,
typeR,
standard.
standards and capacity
capacity classes
class •• (estimation
(e.timation of
of the
the road
road length
length can
can be
be made
made through
through
the
the use
use of a
a rectangular transect
transect system
system and the application
and the application of
of the
the "needle
"needle
proble.. " method).
problem"
623 The Eooio-econoMic par.. sters. Thee.

cocio-economic parameters. These paraMeters
parameters are absolute and
are absolute and are
are
deterftined national economy
determined by the national econOMY and
and laws.
laws. They are
They are needed
needed to
to establish
establish cost
co.t per
p~r
unit time of production
production factors
factor. in
in the
the cost
cost formulas.
formulas. Three
Three groups of data
groups of data can b~
can be
distinguished here:
here: labour, equipment, and other
labour, equipment, other data.
Labour.
Labour: InformatiOn on labour
Information on labour availability
availability and
and skill,
skill, payments,
payments, fringe
fringe benefits,
benefits,
transport or
transport or camp
carop facilities,
faoilities, number
number of
of working
working days
days per
per year,
year, number
number of
of effective
effective
IOOrking
working hours per
per day, etc.
d~, etc.
EquipMent:
Equipment: Operating costs
costs based
based on
on purchase
purchase prices,
prices, customs
customs duties,
duties, cost
coat of
of fuel,
fuel,
!acilitie. of servicing,
facilities for and cost of servicing, etc.
etc.
other data. Such as laws

Other data: laws on
on transport,
transport, railway tariffs, exploitation
railw~ tariffs, exploitation restrictions,
restrictions,
eOMpo.ition the enterprise, etc.
composition of the etc.
63
63 Quantification and/or classification
Quantification classification of
of accessibility
parameters
631
631 relevant to
Parameters relevant to felling.
felling. For felling,
felling, in addition to the the most
charaoteristics, other parameters
important tree characteristics, parameters such asas crown length
length or or any
any
other indicator on branchiness
branchiness and
and on
on delimbing
delimbing difficulty
difficulty isis useful.
useful. Slope and
Slope and other
other
terrain conditions are also also important.
important. A combined
A COMbined quantification
quantification of of the
the form
form and
and quality
quality
of the trees and of ·the terrain and
lhe terrain and vegetation
vegetation on
on the
the felling
felling site
site is
is shown
shown in
in the
the
following table.
following table. coeffioient should
The coefficient should reflect
reflect how
how production
production in
is influenced
influenced in in relation
relation
"nortllal" conditions.
to "normal" oondi tiona.
Correction factor
Correction faotor reflecting
refleoting working
working conditions
conditions (other
(other than
than normal)
normal)
Terrain and
and quality
Form and quality of
of the
the trees
trees
vegetation on the Short and
folling ei to
felling site Tall and
and well
well Normal length and
formed trees
trees and/
and/ and form
and form and/or
and/or badly formed
badly formed
or few
rew damages normal damages
normal damages trees
trees andlor
and/or
severe damages
aevere damlUre8
St.ep
Steep terrain (more than 30%) or
.w.aP7 and/or severe
swampy ground and/or severe 0.9
0·9 0.8 0.6
0.6
felling ob.taole. etc )
(underbruah, etc.)
obstaolen (underbrush,
- normal -- conditions
Average - oonditiono 1.2
1.2 1.0
1.0 0.8
0.8
SMooth undulating terrain,

Smooth or undulating terrain,
w.ll
well drained .0U.,
soils, no .ever.
severe 1.5 1.2
1.2 1.0
underbrueh
underbrush Or
or other felling
telling
0"""a01 ••
obstacles
-133-
- 133 -
632 Parameter. to transport and road construction

Parameters related to
632.1 The following classifications

classifications of of slope
slope and
and ground
ground roughness
roughness are
are extracted
extracted
from IUFRO "Proposal
from the TUFRO "Proposal for
for International
International System
System ofof Terrain
Terrain Classification"
Classifieation"
as examples
and are given as examples but
but not
not as
as models
models to
to be
be adopted
adopted in
in all
all cases.
cases.
632.11 ~
Slope
Slope is
is described
described by
by the
the gradient
gradient (a),
(a), the
the length
length of
of the
the slope
slope (b)
(b) and
and the
the a.pect
aspect
of the
the slope (c).
(c).
Slopes with lengths

lengths of more than
than 50 metres are defined as as major slopes.
slopes. with
Slopes with
lengths
lengths of 10-50
10-50 metres are
are defined
defined as minor slopes,
a8 minor slopes, for
for example
example lesser
lesser valleys
valleys and
and
hillocks. Variations of less
1es8 than
than 10 metres in
10 metres in length
length are
are defined
defined as
as "ground
"ground roughness".
roughness".
(a)
(a) Gradient
Gradient
The average gradient

gradient is
is recorded
recorded in
in per
per cent.
cent . The following
following classes
classes are
are adopted:
adopted:
11.• 0 - %
- 55 %
2.
2. 55 -- 10
10 %
%
3. 10 -- 20 %
10 %
44.. - 33
20 - %
33 %
5.
5· 33 - 50
33 %
50 %
6.
6. 0 %
>550%
classes may
Intermediate classes may be
be used if necessary.
used if necessary.
·rIte
The slope is stated in
in terms of its relation to
to the
the access
access road as
as
1• posi (uphill to
tive (uphill
positive reach the
to reach the access
access road)
road)
2. (downhill
negative (downhill " .. . ))
The description may be completed by recording the

The the maximum gradient.
gradient.
(b)
(b) Length of
Length of the
the slope
slope
to major
With regard to major slopes
slopes the
the length
length of
of slope
slope is
is recorded
recorded in metres in
in metres in the
classes:
following classes:
JoIi nor slopes
Minor slopes
1. 10 -- 50 m1ft
Major slopes
niLE.2_1221,2
2. - 100
50 - 100 mPI!
3. 200 m..
100 -- 200
4. - 400 mPI!
200 -
5. - 600 m..
400 -
6. - 800 mPI!
600 -
7. 800 - 1000 m..
800 -
8. 1000 -- 1200 m
PI!
9· 1200 -- 1500
1500 mPI!
10. :>
1500 m1ft
> 1500
Classes with
with wider
wider intervals ~A¥ be
interval. may be obtained
obtained by
by amalgamation.
amalgamation. B lopes may
Minor slopes
oceur aleo as parta
occur parte of
of aa major
Major slope.
elope.
- 134
- 134 --
(c)
(c) A.pect
Aspect of the slope
The
The aspect of the slope is
is recorded as
as the
the compass
compass bearing
bearing in
in the
the following way:
followill8' way:
11.• North (N)

(N)
2.
2. Northeast
Northeast (NE)
(NE)
3.
3. East (E)
(E)
4.
4. Southeast
Southeast (SE)
(SE) .
5. South
South (S)
(S)
6.
6. Southwest
Southwest (SW)
(SW)
7. W.st
West (W)
(W)
8.
8. Northwest
Northwest (NW)
(NW)
632. ,12
632.12 roughness
Ground roughness
The
The roughness of
of the
the ground
ground is
is described
described independently
independ8ntly cf
of the
the slope
slope on
on the
the basis
basis of
of
the
the vccurrence
occurrence of obatacles, i.e.
of obstacles, i.e. local
loenl surface
surface variations,
variations, boulders,
boulders, rocks,
rocks, stumpe,
etumpe, holes,
holes,
hollows, etc. of
hollows, etc. of more
more thdn 30 cm
th~ 30 em height
height or
or depth.
depth.
The roughness
The roughneso is
is described
described by the general
by the general occurrence
occurrence of
of obstacles (8). When
obstacles (a). When
required a description
required description of
of the
the occurrence
occurrence ofof obstacles
obstacles by
by types
types and
and size
size is
is undertaken
undertaken (b).
(b).
(a)
(a) General occurrence
occurrence of
of obstacles
obstacles
following classes
The following clas.e. are
are adopted:
adopted,
1. sl'Aooth ground;
very smooth ground j average
average distance
distance between
between obstacles> 5.0 m;
obstacles >5.0 "' i miniMUII'I
minimum
distance between
between obstacles
obstacles> 3.0;
.> 3.0;
2. !illooth
smooth ground;
ground; average
average distance
distance between obstacles >>5.0
between I)bstacles 5.0 m;
m; minimum distance
minimum distance
between obstacles <
between obatacle. 3.0;
<3.0;
). uneven ground; avera~
average between obstacles
distance between obstacles 5.0 -- 3.0
3.0m;
mj
4. uneven ground;
very uneven ground; average
average distance
distance between
between obstacles"::::
obstacles< 3.0 3.0 m;
mj
5. ground with boulders and

and scree;
Bcree;
6. ground Kith and clefts.
with precipices and clefts.
B.r distance between obstacles the unencumbered distance between the

By the limits
limite of the
the
obstacle. i8 understood.
obstacles is
(b) Ocourrenoe
Occurrence of
of obatacle. by types
obstlaletly typee and
and sizes
a1 •••
lIoiSI1t
Height or _bel' typ.. of
Number of different tyTes obataales
of obstacles 'lI:>tal number
Total !l1lIIIber
d.p~h
depth of ob.tacle9
of obstacles
ot-.~acleo.
obstacles, per hectare
Precipices Rock and !Ioleo
Holes Stumpe
Stumps OtherB
Others
•• tr..
metres
and boulder.
boulders and
clefts hollo...
hollows
0.5
0.3 -- 0.5
0·5 - 1.0
0.3 - 1.0
1.0
1.0
-- 135 --
The occurrenoe of types

occurrence of types of obBt&Cl~8hould be
of obstaclesshould rec~rde~ in
be recórdel in absolute
absolute figures.
figures. With
With
r eg<o.rd to
regurd to the
the clase
class "precipices
"precipioes and
and clefts"
clefto" the
the height/depth
height/depth class
class may
may be
be sub-divided.
eub-divided.
632.
632.22 Probl~MB
Problems related to slope
elope assessment.
&asessment.
The
The elopee
slopes considered
considered thethe most
most important
important with
with regard
regard toto logging
logging costs
coets are
are slopes
elopes onon
distance. longer than
distances lollger than 50 metres ('~ajor"
50 metres ("major" elopee).
slopes). In the
In the field
field inventory
inventory the
the slopes
elopes can
can
be
be measured
measured generally only on
generally only on shorter
ehorter distances
diotances (10
(10 to
to 20
20 metres
metree inin many
many cases).
cases). Mean
Mean
elopee longer
slopes longer than
than 50
50 metres
metree can
can be
be estimated
estimated on
on aa sampling
sampling basis
basis on
on aerial
aerial photographs
photographe or or
large-scale (smaller
on good large-scale (smaller than
than 1/25,000)
1/25,000) topographic
topographic maps.
mape. The comparison
The comparieon between
between
measurement of
of slopes
slopes onon the
the ground
ground and
and on
on the
the photographs
photographs oror maps
maps shows
shows that
that the
the occurrence
occurrence
of elopes is
of steep slopes is overestimated
overestimated on
on the
the ground,
ground, since
sinoe aa certain
certain proportion
proportion of
of steep
steep slopes
slopes
in the
the terrain
terrain are
are on
on short
short distances.
distancee.
Whatever the gradient classification

claseification adopted,
adopted, 50% (practical
(practical maximum
maximum elope
slope for
for aa
tractor at present)
present) and
and possibly
possibly 70%
70% (occurrence
(occurrence of
of difficult
difficult road
road construction
conetruction problems)
problems)
should
should be used as limits
limits in
in the
the gradient
gradient classification.
classification.
A
A recommended. claaeification of lengths
recommended classification 0'
lengths of
of elopee
elopee with
with aa gradient
gradient larger
larger than
than 50%
50% is:
is:
50 metres - )300
metres - 00 metres
300 metres -- 700 metres
300 metres
> 700 metres
> 700 metres
632.3 Another exar

Another example of grOundlmlinese
rOughness classificatio~
clan assification
A further
A further method of recording
recording ground
ground roughness
roughness together
together with 90~e other factors
with some factors
difficult to
to measure is
is shown
shown in
in the
the following
following table.
table. Each parameter
Each parameter is
is subjectively
subjectively
aBeessed
assessed iin
n a difficul~class ranging from
difficult,clase ranging from 11 to
to 55 where difficulty class
where difficulty class 33 could be regarded
regardod
as
as "normall!.
"normal". '!be
The points difficul ~ parameters are added and the
points of the difficultyparameters the sum
sum is
is then an
an
expression on their aggregate influence on
aggreeate influence on extraction
extraction to be used
to be used in
in the
the cost formula for
cos"t formula for
this
this operation.
Difficulty Parameter.
Parameter
class
Surface Ravines ISil
!soil Undergrowth Windfalls
Windfalls
structure
structure and :t>earing
earing etc.
etc,
swamps
ewampe "apaci
capacityty
1
1 smooth
even none
nona good
good none none
none
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
, 22 22 1
1 1
1 0
0 0
0
33 4
4 2
2 22 11 1
1
4 6
6 4
4 3 22 11
cr rough very high
J
,) very rough high very very
many etonee
stones frequenc~
frequency poor dense
dense frequency
and boulders 8
8 6
6 4
4 2
2
10
The Rum
The sum of
of pointe2C out of
pointer out of table
table gives
gives E
E followir~ conversion
through the following conversion table:
table:
'--E ! 1 2 3 4 5
:,,s: 0-5 6-11 12-17 18-23 23-30
- 136 -
CBlP'l'ZR
CRLPTER n
VI
Ill!! IIICORDllIOAID
DiT1 RECOZING OJ) PlOCISSllIOINII
PROCESSING POI!I:S'1'INVENTORY
P'013123T IIVIII'!'OIIJ'
- 137
- 137 --
CIlAPl'ER VI
CHAP'I'ER VI
nr. TA RECORDING
DATA .um
RECORDING AND PROCESSING
PROCESSING IN
IN FOREST
FORE5T INVENTORY
lllVENTORY
11 Introduction
Introduction
Data recording
Data recording and data processing
and data prooessing can
can be viewed as
be viewed ae major
III&jor links
links between
between the
the planning
planru.nt;
completion of
and completion
and of aa forest
forest inventory.
inventory. inventory data,
The basic inventory data, either gathered in
eith~r gathered io the
the
fi el<1, from
field, photo interpretation
fl'OOl photo interpretation oror from
from other
other sources,
sources, cannot
cannot be be processed
processed without
withou't having
having
first been
first been reoorded,
reoorded, edited
edited and condeJJSed.
and condensed. In addition,
In addition, thethe data
data processing
processing procedure
prooedure
be adapted
m~ t be
muet adapted to
to the
the epecific
specific requirements
requirements and design of
and design of the
the inventory
inventory itself.
itself. It is,
It is,
therefore, essential
therefore, essential that
that the
the treatment
trea~ent ofof the
the data
data be considered as
be considered ae an
an integral
integral part
pert of
of
forest inventory
forest inventory from
from the
the very
very beginning
beginni ng planning
planning stages.
stages.
Data reoording
Data reoording and
and processing
processing should
should bebe given
given careful
careful consideration,
consideration, particularly
perticularly
during the
during the initial
io1 Hal planning
planning stage
Bt8ge ofof aa forest
foreBt inventory,
inventory, since
.ince the
the meane
meano of
of data
data
processing (e.g.
(e.g. available
available facilities
facilities andand personnel
personnel for
for computation)
computation) oror the
the cost
cost may
may have
have
coneiderable impact on on the
the denign,
design, intensity,
intensity, and and timing
timing of
of the entire inventory.
the entire Within
Within
information required
the framework of information required and money and
and money and time
time available,
available, the
the treatment
treatment ofQf the
the
data has
data to be
baa to considered as
be considered ae aa limiting factor which
limitil~ factor which directly
directly influences
influences the
the choice
choice of
of
invent ory method.
inventory method. Broadly speaking,
Broadly speaking, thethe simpler
simpler thethe inventory
inventory design,
design, the
the lower
lower the
the cost
cost
of data
data handling
handling and
and the
the less
leBS time-conauming
time-consuming the the job.
job. Although data
Although data processing
processing serves
serves
more es
more as aa tool
tool of
of forest
forest inventory
inventory than
t,han as
as aa determining
determining factor,
factor, its
ita influence
influence onon the
the
realization of
realization of the
the inventory
inventory should
should not
not be
be underestimated.
undereBtimated.
Since the
Since the whole
whole field
field of
of data
data recording
recording and and processing
proces9ing isi9 very
very complex
complex and
and
particularly fast-developing,
particularly fast-developing, thethe contents
contents of of this
this chapter
ohapter can
can only
only be
be considered
conaidered as
&8
general guidelines
guidelines for
for choosing
choosing and
and implementing
implementing the the appropTiate
appropriate data
data recording
recording and
and
processing methods
proceseing methods for
for aa given
given inventory.
inventory. '!be sub-chapter "Data
The sub-chapter "Data Recording"
Recording" ie10 reetricted
restricted
requirements for
to general requirements for data
data recording
recording and aOO the
the means
means and
aM methods
methods ofof recording
recording forest
forest
intannatien from
inventory information from various
various eources.
!:Iouroes. the sub-chapter
In the sub-ohapter "Data
"Data Processing"
Processingf1 the
the
different stepe ~nd types
Btepe and types of
of data
data processing
procesBing are are discussed
discussed and some practical
and some practicel aspects
aspect.' with
with
respect to
t o tropical zones
zones are given.
given.
22 Data recording
21
21 Oe_neral_ments
General requirements
Before
Before undertaking
undertaking the
the design
design of "reoording doeument"(
of any "recording 1), attention
document"(1), attention should
should be
be
drawn to the
drawn to the specific
specifio data
data to to be
be recorded.
reoorded. Keeping inin mind
mind the
the simple
Simple rule
rule that
that results
rosult.
to be
to obtained by
be obtained by meanm
means of
of data
data prooessing
prooessing can
can never
never be
be better
better or
or more
more reliable than the
reliable than the
basic input data itself,
itself, a a determ1ned effort should
determined effort .hould be
be made toto improve
improve the quality of
the qual1ty of the
the
data to be
data to be reoorded.
reoorded. One of the main requir"",entB for
main requirements for reliable
reliable data
data is
is its
ita obientivity
objeotivi ty
and c","parabili ty.
and inventory data
Since inventory data will
will generally
generally bebe recorded
recordad byby different
different people
people
under different conditions,
COnditio .... , any possibility
possibility of
of human
human influence
influence on thethe data iteelf should
data itself ehould
be
be omitted.
omitted. Recording instructione
1ns·tructions should
should not
not allow
allow any
any personal
personal judgement
judgement of
of the people
the people
concerned.
concerned. Objeotive
Objective quantitative assessment of of data should
should be
be preferred Nbenever poB8ibl~.
preferred whenever possible.
In
In caees
cases where coding
where oaJUlOt be
coding oannot avoided (e.g.
be avoided (e.g. classification
claesification ofof crown
crown oover into density
cover into density
01&88es)
olaaees) the recording
the recording instructions
instructions should
should define
define very
very clearly
clearly the
the coding
cod1ng criteria.
criteria.
Although
Althongh a refined
a refined etratification
stratificetiol1 for
for aa given
given variable
variable will
will permit
permit precise cl""sific&tiol1,
precise classification,
the reoultR
renults M81"
may be lose
lepo reliable than
than those o~tained from
thoBe obtained from measured data, because
measured data, because coding
coding may
may
entail personal
personal judgement.
judgement.
--------
((1)
1) A "reoording document"
A "recording document" 1s
is a.ny pr~par"d form
any prepared form on
on which
which original data will
original data will be
be recorded,
recorci4::ld.
o.g. t&lly BhftetB
e.g. tally sheet-s. ~ Reoording
Recording oan be done eith@r
either manually, or
or automatically
automatically by
by
special device~
gpec1al (seo para.
devicee (seo pars. 23).
23).
-- 138
138--
To aminimize h,wan bias,

i nl.mtz. human bi ... , whenever
whentrVer poseible
po88ible the
the parameters
param.ters to
to be
be recorded
reoord.d should
.bould be
m...urabl. parameters
measurable param.t.r. (continuous variable). All discrete
(oontinuous variable). disorete variables
variabl •• should
abould be
b. recorded
rooorded
uoing a broad
using broad claseifioation
clsa.ifioation (or (or coding)
coding) eyetem,
system, permitting
permitting allocatiors
allocatiol. in
in aa given
siv.n clams
cl...
.. obj.otively as
as objectively . . possible.
po •• ible. Tho
The aim .hould be
am should be to
to get
g.t homogeneous
bomogeneouo data Mh10b oould
data which bo
could be
OOIlpared "record unit"(1)
oompared between one "record ur.itll(1} and
and another.
another.
'nl.
The data ehould b" recorded
should be r.oorded am... they
th.y are
aro measured
mo .. ured and no processing
and no pl'oo... i ng should
.bould beb. dona
done
during thetb. recording
r.oording stage.
stage. If, oumpl", mean
If, for example, mean diameter
diamotor of individual
individual trees
tr ... 10
is ne.ded
needed
for future caloulation, and is
tutur. oaloulation, assessedd by
i ......... by two or more direct
direot measurements,
m... ur .. ent., only
only direct
dir.ot
m... ur ... nt • •
measurements hould be
ehould reoorded and
be recorded ·and the
the mean
mean diameter
diameter calculated
calculated later.
later. Similarly,
Similarly, wh.n
when
..... urlng diameters
measuring di .... ter. it i. better
11. is b.tter toto reoord actual measurements
me.. ur ..ento rather than th. tho corr •• poneling
corresponding
di ....tar classes.
diameter 01...... Thi. eliminate. the
This eliminates the possibility
po •• ibllity ofof errors
.rrore occurring
ooC1lJl1ng in tranat.rring
transferring tZ'Otl
from
., ... ured diam.t.r.
measured diameters to to classes.
01...... apeoking, the
Broadly speaking, the simpler
aimpler the
tho parameters
param.t.re and and the
the
m.thod of recording,
method recording, theth. more accurate
accurate the
tho corresponding
oorreoponding resulte.
r •• ulta.
One of the moat important tasks

most important t ..ko in
in this
thie respect
reapeot is i. the
tho design
d •• ign of
of simple
.implo and
and clearly
cloarly
reoording documents,
arranged reoording docl.V1lents, easy
e ..y to
to handle
handle in
in the
the field
fi old and
and easy
e..y to
to fill
fill in.
in. The d •• ign
design
of the r.oording document should
reoording document should aimaim primarily
primarily atat facilitating
facilitating the the recording
recording work,
work, and
and to
to
l ••••r extent
a lesser
.inc.
.xt.nt the
the later
reoording work
later use
work is
u •• of
i8 usually
of this
uoually much
thio document
docum.nt for
much more
for proceeeing.
more expensive
proc ••• ing.
oxpenlive and
and difficult
Thi. i. particularly so
This is
diffioult thanthan processing
prooo •• ing work.
work.
.0
since recording
Thuo, praoUcablli ty appears
Thus, practicability appearo to to be
b. another
another requirement
roquir.. ont ofof general
genoral nature
nature toto be
b. considered
oonoid.red
in data
in data recording.
recording.
a.tore any data

Before aey data recording
r.oording begins,
bosi"'" it 10 necessary
i t ie Mce..ary to to become
bocome acquainted
aOquainted. with
vith the
the
coneli tio"," under
oonditions under which
which the
tho work
work is
i. to
to be
be executed
ox.outed. and
and with
vi th the
the actual
actual data
data itself.
i t ••lf. ~'1r.t
First
at all, it
of i t ie very useful
ie very uo.ful to
to adapt
adapt recording
r.oording to to the
the personnel
pereonnel in in oharge
oharge of
of it.
it. ~r
For
illlltano., a" Very
instence, very low
low level
level of
of training
training oror experience
experience meym-.y call
oall for
tor aa simple wa,y of
.impl. way of recording.
reoording.
An ._pl.would
An xample would bebeuse ofepeoial
WS6 of opeoial tapes
tapeo for
for diameter
diamoter measurement,
.. o..ur .. ent, on
on which
which only theU ••
di .... tar clase
diameter call be
cl... can b. read.
read. Envirom.ntal conditions,
Environmental condi tiono, such
.uch as
... weather,
".ath.r, terrain
t.rrain or thick
und.rcrowth,
undergrowth, can also al80 affect recording
reoording in in the
the field.
field. In ".t ".ath.r, for
wet weather, for example,
.xample, it may
it Meiy
b. neo.~ . ary to u
be necessary •• waterproof paper
use paper for thethe field
tield eheete.
aheeta.
22 Specifio requir .... nts

Secific requirements
221
221 _Lsle3ior
With r.lation to the t~ of data.
ietw_ofdataWith. A practioal
A practical olassification
ola•• ification of typ •• of
01' types
for eat inv.ntory aata ~. . follo ... ,
foreitinventorydataiefollasows:
iinformation
ntontation on
on the
the area
area by ot remote
interpretation of
b;y interpretation r ..ot••• nsing imagery;
sensing imagery;
information on
on the
the field
field plots
plota including
including site,
.ite, moil
.oil and
and aocessibility
aoo••• ibility data;
data;
tree tally by speoies and diameter classes;
m.uur ... nta on

measurements on standing
.tal>ting or felled tr ••• ;
telled trees;
quali ty of
information on quality of standing
standing timber.
timb.r.
((1)
1) Por d.finitio
definitionn of a record unit
uni t (RU) n. paragraph
(!ill) bee par~aph 412 of Chapter
4 12 of Chapter III.
III.
- 139 -
Experience from many

man.;y inventories
inventories in
in tropical
tropical zones
zonae has
has led
led to
to the
the general
genM"&l acceptance
acceptance
four basic
of four baaic types
type. of
of recordain
recordiin each
each RU
RU in
in the
the field:
fleld:
tb. Record
For the Record Unit:
Unit:
'l)p! 1:
Type 1. thi. fore includes
this form inolude. the identification
identification of
of the
the RU
IlIJ and givea all
and gives all information
inform&tion
on the
on the plot
plot itself
it ••lf as oppoaed to
&8 opposed to tres
tree tally,
tAlly, as
aa for
for instance:
inatanoe:
identification
Plot identification StalXi desorip
Stand •• oriD ion
100 Ac ••• ibi ity da,a
Acpessibility de a
Col. (1)
(1) ( 2)
(2) (3)
(3) 000
• •• (m)
(M)
,....
For the
the tree
tr.e tally:
tally: generally only one of the
tbe three
three following
following types
types is
ia used in
ill
coWlection
connection vi th type 1 in a given
with given HU:
1lIJ:
Type 2:
2: the number of tr... is
trees is ilXiicated
indicated in aa matrix(l)
matrix(1) in whioh
which the rows
oarre.pond the species
correspond to the the columns
lpeciea and the to the
COluml1S to the diameter
diameter classes:
olasses:
Specieo
Species code , classes
diameter classes
1 2 3 4 55 I 6
6 7
7 ........ n
Col. ( 1) ( 2) (3) (4) (5) (m)
(m)
Type
Type 3: the tree parameters are
are recorded wi thin aa matrix,
recorded within matrix, in
in which
which every
every tree
tree
forms a row and the
forms tree parameters
the tree parameters the
the columns.
columns.
No.
Tree No. Tree parameters
dbh height species
species code etc.
code etc.
Col. ( 1) ( 2)
(2) (3)
(3) (4)
(4) .....
Type 4:
TVIDe 4: treea are
the trees are enumerated
enuMerated by
by species
speoiee axil
and diameter continuously:
Speci . . code
Species 00<1. dbh oode
Species code dbh Species dbh etc.
etc.
Col.
Col. (1 )
(1) ( 2)
(2) (3)
(3) (4)
(4) (5)
(5) (6)
(6) . ..........
In aa giv.n inventory, different

given inventory, diftarent oombinations
oOllbinationa of recording m..,.may ocour.
occur. For example,
For eumple,
in aa oluster
cluster oampl1ng,
sampling, tr ....b;r-tre.recording
treebytree recording(method
(method 3)
3) may
may be
be required
r.quired in
in only every
every
fourtb
fourth BU,
RU, lib...... in tbe
whereas the rremaining
..ainin« 3 RU's tb. trees
1lIJ1. the tree. will
will only
only be
be recorded
r.oorded either
either by
by method
method
2 or 4 above,
abov., d.pelXling prooedur•••
depending on the prooedure lected for
selected for data
deta processing.
proo••• ing.
18 deta reoording
As for data raoording in the
the otfio.,
office, liar
more• •ophistioated
ophiatioated methods
lI.thode can
can be
b. usad
used and
and the
reoording ~t_
r.oordin« b. aimed
system can be more at iTNalitating
ailled 1I0re I""ili tatin« data
deta processing
proce •• ing since
.i noe the
the riak at errors
riaJc of arraN
is very 8UOh
ia TC'y such reduced.
(1) n..
The word
word ..matrix
atrix stands aIIJ' t)'pB
.tanda for any t"" or several
type of two severAl entry
.ntry table
table '
- 140--
- 140
222 With relation to data,processiog.

data oce •• i • The method of of data
data prooessiog
proo ••• inc to
to be
b. usedused
TAII
wi the recording
affect the reOer in.g only
only to
to aa relatively
relativlltly Amall
Amall extent.
extent. Itl
In &ll1
any 0case,••• , the thlflJ
.hould be
data should be written
wri ttelJ simply Am clearly.
simply and cl~arly. If the
th" datil ~" to
data arm he k.Y'
to be key punched forfor electr"'n;
electronie t"
prooe . .ing (EDP),

processing (EDP), it is i. more
mare convenient
convenie nt toto arrange
arrange the
the data
data in
in the
tho punching
INnohinc sequence
"'!\lello. althoagh
althour,h
thi s in
this is not
not essential
•••• ntial since
Bino. it iR generally
it io g.nerally eaey
... y for
for the
tho key
k.y punch operator to adept adapt to a
punching plan.
pl1Jlching plan. In the
the case processing, data
C8.lI8 of manual processing, "",ta should
Ihould bebe arranged
&JTADCed in iJI Puch
"ueh A.III way
""y
that cOPnputing
that immediately without
computing can start immediately wi thout waiting
waiting for
for time-conauming
time-eonawninc sorting
.orti~ .. s'o
j ,fi rre-
.....
Arr811ging of
arranging of the
the data.
data. 111 this ccase
In thie tho fourth method of
.... the of tree
tree tally
tally should
.hould bebe Avoided
Avo,dod
Binoe a& continuous
sinos eontinuoua recording
recording of of speciee
specie8 code
oode and diameter requires
ard diameter require. a& time-consuming ~'t
time-conSUl'll '1ott re-
&rr811goment of
arrangement of the
the trees
trees into
into species/diameter
species/diam.ter classes
01 ..... and
and complicates
complir.ate. the
tho work.
work. In thethe
caae of qualitative
case quali tative data,
data, the
the ooding
ooding key
key for
for all
all parameters
parameter• should
• hould be
b. determiled
dete"",i·".d prior
prior to to
recording.
23
23 Main ki nde of data recording
kinds
of data
Methods of data recording
recording differ
diff.r also
also with
with the
tho methods
m.thod. of
of data
data prooessing.
proo••• ing. Tho
The mo.t
moat
common
cOftUTIon ttype
ype of recording, applicable to
recording, which is applicable to manual
manual data
data processing
proc ••• i~ or EDP, uses
or EDP, WI"
handwritten field documents. The plot information
handwr i tte n field information sheet
.h •• t (i.e. Type 1)
(i.e. Type 1) should
.hould always
alway.
co ntai 11 the
contain the followine Btlctione:
followi rv'. sections:
1. DeBcriptl~n
Description of work :
of work: date, crew, starting
date, field crew, etarting and
and finiehing
finiebing date
date
oof
f plot
pl o t purvey.
survey.
2. Identification of plot: inventory unit,
Identification unit, sampling
sampling unit, plot or
or point
pointunit, plot
withi n the
within the sampling
sampling unit, etc.
eto.
3. criteria:
Plot criteria: stand description, environment, accesoibility,
description, environment, network.
aoo ••• ibillt" road n.twork.
Th••• groups
These groupo of data should
.hould be
b. clearly
cl.arly defined
d.fin.d when
whon designing
d •• i,nine tho
the Ih •• t, to
sheet, to facilitat.
facilitate
'Ni
quickck control
control am id.ntification in the
and identification tho offios.
offio.. In the
tho case
c ... ofof further
furth.r punching
PIlIlohing for
for EDP,
I:DP,
tho column II\II1b.rl
t ho callumn numbers oan
can be indicated under
be imioated Wld.r the
tho field of thethl oorresponding it .. on the
OO"""ponclill, item the fi.ld
fild
fo rm .
form. Th.
The total amount ofof information
information recorded
record.d in in the
tho field
fi.ld form
form may
may exceed
.xo•• d the
tho 80
80
ccolumns
olUl'4 Il11 of a punch
punch card
card (see
(lIe also
allo paragraph 311).
p&l'<a«raph 311).
Tho transfer
The tranof.r of data from · field
fi.ld documente
docum.nts onto
onto punch
punoh cards
cardl is signifioant component
ia aa 8i,nifioant oomponlnt
in the total post
OOlt of
of data
data processing.
proce.ling. Ther.for., ther. is
Therefore, there i. an
an increasing
incr... ing use
u •• of
of other than
than
hand""i tt.n documents
handwritten doo"",ent. which
whioh avoid thie tr&llllter.
avoid thi. transfer.
(a ) Port-.-punch carda
Port-a-punch cards
Data are
Data aro recorded pre-punched
r.corded on pr . . punohed 40 column
col\lllln cards
cardl with a special portable device.
.peoial portable devio ••
'Til.y are later read dir.otly
They directly by tho """'INter and stored
the computer .tor.d on diu. tapes. This
diske or ta_. '!hil method,
".thod,
umed successfully
\l.I,e d suoo in ths
... fully in tho S....ulh NaUo . .l Forest
Swedish National Po .... t Inventory,
Inventory, requires
roquir••• killed personnel
skilled p.r.onnel in
in
tho field.
the field. Somo trials
Some trial. of thie mlthod in tropical foreste
thi. method for •• tl under
undor difficult conditions
oonditions were
wor.
not veryvery successful.
BuooI.eM.
(b) IlaZ'It-e.nsi!Jf documents

Mark-sensing aad cards
doo.... nte and cardl
'Ih.
The basio
basic prooedur.
procedure of thi.
this m.thod is totomark
method 11 IIIIZ'k with aa lpeoial
special dmo. ( •• ,. pencil
device (e.g. penoil or
urldnc ink)
marking ink) within
wi thin predetermined pod tions on
pred.t_ined positions on the 0&Z'4a
carda or Iho.te
ghosts the datadate to be b. r.corded
recorded
which will be b. interpreted
ht.rpr.ted later
later by
by an
an eleotronio
el.otronio optical
optical reader.
read.r. Th. advantage
The adYaD'", of lI.Iincusing
Ih ••·t .. rather than cards
sheetm oarda is
11 that
tbat more data can
more data b. recorded
O&D be r.oorded on on aheets,
Ib •• te, uheream
>III.reu most
.. o.t oards
card.
aro 1I0re
more or less UIIUed to aa certain
1... limited &mourn of
oertainAmount ot data. '!'rial
Trial of thisW .... method
thod in in one
one tropical
tropioal
foremt
tor •• t inventory
iDY.ntor,r was
we. nut
nut ver.r
very .ati.tactor,r
satisfactory due to to thethe large
lar. . . 11. of
sise of the RU'.
the RU'a and and the
tAl
cons8qUlntl.;y large
consequently lar. . number
rmIIb.r of .peolo. tre •• whioh
species and trees called for
which willed ..,oral mark-sensing
tor •'Amaral mark-I.noine
do_.m.
documents par RU.
per RU. BoWIYor,
However, inin ...........
om asees, ,suchIUchasasinventories
lDY.ntori .. of of plantationm
plantationo with vi th easy
.... y
.nvironm.ntal conditions, these
environmental conditions, th•••• othoda should
methods .hould beb• • uoo ••• ful.
successful.
-- 141
141 --
{c} Hand.rittan documents for

Handwritten for optical reader
A relatively new method

A relstively Method allows
al l oWB hendwritten
ho.ndwritten documents to be read by aa multifunotion
multifunction
optical reader.
reader. Reading ie
is performed
performed by b,. an
an electronic
electronic luminous
luminous spot
spot scanning
scanni ng eyetem,
8)'1Jt .. ,
throush which
through whioh each
each oharacter
oharacter is
is investigated and, in
investigated and, in most
most oases,
o.. es, identified
identified by
b,. the
the "reading
'Tead1ng
raT' traoing
rar tracingin
inaa spiral
spiral motion
motionthethe oontoure
oontoura ofof each
each character
character for identifi~ti on.
for identificatione
used very
This method, used very successfully
successfully inin forest
forest inventories
inventories in in West Germ~, requires
West Germane, requires
aa computer centre equipped
equipped with
with an
an optical
optioal reader,
reader, toto read
read the
the data
data and
and store i t on
store it on disks
disks
or tapes.
tapee. On the other hand,
hand, the
the characters
characters recorded
recorded inin the
the field
field munt
must be written .~~
be written vaee
cal' efllll,., following certain standard rules of writing,
carefully, writing, and must
must be
be plaoed
placed eractly
exactly hioI •
their appropriats looation on
appropriate location on the
the recording
recordin& sheet.
sheet. Sinoe misinterpretation
Since mieinterpretation occurs
oocure
relativel,. often,
relatively often, the
the stored data
data must be
be scrutinized
.crutinized thoroughly
thoroughl,. by special
speoial edi Ung
editing
computer routinea, apeoificall;r designed
routines, specifioally deBigned toto locate
locate ouch
suoh errors.
errors. Thus drawbaok
Thum the main drawback
of this .. athod for
[method for use
une in
in tropical
tropical forest
forest inventory is its its sophistication.
sophistication.
Other methode
methods which ..~ be
which may be applioable
applicable for
for recording
recording forest
forest inventory
inventor,. data
data are:
are:
lIachin..t:rpad documents for
machine-tynmd for data
data occurring
occurring inin the
the office (photo-interpretation)
{photo-interpretation} or or .. ",i-
semi-
autOlllaUc
automatic devioes
devices such ..
as auto-recordi!!6
auto-reoording paper tape calipers
calipers delcribed
described by Badan,
Baden, whioh
whioh
autOlll&tically the diameter
automatioally record the diameter measurements.
mauurements. In special
In casu, where
special cases, ""ere increment
incr.... nt has toto
be determined by boring
boring instrumenta
instruments (e.g.
Ce.g. plantation
plantation inventories
inventories in in temperate
temperat. zones),the
lonee),the
''Iner_ent core
"Increment oore measuring
mauurilll! device"
devioe" after
after Eklued
Eklund mey
m..,. be
be used.
used. Wi th a special
With speoial set
oat of III&Chinoa
machinee
the annual ring information
infor-ation obtained
obtained under
under aa microsoope
microsoope is is transferred
transferred automatically
automatioally onto
onto
punohed cards,
oarda, or onto paper
paper tapes,
tapes, sinne
ainae this
this device
devioe canoan be
be linked
linked toto aa card
oard puncher.
punoher.
All these
these methods mentioned
m.ntion.d are
are applicable
applioable only
only when
wh.n skilled
.killed personnel
personnel and
Bre available.
appropriate equipment are In moet tropioal forest
most tropical foreat inventories
inventorie. forfor which
which these
the.e
oonditione
conditions bave to be
have yet to be fulfilled
fulfilled use
use of
of handwritten
handwritten field
field documents
document. appears
appeara to
to be
be the
the
moat N8¥ of
most appropriate way of recording,
reoordin&, regardless
regardless of
of the
the method
method twed
used for
for data
data processing.
prooessing.
24
24 Some practical aspects
Someivactical aspects of
of data
data recording
recordi!!6
241
241 Grnm_tion in the
Organisation in the field.
field. Once the
(Thee the recording
recording d00lll!l9nt
document hashan been provisionally
proviBionall;r
designed,
designed, its usefulnoss
usefulness and practioability should be tested
tS&ted during the
the
preparatory phase the inventory.
phaso of the inventory.
inetructiollll must be tested

The field instructione teeted as well.
well. They should
They should geve
give details
detaile about:
about:
oompoe1 tion of
the composition the field
of the tield inventory
1.aventoryarew;
orew;
the functions with regard to data recording;
funotioDB of the crew uith reoording;
the data to be recorded;
recorded;
the manner the data are to
to be reoorded on preparad recording document
on the prepared ••
documents.
inatruct!olW should
The field instructions ehould also
aleo give
give detalle
detaile on
on how
bow to
to progress
progress within
within the RtJ, on
the RU, on
.equenee of
the sequence of tallying tre~ specious
tall;rillg tree epeoiee and dbh, on the
dbh, on the cheaking
checking procedure
procedure during
during the
the tally,
tally,
and ~ further information
ami any intoraation which
whioh will
will facilitate
facilitate the
the data
data collection.
collection.
242
242 Preparation for
for further
further prooel!!Bg.
proceaelm. the recorded
Before the reoorded data
dat .. can be processed
CIUl be prooe.. ed
(i1.e.
.e. punched on carde th~ ORRO
carda in the o... e of EDP or manuall,. proceeeed), two
menually processed),
preparat ory actions
preparatory actione should
ehould be
be taken:
talcen:
Ca } field documente
The field documents should
ehould be
be eorted
eorted manually
manuall,. into
into logical
logical order,
order, ehich
which is
eimultaneoual;r
eimultanecuely aa firftt conaisteno;r.
first check on consistency. A can also
A check can aleo be
be nade
made to
to verify
thAt no document of aa eampling
thee unit 1e
sampling unit is missing.
mi8Bing.
(b) A viaual check

~ vieual check of
of the
the data
data itself
it.elf in
i. advisable
adv1eable to
to detect
detect inconsistencise
inconeletenci.e which
whioh could
could
ohlll'ed wiih
be cleared with the
the field
field crews
crewe if they oannot
i f they cannot be
be oorreoted
oorrected in
in the
the office.
office.
- 14
1422 -.
-
33 Da1a
Data _Eleeeleing
processi~
31
31 Steps of data processing
Stepe processipg
311 Data capture.

Data capture. the main
One of the main problems
probl .... s in
in data
dat .. prooessing,
prooe.sing ••• peoially from
especially h-ooI
the economical point of of view,
vi.w. ie
is the
the arrangement
arrangement of of basic
basio data
d ..t .. into
into a.. feasible
f .... ibl.
fom
form for
for fUrther
further prooessing. EDP in particular d .....ro.a practical
particular demands and efficient
pr..ctical and effioient methods
... thod.
of data
dat .. capture,
capture. that
that is
i8 the
the arrangement
arrangement ofofthe
thebasic+
baaio data
dat .. in
in aa computer
oomputer readable
readable form.
fom.
my
A~ manual
mBllU&l tranefer
transfer of
of data
data between
between the
the recording
recording ehase
phaae and.. nd the prooeeaing pIIu
the prooeseing Obese• •should
hould b. be
avoided asaa much as possible.
possible. 1.0 addition to
In addition to the
the methods described
described above
above (see (.e. para.
para. 23),23).
there are two main
mat n types
types ofof data
data capture
capture used
used for
for the
the transfer
transf.r of of the
the original
oriBinal data 1'1'0lIl
data from
fi.ld sheets to the
field the computer:
computer:
(a) punohed) paper tape

Perforated (or punched)
Although of decreasing
decreasing importance
importano. inin forest
fore.t inventory, paper tape
ill'1entor:r. paper tape (as
( ... Wled.
used, for
for
instance. telet;n>e technique) is especially
instanoe, in teletype espeoiall1' appropriate
..ppropri ..te for
for the tranifer
transf.r of large
large
"'oUnts of
amounts of homogeneous
homogeneous data,
data. such as long
suoh as long enumeration li.te.
enumeration lists. tap" adapt well also
Paper tapes al.o
to ..utOllla"tic data
automatic dat.. oapture, as in
oapture, as in the
the case
ease of
of continuoue
oontinw>us reoording
r.oording ofof climatic m....ur ....ent.
olimatic measurements
field ntations.
at field stations. A
A drawbaok of the paper tape method is, i.. however,
however, the
the relativel1'
relatively
troubles"",e transfer of
troublesome of the
the paper
P\lper tape
tape data
data onto
onto magnetic
Dlagnetio tape.
tape. Special hard ..... devio
hardware devices ••
"free format
and "free fo ....t facility"
faciU ty" (1)
(1) are
are needed
needed which
oddoh will
will bebe available
available only
only at ver;r
very few oomputar
computer
oentres.
centres.
(b) punch oardn

8O-o01=n punch
80-oolumn oarde
Ths
The .tandard
standard size punch card conaists
oonsists of columns
oolUIIIDB and rows,
ro .... in which the perforatio ...
perfóratione
.....
are made at predetermined places by
b1' use of special
speoial oard-punohing
card-punohing machines,
machines. the k.yboard
keyboard of
of
whioh resembles aa typewriter.
which resemble"; typewriter.
Pwioh1ng errorg
Punohing errore during
during punching
punching operations
operations can
can be
be reduced,
reduoad. if
ifnot
not totally
totall1' avoided,
avoided.
of "card-verifier"
by the use of "card-verifier" machines,
machin.s. on
on which
which the
the punching
punching of
of the
the original
oriBinal data 18 is
repe..ted and checked
repeated checked againet
against the punched card
the punohed card.•
. Although ohanges in
Although chamges in temperature
temperature amiand humidity
humiditycould
oouldaffeot
affeot dimensions; .. nd weight of
dimsnsions and
oarde,
carde, causing warping (relative
(rel ..tive hUlllidi
humidity ty in card-storage
oard-storage rooms should not e"ceed 65%), the
exceed 65%).
are. under present
punched cards are, present conditionn
conditions in in tropical
tropioal countries,
countrie •• the
the most
mo.t appropriate
wey of
Na3 data capture and transfer.
of data transfer, since at almoet
almost all computer
oomputer centres
oentres punched-card
punched-card read ....
readers
aYailable.
are available.
In addition
In addition the
the standard-si
standard-shedsed punched
punched cards
cards are
are adaptable to different lII&ke.
makes of
computer. As mentioned
mentioned above,
above. the
the data
data is
is punched
punched on
on the
the cards
cards at
at predetermined
predetermined places
.peoified by
which are specified by the
the punch
punch card
card design.
d.sign. S"",e basic
Some basio rulea
rulea for
for the
the punch
punch card design
card design
whioh will help
wbich h.lp to
to avoid
avoid possible
poB8ible errors
errors are
are the
the following:
following:
(i)
(i) AI~ use only
Always une 0011' one
one card for the
card for the storage
storage of
of aa "logical
"loBic&l record".
reoord". In EDP a
In a
10Bical
logical r.cord
record is the smallest
amalle"t part of a data file
fUe whioh 1e dete
which is ... ined by
determined by the
the
etruoture of
logical structure of the
the recorded
recorded data.
data. A. an
As an example
uample the
the logioal
10Bioal records
reoorda
for the 4 basic types of reoorde
reoords given
given in
in paragraph
paragraph 221
221 are respeotivelyt
re.pectively.
1. the information
infonnation on
on aa single
single plot;
plot;
2. the information
information on
on aa single
single tree;
treei
3.
3, th,! species (rmmber
the tree tally for one epecies ( ..:Glber of
of treee
tree" per di . . .ter class
diameter 01.... ij;
4.
4. opeoies oode and diam.ter
species code trees, tallied
diameter of all trees, tallied in an RU.
BU.
(1)
(1) '!he
The use
use of free-format
froe-format requires
require. special
epeoial machine-oriented
maohin... ·orhnted software,
Boft .... , which
whioh doe°
doe. not need
n.ed
the definition
defini ti oll of
of the
the format
fOl'lJl&t of
of each
.""h record.
rMord.
-- 143
143 --
If, espeoially in the latter

If, especially latter caae,
case, the
the logical
logical record
record cannot
cannot l?e
be stored on aa
atored on
oard, extennion
single card, enension carde
oards for
for thie
this logical
logical record
record may
.,ay be
be used,
used, provided
provided
that an extension
extension code is
is given
given on
on the
the first
first card.
oard.
(11 ) of columne
The amount of columns toto be
be reserved
reserved for
for one
one parameter ("1 t_" or
parameter ("item" lIattribute"
or "attribute"
the logical
of the logical record)
reoord) isis predetermined
predetermined by
by the
the largest
largest figure,
figure, which can oocur
which can oocur
for it....
for this item. Thus in the planning
planning stage
stage of
of the
the punch card deeign,
punch card design, careful
careful
each item
analysis of each i tern to
to be
be stored
stored is neoessary.
i8 necessary.
(11i) The "data

Itdata fields"
fields" (i.e.
(.i.e. the
the number
munber of
of columne
ooluml'8 to
to be
be reserved
reserved. for
for the
the storage
storage
of one item) can
can follow
follow on
on the
the data
data card
card one
one after
after the
the other
other without
without blank
blank
in between.
columns in between. items, regardless
All items, regardless of of whether
.mether there
there are
are continuoue
continuous
or disorete
discrete variables,
variables, should be punched "right justified"( 1) in their
"rigbt juatified"(1) their
respective data fields,
fields, decimal
deoimal points
points notnot being
being punched.
punched. All items of
logical recorde
different logical recorda stored
stored inin aa given
given data
data field
field require
require exactly
exactly the
the
same amount of
of decimals.
decimals. The identification
identification of of the
tbe decimals
decimals is is done
done later
later
on by a
a "format specification" within
vi thin the
the computer
oomputer programme.
progrlllMle.
312 . Editing of data.

Editing of data. producing from
Editing aims at producing from the basic data file
file aa olean
clean
data file free
free of
of punching
punching errors
errors and other inconsistencies.
and other inconsistencies. The different
stepe editing are the
steps of editing the following:
following:
(a) Sorti!ll\ of the

Sorting the data
necessary becauee
Sorting is necessary beoause m&l1Y oheoks require that data sets be in chronological
many checks chronologioal
order. It can
ca.n be
be done manually,
marru&lly, mechanically
meohanically or
or electronically.
electronically. Meohanical sorting
Mechanical sorting of
80-001 ...n punch
80-column punoh cards
cards by the use sorting machines requirea
WlS of special sorting requires that one logical
logfoal
record be
ba punched
punched onon one
one single card, the
single card, the hierarohy
hierarchy ofof [sorting
.orting being given by the iIIVentory
inventory
dedgn.
designa Firet, errors within
First, coding errore wi thin the
tbe eequence
sequence codes
oodes will be deteoted correoted.
detected and corrected.
electronioal sorting,
Larger amounts of data require electronical sorti!ll\, making
making use of special SORS-routinee,
SOR'l'-routines,
uaually
unually provided by the the computer
oomputer manufacturer.
marnlfacturer.
(b) Error detection by checks

detection_by cheolc:s
We can
O&D consider a given data
& given data file
file as
as aa two-dimensional
two-dimensional data
data matrix
matrix of
of the
the form:
fom;
m xX a_ item of a logical
logical record
record
n I
I mex for
a• iindex for the position
poai tio n of the
the iitem
tern X
X wi thi n
within
a logical record
r ecord
G (I,J) ] J - index for the poeition of a
wi tbin aa whole
within .mole data
data file
rile
a logical
logioal record
1-1 n
n a_ number H .... of
nwnber of items of aa logical
logioal record
record (variables)
(variabl.. )
J-1
m - number
m - number of
of logical records of
of the
the whole
.mole data
file
filo
Checlc:s can be made:

Checks can ..ade:
- irdividual item
on every individual 1 t ... X (I,J) eeparately4
X (I,J) separately,
- horisoJItally on
horizontally on the
tbe relation
relation between
between two
two or
or more i t.... of a logioal
..are different items logical
reoord, e.g. the
record, tbe relation
relation between .. ttl X(2,J)
between X(1,J) and X(2.J) or
or between
bet ...en X(1,J),
X(1,J), X(2,J)
and X(5,J);
- vertically on
vertioally on the
the relation
relation between
between given
given items
it .... of
of different
different logical
logical records,
recorda,
e.g. the
e.g. X(r,2) and
tbe relation between X(I,2) X(I,3).
and X(I,3).
(1) .~pl., the value 355 1s

For example, is Btored
stored right-justlfiad
right-justified in aa data field of 6 digit.
digits if
i. punched
it is puncbed in places
plaoes 4 to
to 6 of
of the
tbe data
data field,
field, places
places 11 to 3 not
not being
being used.
used.
- 144
144 -
'nle different data checks common to all inventory data-prooessing

The prooedures can
dataprocessing procedures can be
be
grouped generally under the
the following
following types
types of
of consistency
consistency checks:
checks:
oontrol of
control of completeness:
completeness: aims at checking
checking the
the completeness
oompleteness of of the ~ole data
tha whole data
level of
file at each level of data
data accumulation.
accUlllulation. First,
First, it should be checked that that no
no
within aa data
logical record within data set
set (record
(record unit,
unit, sampling
sampling unit,
unit, etc.)
etc.) and
and no
no item
it ...
record (e.g.
within a logical record (e.g. diameter
diameter for
for counted
counted trees,
trees, heights
heights for
for measured
measured
trees, etc.)
trees, ete.) are
are missing.
missing. completeness of
The completeness of data
data on
on different undt levels
different unit levels is is
usually checked
checked by
by comparing
comparing thethe accumulated
accumulated number
number of
of sub-units (e.g. trees
subunits (e.g. trees inin
aa plot,
plot, or plots inin a sampling
sampling unit)
unit) with
with the
the given
given totals
totals on
on the
the unit
unit level,
level,
~ch assessed in
which are either assessed in the
the field
field (in
(in the
the case
case of
of tree
tree totals)
totals) or
or given
given byby
dasign (number
the inventory design (number of
of plots
plots per
per sampling
sampling unit,
unit, number
numbar of
of sampling
sampling unite
units
etc.).
per block, etc.). To avoid
To avoid under- or overestimation,
under or over-estimation, completeness
completeness checks
checks should
should
be made prior to aey later inventory
Bl73' later inventory data
data processing.
processing.
lopcal oontrol: includes all checks

logical and likelihood control: checke on
on individual
individual items and on
the above-mentioned relations of
abovementioned relations of different
different items,
items, which
which can
can be
be defined
defined logically
logically
in view of the record
reoord and sampling
sampling design.
design. Such checks
Such checks are:
are:
checks of alphanumeric and numeric punches

and numeric pw>chee column
column by
by column;
column;
of continuous
range of continuous variables
variables by determining minimum
by determining minimwn and
am maximum values,
maxilDwn values,
between which
between which the
the value
value of
of the
the variables
variables can
can vary;
vary;
possible range of
possible of disorete
discrete variables,
variables, e.g.
e.g. for established epecies
for. establiehed species codes
codes
codes of
or for codes of vegetation
vegetation types,
types, etc.;
etc.;
check of horizontal
horizontal and
and vertical
vertical inter-relationships
interrelationships in in the
the whole
~ole data
matrix mentioned above,
above, usieg
using logical
logical cemparisons
comparisons of the valuas
values of the
the
parameters. In the
In the case
case of
of EDP,
EDP, auch
BUch cemparisone
comparisons can
can be
be very
very efficiently
efficiently
using "logical
done ueing "logical operators",
operators", available
available in in advanced
advanced computer
computer langaages
languages
(for details see any FORTRAN
FOR'lRAN programmer's
progrllllllller's guide).
guide).
(c)
(e) Listing
Lis-ti oorreotion
of inconsistencies and correction
casa of EDP,
In the case the detected inconeistencies
EDP, a list of the inoonsistencies is printed automatically
automatically
as well as all the
tha items
items of
of the
the corresponding
corresponding carde.
cards. Corrections of
Correctionn of the
the basic
basic data
data should
should
be made in close collaboration with
wi th the responsible
responeible field
field officer.
officer. The cards
cards ara
are punched
again with the oorrected
corrected data and then added to the the original data file,
file, raplacing
replacing the
the
wrong racords on the
records on the tepe
tape or
or diek
disk filee.
files.
(d) Production of clean

clean data
data file
file
rus
This data file,
file, which
whioh should
should contain
contain only
only clean
clean and
and reliable
reliable data
data organized
organized in
in the
the
hierarchy of the
tha inventory, serves
serves as
as input
input for
for all
all generation
genaration operations.
operations.
313 Data generationa

Kenaration. step of
This step of an
an inventory
inventory data
data processing
processing system
system includes
include.
all operatione
operatiolls aiming
ainling at
at preparing
praparing the
the basic
basic data
data for
for further
further computations,
computatioJ18,
this data
and at computing from this data intermediate
intenoedi"te and reaul tee
definitive results.
and definitive
The data Must

muet be sorted depending on on the inventory
invelltory design, tha type
design, on the type of data
data
gathered in the
the field (Baa para.
field (see para. 221) and on thetha various
various clusifioatioll8
classifications usad
uned (atrata
(strata and
and
invantory unital. At any
inventory units). azv level of etudy
study the following eetimates
estimates have
have to
to be
ba computed
oomputed aed
ani
praaenhd in multi entry tables,
presented inmultientry tables, related
ralatedtotoapecies groupllofot
.peeiesororgrouem speoiss and
specie:as and to
to diameter
diamater
clu.ea:
classes:
Dla .... I*'
means per a''''. tree. per ha,
area unit (number of trees ha, volumas per ha,
volumes par eto.)
ha, etc.)
total. (mainly
totale (llai nly volumes)
volUlllaa)
.... pling errors
sampling arrors
-- 145
145 --
n.e pooi
The tiOD of
positiou of every logioal data
"""17 logtaal record, therefore,
d&1a record, therefore, has
baa to be b. identified
identified within
od thin
hiorarob,y of
the hierarchy of the
the inventory
imentory and tho oorresponding
and the oorre.ponding data
data meet be weighted
Blust be wisht .... accerdingly
accordillA'17 and
and
aggr~ted within
aggregated wi thin subtotals
eubtotala and
and totals
total. for th~ level
for the 1"".1 ofof study
study concerned.
eono.rned. n. .. final
The final output
output
of the calculations
cal.oulatione atat the differen~ levele
tbe different le-velB of
of study
.tud;r ara
are generally:
general 1,,:
(a) Stand tables:

Stand table.: ..mean
ean numbers
number. of stems
.t.... per crea
area unit
unit and
and possibly
po •• ibl" oorresponding
correepolldillA' tctal. totals
.t.... t. and
per streta im.ntory units.
and inventory uni ta.
(b) Vol... tabloa

Volume t.ble. (derived
(deriv.... from ~·oh.. ~ equatione):
fr"," volume .qu.o.ti~m): indirld ...l tree
indieldual treevol ... ea by
volee b" dbh
dbh
(100&1
(local volume tabl ... ) or
volume tebles) ur more
eore often by b~ dbh and heieht,
dbh and hei~t. per
por spocie. troup of
epecies or group
_peelea ..
species.
(a)
(o) Stock tables:
t.bles: ....meann volumes
volUlllo. per a.reo. unit and
per area oorresponding totals,
and corresponding total., computed
OOftlputed from
fr","
stand
st.nd tables
tabl .... and
Rm volume equations, or from
volume equations, from individual
imividual tree
treevolumes
volume. in
in the
the sample.
... ple.
(d)
(d) Corre.ponding .tlUldard errors
Corresponding standard error. or
or sampling
.... pling errore
error. for
for given
given probability
prob.bilit" levels
lenb
a000rdieg to the particular
aooordillA' partioular sampling
sampling design.
IIh11 • •
While t.nd tables
stand t.blae can
oan be
be developed
developed dirootly
dir.otly from thebasic
frOlllthe b..ic°data,
cU.t ••• 0cordiG« to
according to the
the
.... pIing design
eampling d •• l«n Aimed,
U8ed • •special
pooial trial.
trials have
have to be carried
oarried outout to
to determine
d.te ....in. aa valid
valid met
•• t of
of
volume
yol . . . .equations.
quatiollll. Prior to
Prior to the
the oalculation
oaloul.tion of ofthe
thefinal
fio&1regression
re«n •• ionanalysis,
an&lyeia.many
aa~ other
other
oomputationa have to be
o","put.tiOI1ll have be performed
perfol'lled on
on the
the bbasic
.. io data (ehich
(Mhioh are m08t
most often DeMur • • nt d.t.
ueasurement data
on felled
f.lled trees) which lIhioh we
.,e can
can call
oall "pre-regression
"pr ....rar;re •• ion studies".
.tudie.". The" inolude the
They include the oOCDl'Ilt.tion
computation
of the irdividual
lndividual volumes
yolUlie. of
of the
the sample
....ple trees,
tre .... the
the possible
po. .ibl. grouping
r;rouping of
of the
the data
data into
into
dirt ....nt lZ'0upa
different groups of ot species,
.paolae. the
the drawing
dr.wing of of emitter
_cattor diagrams,
di.,...... the
tbe transformetion
iranafom.Uol1 or or
weishting at
weighting of yariable., testing of
variables, the testing of provisional
provido,.l regression
r"P'e.sion 1I0dele oo.parbon at
am the oomparison
models and of
r"P'••• ion lines
corresponding regression
the oorresponding lin•• with
with the bastohuia data.
data. Once th
Once these various triale
••• YariOU8 trial. are
are
OOIIpl.ted.
completed, the finalfinal vol"",e equations and
volume aquatiOI1B and thethe corresponding vol ...e tabla.
volume oan be d."eloped
tablea can developed
(for .ore intoraaiion on
more information on volume
volUli. equations
aquatio". sea .ee paragraph
paragraph 342342 of Chap~.r V).
of Chapter V).
"Pr ..~ ••• lol1" and regression

"Pro-regression"
OOOIPIltera 11m ted storage
computers with limited
oooopllter.,
computers, .ince
.torage facilities.
.taU.Uo&1 trials
since etatistioal
fac1H
trial. can
ti...
r&lZ' •••1ol1 studies
.tudle. can
can be
can be
be carried
carried out
It is more
be carried
carried out
out much
out on
muoh more
eleo~ronio desk
on eleotronic
lIore eppropriate
appropriate of course
.ore easily
d.ak
couree to use
...11" on
all these
u. . large
larp
the .. machines,
aaohine.,
eepecially 1t
especially if aa large
lar«eamount of basto
. .ount of huio data
data has
ha. to
to be
b" treated.
eeeides
»-aide. the
the bamio
b .. io caloulations
O&loulA~ionementioned
.ent1oned above, every tore.,
above, there are in every forest inventory
inventory
sa.e
some .paoial
special im8llUptione
inveetigations whiob
whioh have to bebe oarrhd out according
aarried out acoording to speoifio requireeente.
rllqUir.enta.
Exuspl .. of
Examples of each
lNob additional r~aul te required
addi tiona! resulta required are:
are:
.paoifio yol... ee such

specific volumes Rob as "net" or
. . "net" or "industrial"
"induetrial" or
or extractable
.xtractable voluaes
vol.... taking
teJdng
l11to
into account information
intol'llaUon on
on tho
the quality
quali t7 of
of the
the trees;
tre.s;
- ace ••• ibl1it" results

aocessibility reeult. computed
oo.puted from
rrom aspessment
........ nt of of accessibility
aocae.ibilit" parameters
par... etera (nuoh
(auob
...
as breakdown of the
breakdown of the areas
are.. by .lopa clawless,
by slope 01 ....." • •nail
0U bearing
bearing capacity
capacit" °lessee,
01. . . . . eto.);
eto.);
- cost
- co.tstudies,
.tudhe. including
includingevaluation
evaluation ofot logging
10ging and
and transportation
tranaportation costs.
co.t.. 'l1I.. e
These
addi tiolllll investigations
additional inve.UptioJlll require
rllqUire several
e."eral rearrangemento
rearran,;-.nt. ofat the
the baaio
baIIio data
data and
and
tile
the computation ot intermedia-te
OOIIputatiol1 of inhl'lllediate par ..... ter.. suoh
parameters, nob as deee.y indicators.
. . decay lnd1catore.
314
314 Pr. .entation at tbe inventory rellUlte
Fr°41.111141V222-2E-n2-1.2E1EIME22191.1!
314.1
314.1 :auio table formats
Basio toraat.
'The
1'11_ "eIIult'
results ofof aa forest
for .• •t inventory,
1I,... nto17. regarding
r"t;Uding both
both aeeas
ar .... and par.etere .....
and parameters, r8IZ'Ouped
axe regroueed
tor preeentation
for pr<NIanteUon in in tables.
table.. 1'01l0wing the
Polloving 1967 meeting
the 1967 •••11"6 of
of inventory .~. at
lnnnto17 emearts rAO
at FAO
beadquartara. a .1ni
headquarters, minimum.......
sett of standard
.ta.ndllrd table. waa
__ recommended
r_.nded b1 >!hioh were al..-,.,
oh were alreedy
reprodeoed
... prod_oed ininthethe tiret
firet edition
edi tioD of of thie
thiemanual.
aanu&!. Theee
Theee minimem tablee
111ni"". tabl .. required by
b;r all
all
iinvenlorie* are listed
nventori .. are lietedbelow.
b.lov.
-- 146
146 --
~
Table Ti ti.
VI-1 Summar,r ot areas

Summary of ar ... by
b7 present
pr••• nt land-use
land-ua. and
and forest
tor •• t classes.
01......
VI-2 Araaa
Areas by (11f. eones),
b7 (life son... ), inventory
inv.ntoq classes
01..... and
and administrativo
lIdJoini.tr.Uve unit.
units or oth.r
other
speoifio 01 ......
specific °leases.
VI-3 Pre •• nt (or.st

Present forest ar ....
areas ooordiac to
according to ownerabip
ownership cl ..... , lIdJoini.tr.tiv.
classes, administrative unit .. or
units or
other
other speoitic inventoq classes.
specific inventory 01......
VI-4 table for each inventory

Stand t.bl. class.
inventoq 01 ....
VI-5 Total ......

arese, , "ol....s per
volumee per area
are. unit
unit and total voluae.
.nd total with precieion
volumes with precision
••
estimates swoording
U ...te • •0oorcUD,f to inventoq unite and
inventory units and inventory
inv.n~oq olasseo.
01......
VI-6 Vol..... acoorcUac

Volumes according to ua. cl..... and speoie.
use classes .peoie. or .peoie.
species rroupe
groupe b7
by
iDYen10ry 01 ......
inventory classes.
VI-7 Stock
Stock t.bl"
tablee for
for .ach
each adIlinhtr.ti".
administrative unit and inventoq 01... aooorcUac
inventory olass according
to dbh 01 ......
classes.
VI-8 Net annual volume incremente for inventory ()lasses by administrative units<,
'!'h. formats
The tOl'llat. and some
.""'• •:<pl._tion of
explanation of these
th ••• tables
t.bl" are given in the following
civ.n in tollowinc pages.
pecetI.
A• •stated
As tated inin Chapter V, paragraph 32,
V, pararr.pb 32, rresults
..v.l.te should
ahov.l.d be
btl given
siv.n also
al.o in
in metrics
... trio .78t-
system if
if
the Brithh 578t_ is
British Symtem h in
in use
ua. in
in the
the country.
countq.
-- 147
141 --
Table n-l
'liable VI-1
...... bz l!Il'!..llt ). ' _ IPrIIIl tOl'Mt 01. . . .

S-.z:y ot pmstLF.esom,,_=d_andforestolasee Y
1/
E%1.ti~
Eltating LQnd-U•• IPrIIIl
Land-Use and Por •• t Cl
ores .....
Claamas y Y Y Y
u.otve.
Hectares
I.
I. Tot.l Land Area
Total Aras
A.
A. Pore.t ....a
Forot area
1.
1. Jlatural tore.t.
Natural forests
a. Broedleaved exolwi1~ aablZ'o
Hroadleaved excluding ....
mangrovos
b. Coniferoum
ConiteroU8
o. Mixmdbroadl
IIbed broadleaved and OOniteroU8
....ed aDd coniferous
d. _boo
Pure bamboo
.'. Cosa tal and riverin palma

00
t.
Mangrove
If.aocrove
Co.. tal aDd riverill. pilla
g. Temporarily uutoolted
'lWIpo1'&J1.17 unstocked
2. Man-made foreste
v. .....d. toreew
(those
(tho divisions
•• diviaio of a.
.. ot a. to
tog0
g • which
lIIdoh
are applioable)
.... applioabl.)
B. other
Other woodod area
""oded .....
opan woodland.
Savannah, open
1. Savam.h, ..,.,..) a!!d.
2. Heath, stunted and
11Mth, .ttUltecl scrub forest
aDd .orub tore.t
3. iu lino
fr ••• in
Trees linea, windbreaks
windbrealao and
aDd
.h.Uerbelw
ahelterbelto
4.
40 other ......
Other areas
C
C.• ....... tore.t .....
Non-forest araa
1. A¢oul tu:ral Land
Agricultural lIPrIIIl
...
1.
Crope aDd
and i.proved paeture •
improved postures
b. Plant.Uo ..
Plantations
2.
2. oth... leads
Other lande
a. Barren
Barran
b. Jlatu:ral
Natural r&llP and gr
range aDd ... landc
grasslands
o.
o. S_p
Swamp
d. a..th, tundra
Swath, tundra.
•• Urban, ind_trial
lJrbaA, industrial aDd
-wnoatioll
oceminedostion
and
t. Cther
f. other &ream
......
U. Vat ...
Water
!OS!. -- Land aDd
TOTAI V..t ...
and Muter
y. For det.ile
details on W. classification
011 this olea.itioaUoD so*
... Chapter IV, ~ '23.
IV, parc4raph.23.
Y If aa olassification
It
yiFor ol..ritioatiollbased
_edrm./natation/environment
011 .,...taUo.v.Driro_at relationship*
relaUo_hipe -- such
IIIIOh as
..
ol..eitioatioll in
olaasifioation in lit
life....... after Holdrido
some attar Boldridae-- is
1.not
IlDtused,
ued, then
theD only
01117 ono
o.
ool_n "Ul be
column will b... hown.
shown.
- 148
148 -
Table VI-2
Table VI-2 Y
1/
Are.. b
Areas Life Zon
'Life ...
Zonas Y lInventory_gasses
....ento Claases and
and Adminiatrative
Adm1niatrati.e
Unit.
Units or ._her_asoific
her Spec 10 Clas.e.
Classee
Date of inventory: •••••••••••••••••••

ot inventory: aousseeoocceecoos.**
Lite Zone
Life Zone Y lInventory
..... dor';r !dainiatratl.e Unita or Other
Administretive Units other Per
Clusaa
Classee Specifio Classes
Specific Claas.B Cent of
~
1/ Total
11 2 I 3 Ilete.
II 27-3 etc. ',Total
ITotal
Area hectares
Are. in haotares
1 • ......
1.
2. eo • • • • •
33.• ••••••
4. etc •••
etc
sub-total
1 • 000000
10 ••••••
8
22.• ••••••
33.• ••••••
4. etc •••
BUb-total
sub-total
11.• ••••••
004000
2 • ••••••
2.
3.
3• etc
• to •••
BUb-total
sub-total
--------
Total
-
-------------
Y
1/ 'DU. to be presented
This table is to pr••• nted for
tor the whole inventoried
the whole i ..... ntoried area
area ami
and possibly
po •• iblT
tor
for each inventory
inventor,r unit.
un1 t.
Y
2/ Lit. son.......
Life sones reoo«Diled according
are reoognized acoordiD« to
to the
the Holdridge
Boldridce System i t adopted;
S.Jllt_ if adopted;
it
if aDOther
another type ot classification
t;ppe of ol...lf1oaUon based
baaed onon vegetation/environment
ve«fJtat1on/anrlroilaent
rel.Uonahipa is
relationships used, speoify
h used, apeoifT the
tha oorresponaing
oorr •• pondiD« olesess:
01..... ' it
if auol!
such oluai-
°bassi-
noetio .. in
fication i. not used omit u.
","it it.
1/
~ IJI'I'.mor,r classes
Inventory ol.....a are
are mainly 01..... corresponding
aainly classes correapoDdiq to to existing
maUD« landland use,
.... ,
ph.JIIlova~,
physiography, acoeas1billt:r, oparablUt:r, or.....,
accessibility, operability, stratification
or tny other atl<'&titioation
used in
umed in the inventory
innmory (see(a •• Chapter IV,
IV I paragraph
pancrapb 21). 21). I! ho or
If two Or .or.
more
lnnmor,r ol""ai"",Uona are
inventory claseioations are usq*d 81.ul:ta....oUII!T, the
used simultanecuslT, th8 table """t be split
table trust Bpli t
aooordtXl4fly.
up accordingly.
up
- 149
- 149 -
-
'l'abl. VI-3 jJ
Table...LI:2JI
PressOt Lr.a.'Accord.thg to OsaiershipClasses
Date
Date of
of iDYeDtotrl
inventtat ••••••••••••••••
1.da1D1.traUn unit. or other .pec.

Administrative units spec. clu
o ... £l
ses a Far
Fv
J/ 0.1110
oent
eto. ~tal
OImertIbip Cl...
Ownership1/Class
1 2
11
eto. I ,
2 .to.
etc. I ,.100to.
ot
of
total
tot
1.. PablloJ,;[ oWMCl foreste
Publiolz owned tore.t.
tor•• u
a. State foresto
b. Other
Oth....
22. Pri_teJ,;[ _ d foresta
• . Privately owned tore.u
Owned lI.T
a. 0Imed illdD8trial enter-
by industrial .1110 .....
pri.era processing
prisers proc••• inc forest
tore.t
prodllcta
products
tOJ'MU
h1'Il forests
b. Pare
o. 0tIIer
c. Other
13..Ownership not Z!t
• . o.lII&Z'Bbili! 11010 jet d.taraiDed
determined
4. Total
4. _a
'fotal area of ot forest's
toreeu
jJ
1/ is to be presented
'!Id. table 1&
This for the
pre..ntad tor the whole
.mol. inventoried
l".,.ntorl.d area
....... and
and. possibly
po..ib~ for
tor each
eaob
l".,.nt0J'7 unit.
inventory uni t.
11
2/ ror-t __
Forest areas thoee considered
are those oo.,.14.... ed under
WIder item ot table
1.1. of
i t . 1.1 table 1.
I. SiBUar
Similar tabl.. can
tables
po.. l b~ be presented
possibly preaented for
tor *other
·oth.... wooded areas" (it. I.B of
ar... • (item ot table 1)I) it· d.-.d
if.doesed
1l8O".III'7, .....
necessary, 11 as
as well .. tables
tabl•• corresponding
oorr"poDdinc to to the
the sum
. _ of
ot the
til. two oeteaori...
t1IO categories.
J// Cladfioation of
Classification ot ownership
O1IIIerabip
l.a. 11101114.
Include forest o..... d by
tore.t owned national, .tat.,
b,r national, state, and. cantonal governments,
ad cantonal aonr....n....
IO'"rDI.nt., government-
CIWMd col'poratio
owned .. , :aDd
oorporation., Cro_ forests.
ad Crown tore.u.
I.b. Woreeu belolll1... to
Feresta belonging to towns,
to..... , villages
rlll. . and
aDd communes
. . - . and other local
aDd other local authorities.
authoriU •••
IlIOlud. anor other publioly
Include any publ1o~ owned foresta
toreau not elseWhere
not .l specified.
....here .pacified.
2.b.
2.b. 1.11 tOI'NU owned
All forests oWDed by indirlduallo, familias,
b,r individuals, tllllill •• , or
or corporatione
ool'poratlo. . engaged
.npce4 in
in
acrionlture as
agrioultur. ..... n.
well.
2.0.
2.o. priyau~ owned
All privately o""ad foresta
toreau not inoluded
lncluded elsewhere,
elnwllere, oomprising
ooapridnc forests
toruta CIWMd
owned
b,r lnaU tDUo.,. (religious,
by inatitutione (rel1g1ou, educational,
educatiocal, oto.).
eto.).
3.
3. Woruu
'tweets for tor which
lddob ownership
O1fDU'IIbip .tatue
.tatne is1. in doubt or
in doubt baa not ,..t
or has been ••
yet lIMn establieheds
tabU.bed.
If neoessary,
It ........ 111'7, the above o..... rabip 01
&bon ownership ..... IIq
classes t'I>rlher sub-divided
sey be further onaJ>.dirlded to
to __
more
d..ar1bed local
.peo1fioal~ described
specifically looal conditions.
conditio .. .
A/
~ If
Itdesired,
cI.. .iNd,a aseparate
••parahtable
tablecan
can be
be prepared tor eech
prepared for ...iD1.traUn unit.
eaob administrative lUIlt.
-- 150
150--
Table VI;
VIS jJ
1/
Stand Table
Table tor EachlagIamEljusit
for Ii1aoIl lmentor;r Cla..
(or other specific

Administrative Unit (or ola8.}a
speoifio clasp): ••••••••••••• Date or
Date of IDYeDtoryl
Inventory •••••••••
......
Inventor;r Cla. . ,
Inventory Class: ••••••••••••••••
OOOOOOOO 0Opo00410 Are'
11-rvid.rt lasittnt
in BeotlE •• ' ••••••••••
,
SPJX:UB
SPECIES D.B.I!. CWS CM.
DOLL CLASS CII. y'
OR
SPJX:II!E
SPECIES
ORWI'B
GROUPS
1
2
3
3
44
5
5
6
6
•
•
•e
•
•e
•.
•
•.
e
•
'1'OTAL
1/
jJ h to be presented
'lhh table is
This pre.ented for
tor the
the whole
whole inventoried
inventoried area
area and
aDd
poeeib17 for
possibly tor each inventory
inventor" unit
2/ Clu.
Class liaU • •should
limits lIould be
be .1I0wn
shown tor
for e..,11
ach dbhdbll clase
olu. in
in agree:wit
acr-_ent with l1ut.
"UII limits
ind10ahd
indicated in table ofot paragraph 242.1, Chapter V.
par.....ph 242.1,
-- 151
151 --
Table
'!'able VI-5
VI-5
Totaleas . : Vol.... .11Ta

'l'otal !r...VolumeLLr area wiit
area WIi 1: and
aDd Total
'1'otal yoliass .11with
yol••• liwith
Precision Zstip.st.s
PraoblouU_t •• tor mmm Units
torInventory tlDit. andaDd1:Inventory 61.....
....1!!o!7 Clusso
lliVEII'l'ORr
INVEITfORT IJIVEIft'ORr
INVEVIORT ?OTC, J.1III:l
'!'OT1L 1REL NUN VOL.
1IBt.» VOL. PER
PEl! Ili
III. _V .11 TOTAL VOLE= 1/
'!OtiL VOLlJlll .11
00'1'
UNIT CLllIS:m
CLOSES
y
E/ ha or
or PRD:ISIO»
PRECISION in cubic
cubio PIIIXlISIO»
PRECISION in oubio
OIlbio PDlIBIO»
PRECISION
other 95'1> PROS.
95% fROB. units
Wlit. 95'1> PROS,
95% PIIOlI. units
Wlita 95%
: PROS.
PRDB.
area +~
±% per area
per area :!:~
±% ±%
units
Wlite unit
wd1:
_
1 11
2
2
3
3
etc.
etc.
, '1'otal
Total
2 1
1
22
33
eto,
e1:o.
Total
'1'o1oal
e1:o
etc,. 1
22
33
etc.
etc.
Total
'l'otal
---
Total
'1'otal
an.aaen .a - -
................................................
-
.... ~
(inven-
(i
torhd
toried
area)
area)
.11
1/ Volume100tobebed.ti_
Vol_ definedin
in aa footnote
t00101lO1;&
y See to01;l101;&
See footnote J/ Table
A/ "'bl. VI-2
VI-2
- 15 2 -
- 152-
Table
Tabla VI-6
Volume According to Use Classes and Species or Species Grou

S577717entory Classes
o
Aa_tni.trative unit
Administrative or other
un1~ or other apecifio
speoifio classes:
01&88 •• : ao......... 0000000 Dome*.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••
pat. of
Date ot inventor
1~nt0tl ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Speoies or
Species
oi
or Spe-
as Groups
oies
Spe
Groups b,.
by
,•
1
I
1
Inventory Classes
Inveniory Class ••
Use
Class
C1...
Name of
N_ of
Species
Speoie.
~harem
1
11,
.1 ea..))
(area •••••
1
(...... . .... )
(81488, ..
2
2
poe
33
(area .•••••
(area om.e))
etc.
( .....a.
(area ....
. eeoa)) Total
foial
JJ
JI o er
Per
;area
:area
I 1
foial
I Total
Per
area
I 1
I1 foial
Total
Per
Per
I 1
area I Toial
Total
Per
.,..a
1
Toial
area 1 Total
it
~t unit unit I
t
unit
1InU
--lrI
1
I I
,----T------1---
I
1 i
i
i
1 tI
(Volume in cubic
: (Voluooe
1 cubic units)
uni i.) 1/
)}
I 1
1 It I
1
II
1 1 1
1
I 1
! II I
1 1I I
2 o
Ii I1 iI 1
g
3 II
Il
II
Ii
II
II
II
!I
I
I
i
4 1
a I1 I1 I
I I
K
etc.
e~. 1
b
I 1 II I
1 1
-- 16--
2 1
1
2
I•
a
I
K
K
I
II
Ii
Ii
1 II
1I
I
1
It
I
t
t
1
1
I
1
II
I
1
1 I
1
3J
I
i
! II 1 1 I1
1
4 I! 1 t I1
i I1 I II
etc.
e~. I
1 I
1
1 1 iI
I t i iI
etc.
ate. 1
1
2,-)
I,I
1
g
o
,
I1
t
I1
1
1
1
t
I
1
1I
Ii
3 I1 II
•
o
II
1 1
I1
Ii
4 I I
4 I; , ; I1
eto.
.to. I I
v
I
1 I
1
I
I1
,
)}
1/ Vol.... to be defined in
Volume in footnote.
tooinote.
Y2/ See
Sea tootnote
footnote J!,
1/, Table VI-2
1/
JJ Exa.p1. ot 'Use
Example of Clea ••• ".
"U•• Clasaso4: Present1,. marketable
Presently 1: .arketable species
.peciea
Specie.
Species not
2: ;yet marketable
noi yet bd of
u.rketable but ot potential
potenUal value
value
3a Speoie.
Species ofot no
no present
preseni value
valueand
andofotunknown
UDkDown
pot.ntial
potential value
Ilaoh ·.p.oi·
Each ... will occur
epecta* in only
OCCllr in onl,. one
OM ofot the
ih. three
thr.e use
use classes.
ol.. se •• n.••• 01
Thege .....
olieses
....,.
mmy be further .u~
be further rlded acoording
subdivided io local
aooordiD,lf to local need.
n•• d.
--153-
153 -
'labl. VI-7
Table VI
Stock Tables for Bach Administrative Unit and Inventory Class. I/

A000rding to
J.da1zd..trati." Unit
Administrative (or other
Unit (or other specific 01 ... )a .........
lIp801tl0 clan.): ••••••••• Date ot Inventory:
Date of IDranWrzl ........
....... .
I"".ntorz ClasB.
Inventary Clase: eeeee "goo*
••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••
Area in hectares: 00000006,ot/0000o
BMUS
SPD:lI1S D.B.B. CLASS
D.B.A. <2.
CLlSS CM. 2/
gj
olt
OR
SPiX:US
SPECIES
GIIOOPS
GROUPS
Vol....
Volumes Vol . .".
Volumes Vol_
Volumes Vol_.
Volumes
Per area
Per .....a ......
Per area P"r are
Per are. Per .....
area a
unit Total unit Total uni t
unit Total unit Total
11
22
33
,
4
4
55
6
6
•
.
•.
•
•.
•.
•
. .
•
•.
•
.
!O'W.
Y
1/ s." footnote J/,
See footnot" Tabl" VI-2
j, Table VI-2
2/
gj Claea
Clama It-it • •should
limits b. .bown
hauld be .aoh dbh
tor eaoh
shown for dbh clase M«r" .... nt with li.it.
01... in mgrnament limits
indi.,..t"d
indicated in tabl" at paragraph
table of 242.1 in Chapter V.
PllZ'acraph 242.1 V.
-- 154
154 --
Table
Table YI-8
VI-8
Net Arurua1
Net Vol\llll. Increments
Annual Volume Incr .... nts 1/forY
for Inventor;[ C1.....
Inventory Classes y
gr Ada1ni.trativ.
by Unit.
Administrative Unite
Inventol')"
Inventory AdIo1 niB traU ve Units
Adminietrative Unit. Total
Total
C1...
Clase T01""..
volumes
1
1 22 .to.
etc. .11
all
---- _ unit.
unite
voluae.
volumes volume.
volumee valu••
volumes
Per ha
Per he Per ha Per ha
Per ha
area unit Total area unit
area unit Total ar •• unit
area Total
Total
11.•
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
66.•
•etc.
to.
- , -
Ul
All
inv.ntol')"
inventory
olulle.
clasees
1/
Y (a)
(a) Speoitl how
Specify how volume
..olume inorement
inor_ent figures
fil'U'e. have
ha,,'e been
been obtained
obtained and whether
and whether
the,. are:
they arel
forests considered
for all foreets oOJl8idorod as
ae productive;
productive; or
or
f or •• t. presently
for foreste pre8.ntl,. under
und.r exploitation.
exploitation.
(b) !!l!!!
State whether all
all .peoie.
species are
are inolud.d
included (non-oa.meroial, eto.)
(non-comercial, etc.)
It .peole. are
"'" whioh species
If no, are iroluded
il',o lud.d and what percentage
and what of total
peroent... of total
vo1_e do the
volume the epeoiee
.peoha included repr...nt.
inoluded represent.
(e) S~ifl if
Specify if all
all.... and diameters
ages and di ... tero are
are included;
i "Illuded; if no, which
it no, which age,
....
aand/or
or diameters
diameter. are inoluded.
are included.
y2/ See footnote

See footnote JI. Tabl.
1/, YI-2
Table VI-2
- 155
155 -
314.2 Sigpifioance
Sip1tioano.and e021.1r241
and accuracz
'ftle riDal tables

The final table • • hould contain
should contAin some
.000a indication
indioation of ot the
the reliabilit
reliability of of the ra.ul te.
th. results.
Beaida. the
Besides th. standard
at&Dd&rd errors
.rrore whioh
whioh should
ahould be
be given
!i",en forfor every
...,ery level ot stratification
1...,.1 of atr&t1t:io&tion for tor
whioh final
which fin&! result
reeult tablee
tabl.s are
are computed,
ooaputed, careful
caraful consideration
coneideration should.hould be to the
,i",.n to
be given .he
lignificance
aip1t1oance of ot the resulte.
..eaults. for example,
It, for
If, eJ<allpl .. , on
on aa certain
oertAin level
l""el of ot stratification
.tratitioation the the
~ber of
number ot sampling
...plins unite
units representing
repre.entins aa particular
particular stratum
stratua is is too
too small,
a. .ll, the
the corresponding
oorre.pondins
result tables
table. for tor this
this stratum
stratum should
shoald be
b. omittod.
oeittvd. It for
If tor some
soae rearion,
re ..on, however,
however, it is ia
deemed useful to to produce
produce these
these results,
results, their
their relative
relative reliability
reliability should
should always
always bebe
indicated by by giving
!irlns the
the area
area of
of the
the oorrespondiag
oorre.pondins samplenaple and the number
and the nuaber of of sampling
.uplins unite.
units.
'ftla mention
The .ention of ot suoh
.uoh indications
indications is ia therefore
th.refore highly
highly recommended.
r.commended.
'ftle acour!!(f
The which the
accurao with which the different
different results
results areare given
!iven depends
depends on
on the
the total
total error
.rror
ot these
of th.se results
r.sults inoluding s .... pling and
including sampling and measurement
,.... ur.... nt errors).
.rrora). J.ocuracy of
Accuracy of the
the results
r.sult.
ahould b.
should be ofot the eame
.... order ot magnitude
<>rder of .. agni tude as
as the
the estimated
.BU.t.d totaltotal error.
error.
'Hle accuracy
The accuraoy of
of frequency
frequency figures
figures -- numbers
numbers of
of trees
trees per
per area
area unit given species
un! t of given specie.
group and
or species group of given
and of giv.n diameter
diameter classes
class.a -- must
must be
be compatible
compatible with
with their
th.ir expected
expected
total error: a very small
total error: s ..all number
number of
of trees/ha
trees/ha has often aa high
has often high total
total error
error and
and consequently
consequ.ntly
has onl~ an
has only an indicative
indicative value.
value. A
A aensible diapo.ition would
sensible disposition would bebe to
to indicate
indicate the
the figure
figure by
aa special sign
sign instead
instead of of presenting it in
presenting it in the
the same
8ame way
way as
as the
the other
other figures.
figures. A similar
A similar
pre.entation to
presentation to that
that indicated
indicated by by Guinaudeau (1973) could
Guinaudeau (1973) could be
be applied:
applied:
blank
blank (no
(no figure) : no data in
no in the
the stratum
stratum cell
cell concerned
conoerned
dash
dash ( - )) : no
no trees
trees for
for the stratum cell concerned
aaterivk
asterink ( **
( )) : at leant
least one tree
tree within
within the
the stratum
.tratum cell,
cell, the
the average
average
trees/ha however
number of trees/ha however being
being lees
1.8. than
than aa given
given figure
figure
(aay
(say O.l/ha)
0.1/ha)
figure : the
the number
number of trees/ha
trees / ha of the
tha stratum cell with an accuracy
of 0.1
0.1 tree /ha
If it is intended aleoaleo to
to produce
produce the
the very
very small
emall values,
values, it
it is
is better
bettor toto present
pr •• ent aa
.tand the actual
stand table with the actual numbers
numb.rs of
of trees
tre •• found
found in
in the
the sample
.ample by
by species
speci •• or
or groups
groups ofof
species and by dl . . . ter clanses.
b7 diameter classes.
Pres.ntation inventory resulte

Presentation of inventory results with
with an
an accuracy
accuracy much
much higher
higher than
than their
their expected
expected
total errors
error. is
i. illusive
illusive and
and misleading,
mislaadins, the
the more
mora so
so when
when they
they are
are obtained
obtained by
by EDP, since
goP, sinoe
people trust EDP
KDP more
",ore than
than manual
manual data processing.
data proceesing.
lYIIphuh
Emphasis IDust
must alao
also be placed
plaoed on connistency acourac;"/' of t~e
oollJl1et.ncy in accuracy if, for
r.sults: if,
te results: for
instano.,
instance, the ...
aa bloak
an volwa.
mean volume per ha is given
block with an acouraoy
accuracy of 100 ha,
giv.n with an accuracy of
ba, the
the total
total volume should
should not
0.1
not be
mi
be given
0.'
m and the total area
and the
given to
total
to the
area of
the nearest
neare.t
of
cubic metre.
cubic metre.
3'5
315 S~ .. design.
System d •• ien. A system
A s,wtem design
d.sign for
for data
data processing
processing as
.. aa whole
whole ehould
should
iindioate
oate the
the logical
logical sequence
sequence of
of the
the variOWl "actirl ti.s" to
VOLTA.0111 "aotivities" to beb. considered
oonsid.red in in
the
the plann1ns
1n
planning and
0".
in the case ot
and 1.pl
implementation
proo.nins of
of processing
pha....
... ntat10n phases.
ot field
fhld intentory
Figur. VI-l illustrates
Figure VI-1
intantory data including ._ph tree
sample tr
this in
flow-chart form
illustrat .. this in flo1H)hart
. . .measurements
fona
. . .ur ... nt. for
for
.ansissment ot voluaa
. . . . . .nt of aquatiOIl8, the area data being
volume equations, b.ins derived
d.riv.d separately
e.parately by photo
photo
interpr.tation.
interpretation.
-- 156
156 --
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIM
lI'U'l' /WTPIJT
I DPUTAUTPUT INPUT /WTPIJT
I NPUTAX/TPUT
START
II/iVEImJ!Y
NVENTORY
4 Scx/!!CE
OF DOCUMEII1'S
AND
A ND Jo.
SAMPLING
SAMPLI NG
SCURCE DOCUM.
IDESIGN PLOT (1~1--_....1
DESIGN
DFZ I GN 4 IJlTII.
DAM
VISUAL ..RECORD'
RECORDING
IIJ ( )
CHECK
4
(FIELDWORK)
(FIELD WORK)
EDITED
SWRCE MA /VAL
DOCUMENl'S( 1 ) CORR.& soRr
(~
FUIEHED cARD DATA
l-
DESIGN ( ) (1
CARDS ( 1))
4
I • PU /CHI NG AHD
VERIFY' N:11 "
I
I
((2
2
(1)
I
I IiVEII'1'ORT
INVENTORY
DlTl\
DATA FILE
FILE
CJll '-.,-J
I
SORT' NG AND
STORAGE
4
..
~
EDITED
lllTl FILE
DATA FILE
(r:~H3
VOLUXE
EQUATI OIE 1·. -- ANALYSIS
LREGRESS'
ON
3 21
2 1
I 4.
..
~
I
"
CIl
VOLUME
COMPUTATION
4
+
II----.~
4
~~:OLE rTl---_ ~pm
UPDATED
DATA FILE "
VALUES PER
AMPLI NG
NG UII[T
UNIT
SAXPLI /13 UT
SJ.JIPLING UII[T
III TI\ .n
DATA LE
FILE
~ I
l
* 3 1
:-'T"~
PARAMETER
PlliMETER
MEME TOPA ""'
AREA DATA
BY
[PROTOI MEUSE
IS~~
ST& NDARD
ERRORS
;
I
"(ill ~
TABLE
IC:TIOII
COMPUTATION
TABLE
4J FILE
• 1
.. PHIif!'
PEI NI' ..
+---
D 2 1
2 J nG.
FI Exsunplaof
VI-II Ezuple of a
II
STOP )
(C7;017) set.
S De.l,D
--157-
157 -
A S;yllt ... design

A syetem design is .,.ef'ul for
i • usefnl for the
the following
following reasons:
reaaon. :
(a) "'e .te~ foreseen

Tho different *tope for.... n in
in a• provisional
proYisional cheoklist
oheokli.t are
are placed
placed in
in logioal
logical order;
order;
(b) syet .. design

the syetem de.ign olarifies
olarifie. the ~ the
the way the results
reauH. are
are produoed,
procluoed, from the basic
frail the buio data
data
b,. the computational
by comput.tional procedures
procedures corresponding
corre.pending to
to the
the inventory
inventor,. design;
d.aign;
(c) .;yllhm desIgn

the system . . . . nti.l to deoid.
1a essential
design is upon the ItamsidiltiLprocessing
decide upen tm of data proo.uilll to be
.... ployed;
employed;
(d) .,.8t.. design

the system de.ign is
iB e• necessary
necesBar,. tool
tool for
for all
all time
time and oost estimates
and oost estim.te. related
rel.ted to
to
prooe •• ing;
data processing;
(e) in the O&8e

case of EDP, the syetem
EDP, the 8yet.. de.ign ia .n
design is ••• enti.l sourc
an eseential otinformation
souroe of information for tor the
the
anal.rst/progr_er
analyntiprogrammer toto develop
d..,elop the
the appropriate
.ppropri.te computer
oOOlputer routines;
routine.; the system
.;yllt.. de.ign
design
i8 finall,. of great
is finally gre.t help
help in
in deoiding
deoiding whether
whether the
the data
data processing
prooe..ing is to be
is to be oarried
oarried
out u,y inventor,. project
by the inventory projeot iteelf
it.elf or
or whether
vhether it .uet be
it must be subcontracted
.ubcontracted to to
.peoialised
specialised d.t. proo..aing firms
data processing tim. (see
(.ee detaih pooragr.ph 332).
detalle in paragraph
32
32 Selection of type of data zasmtsinis
prooe •• illl
321
321 Manual data
data 2rooessing.
prooessilll' are a• number
There are number of of circumstance:3 ~oh
oircUM.tanoe. under which
manual processing
proce •• ing by means of mechanical
by means meohanical or non-programmable
non-prograNd.ble electronic
eleotronio ddesk
•• k
calcul.tors •may
oalculators .,. be oonsidered
oonaidered the
the most
most appropriate va,. of
.ppropri.t. way ot prooeesing
prooe.sing inventory
inventor,. data.
dat.. Wh.n
When
deoidillC upen the
deciding upon the type
t.rpe of
of data
dataprooessing
prooe.eingtotobebeused
usedthe
thefactors.,
faoto... to
to be
be oohsidered
oou.idered are:
are:
- oOlllplerlty of data (input)

the amount and complexity (input)
- .oope ot
acope inventor,.
of the inventory
the
the time .zxl oost factors
and cost
- .vail.ble experti.e and maohine
available expertise ",.ohine oapacity
c.paeit,. for
for more sophisticated
sophiaticated prooessing
proc.aaing
proo.dur•• , such
procedures, .uoh as
.. EDP.
EDP.
.i~pl. forest
tev
For small-scale
few apeoie.
saall-soale inventories,
species and
.ppropriat.
appropriate than KDP
inv.ntories, espeoially
and little variation in
EDP sinc.
•• peoiall,. in
in forest
in relatively
tor..t typee),
relativel,. simple
t.rpea), m.nual data processing
manual data proc••• ing may b.
requir•• greater initial investment
since the latter requires
II.,.
foreat oonditions
conditione (e.g.
be lIore
more
inveatment and inv.atigation
(e.g.
investigatioe
prior to the
prior the aotual proousing.
actual processing. In addition, proo.ssing may
addition, manual processing • .,. be 1I0ra generally
be more ganerall,.
preferabl.
preferable wh.n
when aa r.lativel,.
relatively .Mall aMount of data are to be
small amount and raault.
b. treated and results are
are required
required
fairl,. rapidl,..
fairly rapidly. Manual processing
proce •• ing cannot
O&llbOt of course
oours. be
b. avoided,
avoided, even
..,en in large-goals
large-.cal.
innntoriaa,
inventories, if bDnc oOOlputer. .iatt are available
oOlDpetent staff
oomputers or oompetent avail.ble for
tor EDP.
EDP.
It, on the other

If, oth.r hand,
hazxl, EDP
EDP in adopted, manual prooessing
18 adopted, proo•••ing serves
.enaa as.. a preoedure
prooedur. tor
for
d.terllimng
determining thethe variaua COllplltlng steps
various oomputing .tepa and to analyse
anal;yll. the oomputing
ooapllting procedure
prooedur. toto b.
be need
used
..
an aa bui. tor the
baais for the EDP pro~ing.
KDP programming. FUrth.mor., manual
Furthermore, lIanual oalculations
calculatione are
are essential
•••• ntial for
for
t_tiac Ii:DP.
testing EDP. ru. 18
poorticularl,. relevant when
lIIIen EDP
KDP is b.ing subcontraoted
1a being auboontracted to outsid
outside..
inati totiona or
institutions or firme.
fira.. Th. progr_ •• are ohocked
The programmes ch.oked by b.r oalculating
calculating. a small perUon of the
-.11 portion the
r.quiraci
required results .ml.n,. and
raauU. .manually azxl by
b,. comparing
ooapooriac the
the results:
raault. obtained
obtained with
with tho . . of the
those the ooapllter
computer
neing
uaing a •• t of test
set t ..t carde.
oard.. ru. is
This otten the only
18 often onl,. .&ana deteoting errors
means of detecting errore in the
prosr-aa •
programmes.
Tb avoid hlD&n
To human error ..
as lIuch
much .. pe •• ible .en
as possible manuall,. processing
when mamually proo ••• illC data,
data, it iaie
•••• ntial totoelve
'essential give ol.ar
clear inatruotiona
inatructions tor for all
all calOUlatiOIW,
calculations, tor inatayne b.r
for inat..,.,. by . _ ot
means of d.tailed
detailed
.;yllt_ d ••irna.
system designe. In add! tion it is
addition 1a of great help if it all oomputationa
oqIIpIltaUona are donedona on .peoial
special
~aaillled toraa, in which
esi ed forms, lIhlch all stepe
at.pa of of csomputation
oOllplliation are ddescribed
......ibed and the user
neer has
baa to
Oiov
o low the inatruotioUII given on the fem.
instructions giv.n tora. ha".
tOJ'lll. have been
Such forms been developed b.r Dawkins
developaci by !la*1U11
(1968) at the Commonwealth P'or •• tr.r Institute,
Coanonvv.l th Forestry lnaU tllta, Oxford,
Oxford for tor thu oaloulation in
the oalculation in olaesioal
ol...ical
stati.tical
raMOM).
random).
d•• igna including
statistical designa
Analo(!OUB
inoluding basics
foms cm
inalogeus forme
buio ...
OlInn b~
plillC ddesigna
sampling
. .igned for
be cldesigned
1ur.r••
•• igna (urreetrioted
tor an.r
sey typo
trioted randoa
random and .tratitied
t.rpe of manual prow:going
ploo...iac for
stratified
tor forest
tor..t
inv.mor,..
invenaory.
--158-
158 -
322 Eleotronic data prooessing

Electronic processing (EDP1.
(EDIT by moans
EDP by
EDP ....1111 of
of digital
digital computers
computer. requires
require.
frOID
fr ca the
the inventory expert
expert a bu 0 knowledge of the fundamental
bas o f'uDdaIII.ntal concepts
concepte of aa
computer,
computer, its advantages and restrictionl
restrictions (tor ZShrer and Haller 1973,
Loet.oh, ZUhrer
(for details see Loetsch, 1973,
and oited
oitad literature).
11 terature). '!'be buio
The elemente of EDP as
basic elements OOIIpared with
.. oompared wi th those
tho •• of manual
manual data
proce88ing are:
proceesing are:
Items Manual Processing

Proo...ing EDP
1. Instruotions for
Instruotiona for buio
basic aathematical oOlDputation
mathematical oomputation pro~e. in problem-
programmea in probl_
computation
computation rule • .
rules orient.d la~.e (e.g.
oriented languages ( •• g.
FORmt.II, ALGOL, COBOL,
FORTRAN, COBOL, PL1)
PL1)
2. treated
Data to be treated handwritten or
handwritten or typed
typed data
data on
on data input
data input in
in machine-
machin~
field
field recording documents
recording documente readable form
readable form (e.g.
(e.g. punched
punched
oarde)
cards)
3. Computation
Computation by mlln
man by control
by oontrol unit,
unit, also called
oalled
Prooe •• ing Unit
Central Proosesing Unit
(CPU)
(CPU)
4. Auxiliary devices
Auxiliary desk calculators,
desk oalculators, elide-rules,
slide-rules, ari thmetio and
arithmetic logio unit
and logic ,'.ZIi t
calculation tabl .. (e.g.
calculation tablee (e.g. wi thin the
within the computer
computer
trigonometry or
trigonometry or logarithm
logari thm
tables)
tables)
5. Intermediate caloulation and oompo.i

calculation tion of
oomposition automatio storage
automatic storage by
by storage
storage
results
reeults tables
tablee etc. facility in the CPU (computer
(comPllter
tapes/diska/
memory) or on tapee/diaks/
during operation
druII. during
drums operation
6.
6. Results written or
written or typed
typed reeult
result tables,
tables, automatically printed
etc. re.ults (print-out
results (print-cut sheets)
eheets)
The advantages of
of EDP comparad with
EDP compared with manual
manual processing
procee.tng are
are evident:
wident:
is only
manpower is only neoeesary
neoessary during thethe phase ot setting
phaae of •• ttillg the
the rules tor OOlllPlltillg
rul •• for computing
(i.e. the programming
(i.e. the programming phase).
phaae). Onc. the programmes
Once tho progr....... have
heve been
b ••n developed
dev.loped and
.nd
tested
teeted by the analyst/progr
.xpert,
..... er. in close
analyat/programmers olo.e collaboration with the
oarrie. out all caloulations
expert, the computer oarries
error is avoided;
avoidedj
oalculatiol1ll automatioally, .0
the inv.ntory
inventory
automatically, so thetthat hlllll&n
human
.
- ari thlnetio and logic operatiol1ll
arithmetio whioh are earried
operations which carried out
out in
in manual processing
prooe •• ing by
by
man or auxiliary
or
III&ll auxiliary devi
dwice., are ~prosr_ed
ces, are oparational during
preprogrammed and operational durillg one "run" !!
on. "run" 1/
in the computer;
oomPllterj
- tabl_ int_ediat. results
tablee and intermediate (e.~." volwo.,
r ••ulta (e.g., .tand or stock
volume, stand .took tables)
tAble.) can
can be
be
.tored
stored inin the
the CPU
CPU and every "oell"
and every .Et can be eddr
"0.11" Z./ ••• ed automatically
addressed autOOlatioal17 at ~ and
at any aDd
every .. "",ent during the prooeseing
moment proo...ing operations;
operatiol1ll j
- all
all results
results can be printed in d.finitive to", to be included direotly
definitive form direotly in
in the
the
final report.
report.
1/
1/ "Run"
"Run" or "job"
"job" signifiee
signifies the
the whole
whole operation carried
oarriod out
out by the
the oomPllter
oomputer under
under the
the
oommand of one
command of one programme
programme or
or one
on• •
set ot programmes
et of prosr.nm •• between
b.tween the
the start
.tart and
and stop
.top eignal
.1gnal
of the system
system control.
oontrol.
y 1A "oell" is the mmallest
is the ..alleet unit
unit in
1n the
the oomputer
OOIIPIlter whioh
lIhioh can
oan be
be addressed
aMr ••• ed and 000upied
oocupied
directly by the programme
progr...... oomaand.
OOIIIaand.
-- 159
159 --
However, disadv&11tages of
However, the disadvantages of EDP
EDP are
are ae
.... followe:
followa:
specialists are required for writing

writing the
the programmes
programme. (analyet/programmers)
(analyst/programmers) and
for running the
the machine (operatore);
{operatorsJ!
the inventory project
projeot must have
have access
acoess to
to aa suitable
suitable computer
computer centre;
oentre;
the bbasic
.... ia data has to
to be traneferred
transferred to
to machine
machine readable
readable doouments
dooument. prior
prior to
to
proce.sing, being one
processing, the transfer being one-of
of the
the main
main oost
oost components
component. of
of EDP.
EDP.
It is evident then that data

data processing
proces8ing for for aa given
given inventory
inventory haz to be
has to be evaluated
evaluated
carefully before deciding
deoiding whether
whether EDP
EDP or
or manual
m&nual processing
processing is is the
the appropriate
appropriate method.
method.
However,
However, in most forest inventories
inventories aa huge
huge amount
amount ofof data
data (e.g. 50,000 -- 100,000
(e.g. 50,000 100,000 logical
logioal
reoorda) various types
and varioue
reoords) has to be treated and t1Jl8s of
of output
output (result
{result tables)
tables> are
are required.
required.
Therefore, in
in most canes,
cases, EDP
EDP will
will be
be choeen,
chosen, since
since it it allows,
allows, after
after having
having captured
captured thethe
data in machine-readable
machine-readable form
form and prepared the
and prepared the programmes,
programmes, for for the
the processing
prooessing ofof the
the
complete
complete results very qnickly
quickly in
in their
their final
final form.
form. I n addition,
In addition, results
results can
C&11 be
be reproceesed
reproces.ed
very eaaily
easily and at aa small
small additional
additional expense
expeIBe ifif some
sOllIe changes
ohanges are
are required
required inin the
the computation.
oomputation.
This is the case,
cue t for
for instance,
instance, when
mell aa new
new breakdown
breakdown of ot areas
areas by inventory units
by inventory units isia neceesary
necessary
or when grouping of
When a new grouping of species
species or
or a& new
new set
set of
of volume
volu.e specifications
specifications is i. adopted.
adopted.
The basic data stored

.tored by
by EDP
EDP on
on tapes,
tapes, disks
disk. or
or drums
drums can
oan be
be considered
considered as
.... aa data
data
bank. Whenever additional information
information on
on the
the inventoried
iwentoried area
area or
or parts
part. of
of it
it are
are required
required
they can be prooeesed
prooessed using
using the
the data
data bank as input.
bank as input. The faoility
The facility ofof data
data storage
storage is is of of
particular importance in
in continuoua
oontinuous forest
forest inventory (cn > for
inventory (CFT) for updating
updating purposes
purposes or or for
for
timber forecasts made from
from data
data recorded
recorded at
at different
different periods.
periods. data banks
Finally, data banks are are
also for the
aleo useful for the elaboration
e!aboration of
of countrywide
countrywide or
or region-wide
ragion-wide statistics
statistics using
using the
the basic
b.... ic
data of various forest inventories.
inventories.
If electronic
eleotronic processing
processing of
of the
the data
data of
of aa forest
forest inventory
inventory is
is to
to bebe used, it must
used, it must
be decided at an
&11 early
early stage
stage during
<luring the
the planning
pl&nning of
of the
ihe inventory.
inventory. '!he followi ng steps
The following
taken into consideration
have to be taken comideration byby the
the inventory
inventory expert:
expert:
<a>
(a) During
During pre
preparatory pbase
s.2
1. Definition of the final

final results
results to
to be
be reached
reached by
by the
the inventory
inventory in
in relation
relation
to its objectives.
objeotives.
2. Lhting parametsrs to
Listing of the basic parameters to be
be recorded
reoorded either
either in
in the
the field
field or
or from
from
other sources (e.g.
<e.g. aerial photographs
photographs and mape).
and maps).
3. Elaboration of the
Elaboration of the system
system design
design (eee
(see paragraph
paragraph 315).
315).
4. Surv"7 of
Survey of the
the available
available computer
computer facilities
facilities with
with the
the aim
aim of
of selecting
selecting those
those
whioh can
which 0&11 cope
cope with
with aa part
part or
or the
the whole
whole of
of the
the prooessing
prooessing work.
work.
5. Design of recording
recording documente
documents and
and punched
punched carda
cards (or
(or other
other machine-readable
machine-readable
documents)
documents).•
6. Development of flow charts
oharts for the input and editing programmes
programmes by the
the
lI.nalyst/programmer according to
analyst/programmer according to inventory
inventory and syst ... designs
and syetem deBigno in
in close
close
collaboration with the
collaboration with the inventory
inventory specialist.
speoialist.
(b) - impl ... entation

During the implementation
7. ~e.ting of ~he
Elaboration and testing edt ting programmes
the input and editing progr.....s by the
the
&nal18t/pro~er.
analyet/programmer.
8. Punohing of bassic
Punching of basic data and edt
data and tllJ« of the data.
editing
9. Correotion inoorreot data

Correction of incorrect data in
in close
olo.e collaboration wi~h the
oollaboration with the field
field crew
crew leaders
leaders
oontinuous storage
and continuous atorage of
of correct
correot data
data on
on tapee,disks
tapes,dtslcs or drums.
dr1as.
Flow charts
10. Flow oharts for
for calculation
calculation and
and output
output programmes,
programmes, and
and for
for programming
programming and
inventory and
testing according to the inventory system design.
and eyetem
11. Do01llllentation of the data prooessing
Documentation prooessing system.
syst .....
- 160
- 160 --
(0)
(c) ALIármmeletion
After ooapletion of data collection
oollection
12. Production ef
Production of final
final results
results (output).
(output).
13. Storage of
of basic
basic data
data and
and intermediate
intermediate results
result. (data
(data bank) on tapes.
bank) on tapes.
The main workload for the the inventory

inventor1 specialist in relation
relation to
to EDP occurs
occurs before
before and
and
during the first implMlentation stage of the
firet part of the implementation the inventory. nata
Data processing
processing has
to
to be
be ccarefully
...... fullr anal,aed illVentory operation and must
analyeed from the very beginning of the inventory must be
be
taken into
into account
acoount in the related cost
coet and time studies.
323 Combined types of datadata eireceeaing.

proCitBeing. In certain
oertain cases
caees (email
(small inventories,
inventories,
working pl&ne, 7177)-rlianual
working plano, etc.) manual and and electronioal
electronical data
data processing m81 be
processing may be combined.
combined.
While editing and minor calculations
calculations are
are carried
carried out
out manually, more
more oomplicated
oomplicated prooedures
"uch . regression analysis or sampling
such .as sampling error
error calculations
calculations are
are performed
performed on pre-programmed
de"k
desk OOOIputera (SUCh as the
computers (such the WANG
lIANG 700
700 series
series or
or Olivetti 600
600 series)
series) or larger
larger digital
digital
computers
computers at computer
oomputer centres. One disadvantage of of this
this method
method isis that
that editing
edi Ung is
is not
not
carried out automaticallr,
automatically, but the mainmain drawback
drawback comes
comee perhaps
perhape from
from the fact
fact that the data
that the data
are manipulated
manipulated and transferred several times which may mq result in in additional
additional errors
errors during
prooe"sing.
processing. Coabined methods
Combined _ethode ofof data
data processing
proce •• ing are
are thus
thus different
different from
from totally
totally
proce •• ing prooedures
integrated data processing prooedure" which
which can
can be
be seen
Been as
as "closed
"olosed systems",
systems", and in which
the
the basio
basic data
data remain untouohed, onoe they have been edited.
untouohed, once Therefore,
Therefore, they .hould ba
should be
recommended only
onlJ if EDP
EDP inis not
not feasible.
feasible.
33 5001. practical
Some praotical eápeote
.... peot. of EDP
331
331 Projeot-integrated data prooes.ing.
Prolect-integrated deatáisecessing. the practical
Prom the
From practical point
point ofof view
view it
it is
is
i_portani
important toto decide
deoide which
which parte
parts of of EDP
EDP will
will be
be carried
carried outout in
in the
the project.
projeot.
A. mentioned
As mentioned above,
aboYe, the
the system
"lilt.... design
design hashas toto be
be prepared
prepared inin any o&"e by
an;y case the inventory
by the illVentory expert
expert
bimself.
bill"elf. fW>oh1",
Punching of data could
oould be ba done in the project,
projeot, if i! aa punching
punohing machine couldoould be
be
hired ~ot a adet.~in.d
bired folk. determinedperiod
periodand and ".oretarial/olerical
eeoretarial/clerioal staff staff oould
could be trained in the use of of
card punoh.rs
punchers and verifiers. Prog!'!ll!!ling incorporated in
Programmieg could be incorporated in the
the project,
proj.ot, if the
i f the
lD'lentory
inventory .zpert experienoe and
expert has experience for this
ti ..., for
and time tbis activity,
aotivi ty, or or if
if other
other staff
statf .... bers
members
oould
could be trained in oomputer
"","puhr programming.
progruning. progrlll!llling in
Since programming in FORTRAN
P'ORTBAN or
or any
an;y other
oth.r
probl~rhnted oomputer
problem-oriented oomputer language
l~ can can be learnt eamily
be learnt ...Uy within
wi thin aa two
two or
or three
three week
weak
proCJ'!llll!.r'. mires,
programmer's 00,,"., the
the field
field crew
orewleaders
l.ader" may, for inetanoe,
lIay, for instano., carry out the
0&rX'f out the programming
prosr_ing
clld'iq periodm
during periolla when
wh.n not
not engaged
.ngB«ed in in field work.
fhld work. This method has been been practised
praotised with
muooess S_hh National
BUOO•• " in the Swedish liational Fbrest
For•• t Inventory
Inventory for for many
. .ny years.
years.
TOtally project-integrated
Tbtally projeot-int.srated data
data processing
proo•• sing has
haB the
the advantage
advantage of
of having
having continuously
oontinuouely
010.. oontaot
close oontact between
b.twe.n the
the inventory
inv.ntory staff
staff and the data
and the data prooessing
prooe88ing staff,
statf, whioh
whioh is of
i.portanoe during
particular importance during the
the implementation
i ..pl.... ntation phase
phaB. (editing
(.di Ung of
of basic
huio data)
data) and later
lat.r
,tage., such
tages, .uch am
. . pro-regression studies for
pre-~.sion studies tor volume •• ti_tion.
vol~e estimation. tor punching,
As for punChing, experience
.xperienoe
baa
has .hown ~t these
shown that th... activities
activiti •• in
in maey
-1l7 cases
cae... can be "carried
oat: be 1I0r. oheaply
out more
carried out cheaply and
,tt.cU"'lr
effectively outBid. proJeot at
outside the project at speoialised fi~., which
speo1alhed firms, whioh normally
normally have
have qualified
qualified staff
atatt
~ long
and lone .xperi.nc. at th.ir
experienoe Iiitt their dispoaal,
disposal, whioh reduo. punobing errors to aa considerable
reduce punching oonsiderabl •
•extent.
d.nt.
332 Sub-oontraoted elata

Sub-oontraoted data proo ••• inc.
rooesslm. Tho..
Those parts ot data
parte of data processing
proo•••ine not being
being
carried out by
by the project
projeot itself
it.elt will DO~ly be
will normally be eub-contraoted
8ulHlontraotad to
adequately .tatted OOOIputer
adequat.lr /staffed computer c.ntr •• , data proo.nine
centres, oOllllulting tiras,
prooessing consulting tire., or
or data
data processing
prooe.. ing
departments ot universities,
d.parta.nte of univ.rsitie., etc.
.tc. A tew forms
A few tOrM. of sub-contracts
eub-oontraota merit
.erit consideration,
oonsideration, the
.oat appropriate
most appropriat. to be chosen
oho•• n aocording
according to the .peoial
special ....
modedB of
of the
the inventory
i DVentory project.
proj.ct.
- 161
- 161 --
332.1
332.1 Sub-oontracting
Sub-contracting data proo.s.ing .. a whole
datt_prooessing_m_ajá
All data
data processing
prooeuing will
will be
b. subcontracted,
suboontraoted, including
inoluding card punohing,
punohinc, the
the elaboration
elaboration
of the eystem design (in
ayota. design (in close
oloae collaboration
oollaboration with
with the
the inventory
inventor" expert),
e%pert), the
the treatment
tre.iaent of
of
the
the data
data on OOIDputers ths agreed
computers following the 1IgI'••d system
syataa design
deBign and the preparation
and the preparation of
of the
the final
tinal
reDulte
results required by the inventory
by the inventory project.
proj.ot.
A totally sub-oontraoted
A totally sub-oontraoted EDPEDP eystem require. from
.7&t.. requires !rca the inventory
inYentor7 project
projeot aa very
very
careful appraiaal
careful and statement
appraisal and .tat .... nt of
of the
the work
work to
to be don. under
be done under the
the contract,
contraot, defined
defined as
..
follollll'
follows:
I. 'lbe
The t.ohnical .paoifications.
technical specifications.
<a)
(a) Darini tion of
Definition the lomplatisoll_pagmlarm,
of the oOOlPUtational prooedur.. , .uch ...
such as:
- regr••• ion modele
regression modele for
for volume equations
equationa or
or tapar
tapar functions;
funotiona;
- .ignificanoe t.at.;
mignifioance tests;
- quality asnesament
........ nt (oaloulation
(calculation of
of different tJpea of
dift.r.nt typos of volumes);
volua•• );
- a ... pling error
sampling error ealculation
calculation on the different
on the dirterent levels
lav.la of
of study.
.twIT.
(b)
(b) Speoiticationa of the
Speoifications of the putput
outpu.t required,
required, ouch
.uch as:
...
- .tand and stock
stand and stock tabl.s
tablea for
for -- apeciea
.peoie.
- groups
groupe of opsoies
.peoie.
- fore.t type.
forest types
- inventory
i ..... ntor" units
uni t.
oontaining figures
containing figures per
per area
area unit
unit and/or
and/or totals;
total.;
- volume tables
tabls. (tabulation
(tabulation of
of the
the volume
voluae equations
equationa used
used for
for volume
voluae estimation);
e.ti. .tion);
- plott.d moatter
plotted .oatter diagrams,
diagr"., inoluding
inoludinc the
the calculated
calculated regpession
. . . . . . ion line;
11ne;
- hi.togr..... of
histogrammen of diameter
di ...t.r distribution
distribution for
tor main
.ainmpecies
.peei •• or
or apecies
.peoi•• groupo,
groupe,
fore.t type., logging
forest typee, loginc uni ta, .to.;
units, etc.;
- inventoried area
breakdown of total inventoried area by
by classes
01..... of aooe..ibi11t7, preferably
acoessibility, pr.terably
for blocks or
or smaller
.maller units.
unita.
II. Obligationa at the contractor

Obligations of contraotor
- Timinc EDP work;

Timing of the EDP ltOrk;
ot provisional
delivery of proviaional resulta
reaults for
for checking
ohankinc and final approval
and final approval by the project;
by the proj.ot;
- doou..ntation
dooumentation of the EDP programmes,
procra-ae., inoluding
including flow oharts
ohart. of ooaputation
computation
prooedures, progr_e lists,
procedures, programme procr-. deckm
liata, programme d.aka on
on oards and/or magnetic
oarcIa and/or -.gnetio tapes,
tapee,
d.tailed de.cription of
detailed description or programme
procr-e operation (preparation at
oparation (preparation or .7&taa oontrol
avian control
card., par.... t.r otrds,
oards, parameter oarda, etc.);
eto.);
- d.livery
delivery of oorrected
oorr.oted and myriad
sort.d data tapes
tapee for storage
.tor... purposes
purpo... and tuture
future
us. projeot;
use by the projeot;
- delivery of
or lOonthly pro,....a r.ports
monthly progreee reporte on .tatus 110ft done and planned tor
status of work for
fortho~ing month.
the forthooming ~onth.
-- 162
162--
III.
III. Cost breakdown
breakdown into:
into:
- man hours,
hours, unit costs
costs and
and total
total costs
costs for:
for:
- supervisory time
- analyst/programmer: - - programming/testing
programming/testing
- dooumentation
dOO1llllentation
- produotion
punching/verif~ng
- key punching/verifying
- computer time (hours &nd unit costs,
(bours and costs, description
description of
of computar
computer model,
Model,
t:ype, series):
type, series):
- testing
- production
production
- miscellaneous:
- purchase of
rent or purchase of tapes
tapes
- travel costs of tbe
travel costs oontraotor
the contraotor
- expenditure costs,
coats. etc.
etc.
332.2 Sub-contractipg parts of the

Sub-contracting tbe data prooeseing
prooesaipg
of sub-contracting
Many forms of sUb-contraoting parts
parts of
of the
tbe data
data processing
prooeesing are
are feasible,
feasible, such
sucb as:
as:
- project-integrated punching &nd verification

punohing and verifioation ofof the
tbe data,
data, editing
editing on
on small
•••11
computers, to
computers, to which
whiob the
tbe project
projeotmight
lIighthave
baveaccedes;
access; sub-contraoting ot data
sub-oontraoting of data
generation and production
produotion of
of final
tinal results
results to
to large
large computer
oo.puter centres;
oentr•• ;
the use of the computer &nd other
oomputer and oth.r installations
inatallatioll8 of
of aa computar
oomputer centre
oentr. only.
only.
data processing
When data processing totally
totally integrated
integrated within
within the
the inventory
inventory project
project isis not
not possible,
possible,
EDP is
Bub-contracted EDP
partly subcontracted i8 in many cases
in many cases the
the most
moet appropriate
appropriate alternative.
alternative.
Teohnical and
Technical other specifications
&nd other apeoifioations to to be
be defined
defined in
in the
tb. oontraot
contraot will
will be
be less
le •• detailed.
detaUed.
If the contract between
beween the
tbe inventory
inventory project
projeot and tbe oontraotor
&nd the oontraotor concerns
ooncerna only
only the
the use ot aa
Wle of
oomputer &nd related
computer and related facilities,
facilities, thetbe following
following specifications
speoifioations should
sbould be cl.arly stated:
be clearly atat.dl
- of the
use of tbe computer
computer iteelf
itself (reservation
(reservation of
of computer
oomputer time,
tille, staffing
.tatting of
of the
tb.
oOalputer with
computer wi th operators);
operators);
- peripheral hardware
use of peripheral hardware (card-puncher,
(oard-punober, sorter,
.ort.r, doubler
doubler and traDIIlator);
and translator);
- use of
of oomputer
computer hardware
hardware (tapes,
(tapea, discs,
diaca, drum file. for
drua files tor predetermined
predet.rained periods);
perioda);
- ot oomputer
Wle of
use (statistioal routines,
ooml"'ter software (statistical routines, etc. pararraph 233 of
eto. -- see paragraph of
Chapter VI);
syetem and
system prosr-ing advice
&nd programming advioe from tbe computer
frail the oOMputer oentre
centre in .yet-.>r1ented
system-oriented
questions of the language &nd
tbe computer langusgs tbe system
and the ayet ... control.
oontrol.
In moat oase. the computer

most cases oomputer centre
oentre should charge
oharge only fortor the
tbe use of tbe
the collputer
computer
itself &nd perhape scow's
and perhapa acceaa to
to the
the computer
oomputer software,
software, onon aa time
ti•• or
or per-oase
per-oas. basis,
b.. i., respectively.
r.speotiv.ly.
other servioes
Other services should
ahould be
be granted t .... of
granted free ot aharge.
charge. 'lb••• pointa
These sbould be
points should be fully ec:r••d upon
tully agreed upon
"benever projeot contracta
whenever an inventory project contracts EDP work to a computer centre. o.ntre. Only in very fewt."
u.. of the computer
oases will the use oOllputer be totally
totally free to the project.
-- 163
163 --
233
233 Some views of the use of standard programmes.
i_eof_Lhe_Someviewmandardroammes. To our knowledge there have
Tb
been developed
not yet been developed generalized
generalized EDP
EDP systems
BystemB for
for forest
foreBt inventory
inventory
to various types
applicable to typeB of
of inventory
inventory (eampling)
(Bampling) designs
designs and
and flexible
fle:d.bls enough
enough for
for
produoing different types
producing typee of
of result
result tables.
tables. The FINSYS eystem
Bystem developed
developed inin the
the United
United
States several yearB
years ago (see
(Bee Frayer et al 1968), although highly
highly flexible,
tlexible, covers
covers only aa
tew sampli",
few designs ueed
sampling designe used in
in that
that country
country and requires fairly
and requires fairly large
large computere
computers (minimum
(minimum
32-K memory).
32-K memory). the programme
In addition, the programme oontrol
oontrol by
by parameter
parameter cards
CardB appears
appears to
to be
be
particularly sophisticated.
particularly Bophisticated.
FAD is
FAO iB therefore
therefore at
at present
present developing
developing aa generalized
generalized EDP
EDP system
system for
for tropical
tropical forest
forest
inventory with the following
following main
main features:
features.
- full
full fle:d. bi li ty for
flexibility for the
the INPUT
INroT and
and EDITING
EDl TING parte;
parte;
restrictions of the
reetrictions of the generation
generation and
and error
error calculation
calculation phase
phase to
to the
the most
most
common sampling
sampling designo;
designs;
- certain
- certainflexibility
fle:d.b1Uty in
inthe
the production
produotion of
of OUTPUT
WTPUT (result
(result tables), toto generate
generate
tables in addition
addition to
to the
the standard
standard onee
ones recommended
reoOllftended by FAD (see
by FAO par8j!l'aph 314.1).
(Bee paragraph
There are,
are, however, quite
quite aa few
Cew other
other pre-programmed
pre-programmed EDPEDP routines
routines available
available at
at
almost all computer centres
centres which
whioh are
are very
very ueeful
useful and
and can
can be included in
be included in forest
Corest inventory
inventory
EDP syst....
EDP systems. regression analysis,
All regression analysis, variance
varianoe and oo-Tariance trials,
and co-variance trials, soatter
scatter diagrams
di8j!l'8m8
and histograms, stratitications and
histograms, stratifications functional descriptions
and functional descriptions of of distribution
distribution cancan be
be
calculated
oalculated by Ileana of standard
means of standard programmes,
progrBIIIIDe., provided
provided that
that the
the computational
computational procedures
prooedures
incorporated in the
incorporated in the programmes
progrBlllles are
are appropriate
appropriate to to the
the problems
problems toto be
be solved.
solved. Collections
Collections
of standard programmes toto be
be recommended
recommended are,
are, for
for inetance:
instance:
- BMD (Biomedical
DM]) (Biomedical computer
computer progrMlllles), developed at
programmes), developed at the
the University
University of
of California
California
(se.
(eee Dixon
Dixon 1968),
1968), originally for IBM 7094 computers but but applicable
applicable to
to other
other
makes with
computer makes with aa minimum
minimum of
of approximately
appro:d.mately3232K-wordie
K-words memory.
memory.
-- Statistical programmes (DRZ a• Deutsches

progr8lllDes of the German Calculation Centre (DRZ Deutsohes
Reoh.~Zentrum - eee
Reohen-Zentrum - see DRZ 1969), which are designed
deSigned to
to complement
oompl .... ent the
the BKD aeries.
JI(I) series.
In addition, all' computer manufacturers supply their computer

addition, almost all oomputer centres
centres with
with
pre-programmed statistical routines, to
statistical routines, to which
which the
the weer
user can
can have
have direct
direot access,
acoess, since
since these
these
"5TATPACKS"
"STAMM" areare normally
normally storedonondisks
stored disks or
or drums.
drIEs.
Standard programmes should be used whenever possible

possible during forest
forest inventory
inventory data
data
processing operations, eince
pr008S8ing since time
time and
and aa considerable
considerable amount
amount of
of money
money can
can be
be saved.
saved.
-- 164
164 --
CHAPTER VII
VI I
CORlIDERA'l'lORl
CONSIDERATIONS ONON INVENTORY
INVEN'J'()RY DESIGNS
DE:3IORl
- 165 -
CIlAP'lER
CHAPTER VII
CORlIDERATIORl ON INVENTORY
CONSIDMATIONS ON INVEN'roRY DESIGNS
DESIGRl
1
1 ~duotion
Introduction
The former
The former chapters
chapters have
have been
been devoted
devoted toto the
the study
study ofof the
the principal
principal techniques
techniqueB that
that
are useful in
in foreet
forest inventory,
inventory, namely
namely sampling
Bampling techniques,
techniqueB, remote
remote sensing
BenBing techniques,
techniqueB,
foreBt
forest mensuration techniques
techniqueB and data
data processing.
prooessing. forest
Planning and designing a forest
inventory consist
consist mainly
mainly in
in developing
developing the
the most
mOBt efficient
effioient combination
combination of
of these
these various
various
techniques to
to fulfil
fulfil the
the objectives
objectives of
of the
the operation,
operation, taking
taking into
into account the
the prevailing
prevailing
human and environmental
human and environmental conditions.
oondi tione. In this respect eveneven data
data processing
prooessing problema
problems have
have
to be contemplated
contemplated from
from the
the very beginning
beginning since
slnoe available
available means in manpower and
meana in and
computing facilities
facili tieB also
also have
have aa bearing
bearing on
on the
the type
type of
of inventory
inventory methodology
methodology ueed,
used, as
ae
has
has already ,been
been mentioned in chapter VI.
VI.
'!here
There is nono point
point trying
trying to
to cover
cover allall the
the situations
situa~ions and objective. assigned
and objectives assigned to
to
forest resource surveys
forest surveys and the
the corresponding
ccrre.ponding combinations
combinations of of techniques
teohniques which are likely
which are
to
to be the
the most appropriate
appropriate inin each
each case.
,c ase. 'lbis
This would be be an
an endless
endless and
and illusory
illuscry task.
teak.
A more modest
A more modeBt and
and also
also more
more realistic
realistic approach
approach is is used
used in
in this
this chapter
chapter where
where some
some problems
problems
ariBing from the
arising from the combination
combination of
of these
these techniques
techniqueB will
will be
be dealt
dealt with
with and
and eome
Bome recommendationa
recommendations
will
will be mede on the
made on the suitability
Bnitability of
of these
these techniques
tschniques toto actual
actual working
working conditions.
conditione.
Techniques
Techniques of volume
volume estimation and quality aaBeBsment
assessment have already been compared
oompared
in chapter
chapter V.
V. Their effects
effects on the
the precfsion on the
precision and on the usefulness of the
ths inventory
inventory
reBults are far
results are far from
from negligible;
negligible; but, especially in
but, especially in mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests,
foresta, the
the largest
largest
part of the total
total cost
cost involved
involved comes
comes from
from the
the field
field enumeration
eDUII.ration work. Ths most
The most
important questions toto be considered
considered are therefore
therefore related to the
related to the latter
latter part
part of the
the
lnventory
inventory work and are mainly the following:
following:
to
to what extent interpretation of of remote
remote sensing imagery
imagery can
can be combined
combined with
with
the field enumeration
enumeration work
work so
so as
as to
to decrease
decrease the
the effort
effort epent
Bpent on
on the
the latter,
latter,
thus reduce
and thus reduce the
the total
total cost
cost of
of the
the inventory
inventory (for
(for aa given
given precision
precision of the
final
final estimateB
estimates of ths
the parameters ovar
over the whole inventoried area)
area) ??
the importance
the importance of
of interpretation
interpretation of
of remote
remote sensing
aensing imagery
imagery being
beingdecided
decided upon,
upon,
what are
what are the
tho most
most suitable
suitable characteristics
characteristios ofof the
the field
field sampling
sampling design
design ??
Some indications
Some indications ueeful
useful in
in solving
Bolving these
the.e problems
probl.... are
are given
given in
in the
the two
two main
main
following eectiona
seotions of
of this
.thiB chapter.
ohapter. 'lbe formulas
The formulas oorresponding
oorre.ponding to
to eome
SOme classical
clasBioal
combinations of photointerpretation
photointerpretation and
and field
field eampling
sampling procedures
procedures are
are indioated,
indicated, together
together
with the
the cases
oases to
to whioh they
they apply (section
(seotion 2).
2). General formulas corresponding
General formulas oorre.ponding toto the
the
moet
most classical field sampling dee1gns already been
designa have already been given
givsn in chapter ~II and the
ohapter III
oontents
contente of aeotion 3 are restricted
eeotion 3 restriot.d to
to some
some guidelines
guidelines onon the
the selection
seleotion of
of the
the most
most
appropriate field
fi.ld sampling
sampling design with
with special
apeoial reference
r.tereno. toto mixed tropical
tropical forests.
forest ••
Most forest
forest inventories
inventories aim
aim at
at estimating
•• timatiQg the
the dharaoteristios
characteristios of
of forest
for.st stands
stands at
a given time.
ti.... There
There enet,
exist, however,
however, sODle permanent inventory
some permanent inv.ntory dedgno whioh oonslot
designa whioh coneist in
tia oombination of
the of different
different sample
eamples••seleoted
el.ot.d onon successive
suooes.iv. 000asions,
oooasiona, which
whioh can
can be
be
grouped under the generio denomination
denollination of "Continuous
"Continuouo Forest
Por.at Inventory",
Inventory", and whioh
whiob are
brlef17 aeotion 4. Another
briefly oommented on in section Another type
type of
of sampling
sampling designa
designs follows
tollows aa stepwise
atepwise
proo.dure, in
prooedure, in whioh the
the deoision whether
wheth.r oror not
not to
to undertake
undertake further
furth.r sampling
aampling depends
d.penda on
the reaul ta already obtained from the sample;
results .... pl.' this
thia is called sequential
1& dialed aequential sampling
aampling and
and is
10
dealt
dealt with in •• otion 5.
in section
- 166 -
2
2 Combinations of
of photointerpretation
and field
field sampling
aampling procedures
proo.dure.
21
21 Preliminary remarks
It is
is assumed in this
this section
section that
that some
some basic
basio conditione
oonditions which
which are
are those
tho.e already
already
indicated in the introduction ofof Chapter
Chapter IVIV are
are fulfilledi
fulfilled. the total area
the total area of of the
the
inventoried zone
inventoried zone is
is supposed
supposed to
to be
be exactly
exactly known
known and mappad at
and mapped at aa-.urtabl
suitable•• aale (which
scale (whiah
the definition
allows for the definition of
of framee
frames for
for sampling
sampling designs),
designs), and
and the
the stand
Itand characteristics
characteristic.
are estimated
are estimated through
through field
field sampling
sampling (the
(th.. case
cas .. of
of photogrammetric
photogr...... tric measurements
m... ur ..... nt. of
of stand
stand
characteristics being
characteristics being excluded
exoluded as
... it
it ie
is generally
generally not not applicable
appliaabl .. toto inventories
inv.ntori •• of of mixed
mix.d
tropical forests).
tropical forests).
The
The main use of interpretation
interprstation ofof remote
remot .. sensing
sensing imagery
imagery in
in forest
fore.t inventory
inv.ntary is
is to
to
stratify the
stratify the area
arsa to
to be
be inventoried
inventoried into
into more
mors homogeneous
homogeneous parte
parts or
or strata
strata which
whiah are
are sampled
sampled
field, in
separately in the field, in order
order to
to get
get more
more precise
preci .... sUmat •• of
estimates of the
the total
total values
valu•• of
ot' the
the
forest characteristics over
forest over the
the whole
whole area.
area. For reasone
reasons mentioned
mentioned inin the
the following
following
relatively rare
paragraph it is relatively rare that
that areas
areas ofof the
the strata
strata are
are known
known exactly
exaotly or
or almost
almost
sxactly,
exactly, and generally
generally they
they have
have to
to be
be estimated
estimated through
through aa sound
sound eampling
aampling deeign.
design.
22
22 Areas of
of the
the strata
strata exactly
exactly or
or almost
almost ..exactly
xactly known
Stratum areas
area. can
can be
be said
said to
to be
be exactly
exactly or
or almost
almost exactly
exactly known
known when
when the
the actual
actual and
and
the strata
present limits of the strata are
are drawn
drawn on
on aa reliable
reliable and
and stable
atable planimetric
planimetrio map
map and
and their
their
areas
areas carefully planimetered or or estimated
estimated very
very precisely
precissly by
by une
use of
of very
very dense
dense dot
dot grids
grids
(see section 5
(see ssction 5 of chapter IV).
of chapter1V). The actual
The actual and
and present
present limits
limits of
of the
the strata
strata can
can be
be located
located
on the
on the photographs
photographs if:
if:
aerial photographs
very recent aerial photographs atat aa suitable
suitable scale
scale are
are available,
available, or,
or, if
if they
they are
ars
not
not very recent (say if they
they are
are two
two oror three
three years
years old,
old, but
but not
not more)
more) ifif no
no
changes are
significant changes are likely
likely to
to have
have ocourred
ocourred between
between the
the date
date of
of the
the aerial
aerial
and the
coverage and the date
date of
of the
the field
field inventory
inventory (significant,
(significant, that
that is,
i., in
in relation
relation
to
to the
the accepted accuracy of
of the
the area
area figures);
figures);
no systematic photointerpretation error is is expected,

expected, and consequently none none -- or
or aa
negligible part
negligible part -- of
of the
the sampling
sampling units
units of
of the
the field
field inventory
inventory will
will have
have to
to be
be
transferred from the strata toto which,
which, through misinterpretation,
misinterpretation, they have have been
been
assigned by
by photointerpretation
photo interpretation to
to different
different strata
strata toto which
which they
they actually
actually belong.
belong.
be. easily understood from

It can be from the
the above considerations that such cases caees .ery
very seldom
seldom
happen.
happen. Even if
Even if the
the aerial
aerial coverage
coverage has been taken
has been taken in
in the
the same
same year
year as&8 the
the field
field work,
work,
inconsistenoies and errors
inconsistencies errors in
in the
the photointerinterpretation
photointerinterpretation work work can
can always
always be be expeeted
expe~ted
since conventional
since oonventional interpretation
interpretation of
of remote
remote sensing
I.nsing imagery
imagery isis not
not aa purely
purely objective
objective
8xaroise.
exaroise. Inconsistencies and errors over time by
InconslBt~ncies Bame interpreter or between
b,y the same
interpretsre can be avoided only
interpreters only if
if the
the stratification
stratifioation is is simple
8imple and
and easy
easy and
and if
if there
thsre are
are
limite between strata
sharp limits strata (as
(as has already been
has already been mentioned
mentioned inin paragraph
paragraph 334.1
334.1 ofof chapter
chapter IVIV
it is generally
generally difficult
difficult to
to draw
draw objectively
objectively aa limit
limit between
between strata
strata as as there
there may
may be
be more
more
or less wide
or less traneition zones).
wide transition zones). .
In the rare oases when an exact

exaat (or
(or almoet exact)
ezact) evaluation of the ar ... of the
areas the
strata can be secured,
secured, i.e.
i.e. when it is &8sumed
assumed that there ieis no milint.rpr.tation
misinterpretation in in the
the
photointerpretat1on,
photointerpretation, thethe sampling frame
trame for each
eaoh atratum
stratum 18
is well defined and an independ.nt
definid and independent
seleotion
eelection of the
the field
field sample can be mada
made wi thin eaoh
within each atratum.
stratum. The lIean
mean valu •• and
values
estimated variances
variances of the
the forest
forest oharaoteristios
characteristics per ultimate unit over-the
over the whole
whole
population estimated from derived fro1I
from the field sample can be derivad from the oorre.pondine
corresponding foraulao
formulas
sampling designa
given in chapter III for sampling designo with stratification
atraUfication prior
prior to
to sampling
a&Spline (formulas
(fo",ul ..
5, 66 of
or 11,
11, 12
12 in CBse
case of one-stage eampling
sampling designs),
deaiena), in
in whioh
whioh the
the total
total sises Nb (or
ai.ea Nh (or Xh)
Xh)
of the strata and NN (or
of (or X) of the
the whole population
population can be replaced by by the
the total areas
are..
Sh and S S respectively.
respeotively.
- 167
- 167 --
of the
The total values of the forest
forest characteristics
characteristics for
for the
the whole
whole inventoried
inventoried area
area is
is
obtained by multiplying the mean
multiplying the mean value
value per
per ultimate
ultimate unit
unit by
by the
the total
total number
number (which
(which is
is
exactly known) of ultimate units
units in
in the
the whole
whole area.
area. The
The percent&ge standard error
percentage standard error is
is the
the
S8me as that of the
same the mean
mean value.
value.
m~ happen
It may happen that
that an
an unstratified
unstratified sample
sample ieis first
first selected
selected forfor the
the whole
whole area
area and
and
stratification ia
that stratification is made
mads by
photointerpretation afterafter the
the sampling
sampling on on the
the basis
basis of
of
criteria recognized inin the
the field
field and
and identifiable
identifiable on on the
the photographs.
photogra~hs. If it
If it is
is possible
possible
this stratification
to assume that this stratification is is fully
fully valid,
valid, then
then the
the exact
exact sizes
sizes of
of these
these strata
strata
can be known and the
the estimated
estimated means
means and
and their
their estimated
estimated variances
variance's are
are derived
derived from
from
fomul
formulas (7) and (8)
... (1) (8) of
of chapter
chapter--rn-(in the case
III (in the case ofof one-stage
on....stage sampling
sampling with
with equal
equal units),
units),
which are somewhat different
different from
frem those
those corresponding
corresponding to to stratification
prior toto sampling.
sampling.
Total values are obtained
~ obtained inin the
the same as in
way as
8a1nB way in the
the case
case ofof stratification
prior toto sampling
sampling
estimated relative
and the estimated relative standard
standard errors
errors are
are the
the same
Bame asas for
for the
the corresponding
corresponding mean
mean values.
values.
23
23 Ar.... of
Areas of the
the strata
strata estimated
estimated through
through sampling
sampling
case the
In this case the estimation
estimation of
of the
the etrata
strata through
through aa sampling
sampling design
design increases
increases the
the
lampling error of the
sampling the estimates
estimatee of
of the
the total
total values
valuea of
of stand
stand characterietictover
characteristiCiover the
the whole
whole
inventcried
inventoried area or
or ovar
over individual
individual strata.
strata.
In forest inventory
inventory there
there are
are various
various ways of estimating
ways of estimating the
the areas
areas of
of the
the strata
strata
uaing sampling.
using sampUng. !!be
The main alternatives
alternatives are:
are:
(a) i8;:am"'t:-li~~0i'-n~t~h~e::,.~0~t~0~:.:a~h~s
sampling on the_photoRraphs (or (or on
on the
the maps), the photointerpretation
maps), the photointerpretation being
being supposed
supposed
to
to be unbiased (same
same case
case as
as in
in the
the above paragraph, planimetering being
above paragraph, being replaced
replaced by
by
sampling)
aampling);;
(b) sampling in thethe field

field from
from the
the same
sams (or
(or a larger)
larger) sample used
used for the estimation
estimation ofof
the stand
the stand oharacterietics:
characteristios: in this this method the
ths area estimates
estimates are
are supposed
supposed to
to be
unbi .. ed and
unbiased and do
do not
net need
need to
to be
be ¡corrected
oorrected since
lince identification
identification of
of the
the strata
strata is
is made
made
on the
on the spot;
spot;
(c) lampling from the photographs

sampling photographS (or
(or even poesibly
po8sibly planimetering
planimstering on thethe maps),
maps), the
the arsa
area
estimates obtained being afterwards corrected through a sampling in the ths field,
field, USing
using
sample used
the eample used for
for estimation
estimation of
of the
the stand
characteristics or
or aa larger
larger sample.
sample.
When estimating
estimating arean
areaa through
through sampling
sampling itit isis important
important also
also to
to distinguish
distinguish the
the case
case
when
when the sampling
the 8ampling units
units are
are points
points or
or plots
plots (the
(the associated
associated parameter
parameter having
having the
the values
values
1 cr
or 0 acCOrding
according to whether the
the plot belonge
belongs to the relevant stratum
stratum or not) from the the
caee
case when the sampling units are lines or strips
21pasti (in which case
csse the
the associated
associated parameter
parameter
is a length or a ratio of lengths,
lengths, both continuous
continuous variates).
231
231 Area estimates
Area e8timates from
from one
one sample only~1) Stratification
sample onlyP) Stratificstion and eBtimat~on of
and estimation of the
the
areas of
areas of the
the strata
strata can
oan be
be made
made by
by sampling
sampling on
on photographs
photographs or
or in
in the
the field,
field,
if photographs are considered unsuitable (too
(too old or too bad to to allow for aa useful
useful
8tratification).
stratification). The sample used for
for estimation
estimation ofof the
the areas
areas of
of the
the strata
strata may
may be
be the
the
same aa
as the one used in the field for estimation of the the stand characteristics or or m~
may be
be aa
larger one (including
larger (including the
the sampling
sampling units
units used
used for
for the
the estimation
estimation of
of the
the stand
stand oharacteristics).
oharacteristics).
(1)
(1) i. used here as
Sample is as in
in the
the rest of
of this
this manual
manual to
to designate
dssignate the
the whole set
Bet of
selected according
sampling units selected acccrding to
to aa given
given sampling
sampling design.
design.
- 168
- 168 --
231.1
231.1 Area estimation
estimation using
using plots
plots as
as sampling
sampling units
In this case the associated

assooiated parameter can
can take
take the values 11 or 0 according to
to
whether the plot belongs to
to the
the particular
particular stratum
stratum considered
considered or
or not.
not. The
The area of aa
area of
multiplying the
stratum is obtained by multiplying the total
total area
area of
of the
the inventoried
inventoried zone
zone (which
(which is
is
supposed to be known exactly)
exaotly) by the
the proportion
proportion (estimate)
(estimate) of
of plots
plots falling
fallil\g in this
this stratum.
stratum.
231.11 Area and stand characteristics estimation

estimation from
from the
the same
same sam
sample
le
estimation is
If area estimation is made by
by photointerpretation,
photointerpretation, thethe sampling
sampling units
units in
in the field
field
the estimation
used for the estimation of
of the
the stand
stand characterietics
characteristics are
are centred
centred on
on the
the plots
plots interpreted
interpreted
on the (see paragraph 334.2 of
the photographs (see of chapter
ohapter IV).
IV). They may
They may be
be single
single plots
plots or
or
clusters
clusters of plots,
plots, a bit smaller or larger
larger than
than the
the photoplots
photoplots but each
each of them is supposed
to
to belong entirely to
to the
the stratum
stratum of
of the
the corresponding
oorresponding plot
plot on
on the
the photographs
photographs (no
(no
correotion
correction of the photointerpretation is supposed to to be necessary).
necessary).
If the plots are randomly distributed

distributed the
the proportions
proportions Ph
Ph of
of the
the strata
strata and their
variances are estimated
estimated by formulas (3) and (4)
by formulas (4) of
of chapter
ohapter III
III if
if it
it isis aa one-stage
one-stage
deSign, or
sampling design, or by
by formulas
formulas (13')and
(13')and 14')of
14 ')of the
the same
same chapter
chapter if
if' aa two-stage
two-stage design has
haa
b~en used,
been the primary
used, in which the primary units are
are the
the effective
effective areas
areas of
of the
the photographs
photographs (supposed
(supposed
squall and are selected
equal) selected at random,
random, the
the same
same number
number of
of plots
plots (secondary
(secondary units)
units) being sampled
selected photograph.
on each selected photograph. Other sampling designs can be contemplated as as has already
has
been mentioned inin paragraph
paragraph 532 of
of chapter
chapter IV.
IV. The
The percentage
percentage standard
standard errors
errors of
of the
the
the areas of
estimates of the of the
the strata
strata are
are equal
equal to
to those
those of
of the
the corresponding
corresponding proportions
proportions
since the
since the total
total area
area is
is supposed
supposed to
to be
be known
known exactly.
exactly.
the plote
If the plots are
are systematically
systematically distributed
distributed in
in aa one-stage
one-stage design,
design, it
it is
is recommended
recommended
to use the
the formula
formula given
given in
in paragraph
paragraph 531 of
of chapter
chapter IV
IV for
for the
the estimation
estimation ofof the
the variances,
variances,
1n
in which the constant
which the constant k is given according to
~ven a value according to the
the shape
shape of
of the
the corresponding
stratum •.
stratum..
estimates of
The estimates of the
the mean
mean values
values per
per ultimate
ultimate sampling
sampling unit
unit of
of the
the stand
stand
oharacteristics varIanoes are
characteristics and their variances are obtained
obtained byby the
the formulas
formulas of
of the
the corresponding
corresponding
unstratified sampling
unstratified sampling design.
design. " The corresponding
corresponding estimates of the ~
of the total values over the
the
population are
whole population are obtained
obtained by
by "multiplying the estimated
multiplying the estimated means
means by
by the
the total
total number
number of
of
plots iri inventoried zone
in the whole inventoried zone (or
(or by
by its
its total
total area
area if
if they
they are
are means
means per
per area unit)
'Smd
and. their
their percentage
percentage standard
standard errors
errore are
are the
the same
same as
as those
those of
of the
the respective
respective means.
means.
Estimates ofof the

the means per
per ultimate
ultimate unit
unit inin each
each stratum
stratum and of their
and of their variances
variances are
are
obtained from
obtained from the
the individual
individiiiiJ values
values in
in the
the sampling
sampling units
units belonging
belonging to
to the
the corresponding
correspondil\g
stratum.
stratum. However oare
oare must be exercised
exeroised since
sinoe the
the sampling
sampling is
is done within the
the population
as a whole andand the
the same
same formulas
formulae as
as for
for the
the whole
whole population
population do
do not
not apply
apply necessarily
neoessarily to
to
eaoh stratum.
each stratum. Estimates of the totals
totals per
per stratum
stratum are
are obtained
obtained byby multiplying the
oorresponding estimated
estimated means
means by the estimated area area of
of the
the respective
respective stratum.
stratum.
If Yh is the estimated mean per area unit

If unit of
of aa stand
stand characteristic
characteristic y in stratum h,
h,
Ph is
is the
the estimated
estimated proportion
proportion of stratum h
SS is
is the total
total area of
of the
the inventoried
inventoried zone,
zone,
•
eBtimate
an estimate Th of this
yh of the total value of this characteristic stratum hhis'
characteristic in stratum le:
Yh
e SPh-h
v
and an estimate of ite
its variance
varianoe is:
iSI
v(Yh) e S2 L-Ph2 v(Trh) + -Y-h2 v(;11)_7
where v(Y
v(yh)) and v(Ph)
v(P ) stand respectively
respectively for
for the
the estimated
estimated variances
variances of
Of.Yh and Ph.
y and Ph. 1hiB
This
h h --22
h
2 respectively.
formula is h and v(Ph > are small relative
formula is aooeptable
acceptable if
if v(Y
v(y)) and v(Ph) are small relative to Yh and Ph2
yh and Ph
-- 169
169 --
Attention is drawn
drawn to
to the
the fact
fact that
that these
these designs
de.igna are
.are definitely
definitely different from
diff~rent from
using stratification
designs using stratifioation after
after sampling.
sampling. In these
In these latter
latter it
it is
i. assumed
assumed that
that the
the sizes
sizes
of the
of the strata
strata are
are known
known exactly
exactly or
or almost
almost exactly,
exactly, which
whioh isis not
not the
the case
caee with
with the
the designs
designs
etudied in
studied in this
this paragraph
paragraph where
where only
only an
an estimate
estimate of
of the
the sizes
sizes of
of the
the strata
strata is
is obtained.
obtained.
In the above paragraphs, as as well
well as
as in
in the
the rest
rest of
of section
section 23,
23, we
we do
do not
not consider
consider
the case
the ease of
of correction
oorreotion or
or weighting
weighting ofof tha
the values
values found
found in
in the
the individual
individual plots
plots interpreted
interpreted
on the
on the photographs
photographs which
which are
are necessary
necessary for
for taking
taking into
into account
account the
the variation
variation inin scale
soale and
and
overlape of the
in overlapa the photographic
photographic coverage
coverage used
used (see
(see paragraph
paragraph 334.2
334.2 ofof chapter
ohapter IV).
IV). This
This
correction corresponds
correction oorresponds to
to coefficients
coefficients which
which appear
appear in
in the
the formulas
formulas ofof the
the estimated
estimated means
means
and totals
totals and
and adds
adds soma
soma complication
complication to to the
the .estimation
the corresponding
corresponding variances.
variances.
In order to avoid it, reoommended that the sample to
it, it is recommended to be used for area estimation
estimation by by
photointerpretation is
photointerpretation is laid
laid out
out on
on an
an existing
existing map or on the the corresponding uncontrolled
uncontrolled
mosaic provided this canoan be accepted
acoepted as a reasonable approximation to a map. map. In case
In ca8e
correction is
correction is deemed preferable,
preferable, the reader will study with profit profit the
the examples
examples given
given
in paragraph 25.32 of
paragraph 25.32 of "Forest
"Forest Inventory" (Volume 1, pages
(Volume 1, 235-244) by F.
pages 235-244) F. Lcetsch
Loetsoh andand
K. Haller.
K. Haller.
231.12
231.12 Area estimation
Area estimaticn from
from aa lar
larger sample
er sam than the
le than the field
field sam
sample used ter
le used tor
estimation of
estimation of stand
stand characteristic's
characteristics
The
The field
field sample
sample fcr
for the estimation cf the stand oharacteristics
of the characteristics isis aa Bubsample
aubsample ofof
the sample used in photointerpretation or in the field for the estimation cf of the
the areas
areas cf
of
the strata.
the strata. If area
If area estimation
estimation is
is made
made by
photcinterpretation the
the field
field sampling
sampling units
units
of the subsample are are centred
oentred on the plots interpreted cnon the photograpba
phctographs and eaoh
each of
of them
them
is supposed
Supposed toto belcng
belong entirely to the stratum of the oorresponding plot.
plot. We
We will ,assume
assume
that the selection of the large eample
sampls and of the subsample from
from the large sample
sample are
are
both random
both random one-stage
one-stage samples.
samples. This
This type of combined
combined sampling
sampling is
is called
called two-phase
two-phase
sampling or or double sampling.
sampling.
sllmple of plo12,
Areas are estimated from the large sample plots, in
inthe
thesama
sameway as desoribed
way as desoribed in
in
the preceding paragraph.
If SSh' Ph
Ph and
and SS stand
Btand respectively for the stratum h (L
for the estimated area of the (L strata
strata
in total), estimated proportion
total), the (Intimated proportion from
from the
the large
large sample and the
sample and the total
total area
area (exactly
(exactly known)
known)
of the
the ~hole inventoried zone,
whole inventoried zone, we have,
we have:
Sh •e PhS
fA
(1)
(h.1 Ph • 1) (1
(1))
The
The estimated means Ystt of
-B
Y
of the
ths stand
stand characteristicsover
charaoteristicsover the
the whole
whole inventoried
inventoried zone
zone
per sampling unit are
are given
given by:
by,
Ye t J1 P..Yh
P. v
he1 n- h
(2)
(2)
where the
the 1h
gri are
are the
the estimated
estimated me&n
mean of
of the
the stand
stand oharaobrhtia
characteristic per
per sampling unit
unit in aaoh
each
Btratum obtained from
stratum obtained from the
the field
field subsample,
suba~ple, thethe summation
8UMMation being
being extended
extended to
to all
all the
the strata.
otrata.
The
The calculation of the variances
variances of
of the
the estimates
estimates -ist
1st depends
depends on
on the
the way
way the
the
8ubaample
nubsample ha. b.en selected
has been seleoted from
from the
the sample.
sample.
-- 170
170--
(a)
(a) the numbers
If the numbers of
of sampling
sameling units
units per
per stratum
stratU/" in
in the
the subsample ~ do not
subsample nh not depend
depend on
on the
the
proportion Ph
estimated proportion Ph of
of the
the corresponding
corresponding stratum,
stratum, then an estimate
then ah estimate of
of the
the variance
variance
of Yst
of is,
Yat is:
- 22 ^ - - N2
L
vG L'(p
P
- 22 _ _,)
Ph N sh
kr -~) - +
f'f.7., hh8 P (
h h - Yet) 7
(3)
st ) -
v(yet) Y
"h
1.2
h-='l L h
h n nh n' _/ (3)
which can
oan also be written as:
as,
P e
v(7. le 2 /IN h - 2 " - 2
"Yet'
,
h.1
0.)h
w
,
- -7)
n nh
1
+ -7
n CEPh hY h (EPhYd 0#)
(3')
where: n#
n is sampling units
is the number cf sampling units of
of the
the large
large sample
sample
2
is
is
i the estimated variance
variance of
of the
the stand
characteristic y1 in
in stratum
stratum h:
hI
eh nh
2
nh
~LY"hi-Yh)2
-2
2 iF.1(3'hi Yhi
sh-
h "h-
nh - 11
(i
(i being the
ths index of
of aa sampling
sampling unit
unit in
in stratum
stratum hh of
of the
ths field
field subsample)
subsample)
(b)
(b) nh depend
If the nh depend on
on the
the Ph,
Ph' the
the formula
formula giving
giving the
the estimated
estimated variance
variancs of Yst
YEA is
somewhat different. case of
In case of aa gropprtional
eroportional allocation
allocation of
of the
the sampling
sampling unite
units in
in
the
thefieldsubsample,i.e.ifnh.nRh whsre nn - ~ "h
field subsample, i.e. i f "h - nPbwhere nh the size
is the size of
of the
ths eubsample,
subsample,
an estimate of
of the
the variance
variance is:
is:
L L
st) ):1 h. P
sh2
nh
+
+
-1
1
n" (-1 - 2
P
h.1 hvh -
(2E P
h
717.
I1J11/
12:7
Formulas (2),
(2), (3),
(3), (3')
(3#) and (4)
(4) are known
known as
as formulas
formulas of
of double
doubls sampling with
stratification. Totals over tne
tne- Whole
whols inventoried area are obtained by multiplying the
the
tst1mated
estimated maans the total
means by the total area exactly
exactly known
known and
and their
their relative
relative standard
standard error is the
tbe
aame as those of the
same the corresponding
corresponding means. Estimates of the
the totals
totals per
per strata
strata are:
Yh SheYh (Ph'S)ih
(5)
231.2 Area eatimation

estimation using
using parallel
parallel lines
lines as
as sampling
sampling units
units
In this case the

the line
line will bebe considered
considered as
as the
the sampling
sampling unit
unit and
and the
the associated
parameter for
parameter for aa given
given stratum
stratum is
is aa continuous
continuous variable
variable since
since the
the length
length of
of the
the portion
portion of
of
found (on
a line which is found (on the
the photographs
photographs oror maps
mapa or
or possibly
possibly inin the
the field)
field) within
within a given
oan take
stratum can take in
in principle
prinCiple all
all values
values between
between 00 and
and the
the total
total length
length of
of the
the line
line .
The case applies also to
to strips
stripe and to lines
and to lines of
of plots,
plots, the
the occurrence
occurrence ofof the
the stratum
stratum being
being
plots in
checked only at the plots in the
the latter
latter case,
case, and
and even
even also
also to
to clusters
clusters of
of plots,
plots, provided
provided
that the number of plots per
par line
line or
or per
per cluster
oluster is
is large
large enough.
enough.
confine ourselves
We will confine ourselvee to
to the
the cases
cases when
when the
the same
samesample
-sampleisisusted
used for
for estimating
estimating
the
the areas
areas of the strata and the stand
stand characteristics.
characteristios.
- 171
- 171 --
If all the
If the lines
lines have
have the
the same
same total
total length
length 11 within
within the
the whole
whole inventoried
inventoried zone
zone
(e.g. if the inventoried
(e.g. inventoried zone
zone is square or
i8 square or rectangular
rectangular and
and the
the lines
lines parallel
parallel to
to one
one side
side
the area)
of the araa) the ~ of
the areas of the
the strata
strata are
are estimated
estimated (in
(in aa one-stage
one-stage design)
dssign) by:
by:
• ~lhi
ihi 5
~-
S e.
Sh
Sh -e 0.
S. nr-
nl I 1
. Ih
h
(6)
(6)
where
where ~$ ia total area of the inventoried zone
is the total IIOne
Ih
Th
i8
is the estimated mean
the estimated le~ of
mean le of aa line
line (sampling
(sampling unit)
unit)
the stratum
in the stratum h:
h: Ih
Ih
- --.!!!
n
h].
(i being the index
(i index of
of aa line)
line)
I
If the parallel
f the parallel lines
lines are
are randomly
randomly distributed
distributed formula
fonnula· (2)
(2) of
of chapter
chapter III
III is
is •
.
applicable to
applicable to the estim~tion of
the estimation of the
the variance
variance ofof Th,
lh' the
the percentage
percentage standard
standard error
error of
of 5Shh
being equal
being squal toto that
that of
of lh.
lh' If they
If they are
are syetematically
systematically distributed
distributed formulas
formulas suggested
suggested
in section
in section 423
423 of
of chapter
chapter III
III have
have to
to be
be adapted.
adapted.
In most canes
cases the
the lines have unequal total lengths and then
lines have then ratio
ratio estimation
estimation is
is
necessary.
necessary. If we assume a one-stage random design of nn parallel lines,
lines, and if
if 1.1. and
and
lih stand respectively for the total length of line ii and the length
lih length of
of the
the portión(s)
portiSn{B)
of line ii within
of line within stratum
stratum h, an estimate
h, an estimate of
of the
the area
area of
of stratum
Btratum hh will
will be:
be,
Sh
. S
i.1 ih1h - 52
S --
I
I
0)
(7)
and IT being respeotively

Ih and respectively the
the means per line of lengths
lengths vi thin stratum hh and
within and of
h
total length.
length. .
'lbe
The standard
standard error of Sh can be estimated
sstimated by using formulas (10') of
fonnulas (10) or (10') of chapter
chapter
III
III related to
to the variance of a ratio estimate.
sstiMate.
esti~ates of the Means

The estimates &ran Unit of
meane per area of the
the stand
characteristics over the
whole population are ratio
ratio eaiIiate.
estimates inin the
the case
cane when
whon the
the lines
lines have
have different
different total
lengths,
lengthe, with total length of aa line as the auxiliary
parameter. Ileana each stratum
Means for each stratum
can be esti_ted
estimated also and will be ratio oetimatee.
oo11,.atoo. But, as has already
But, alread3 been
been eaid
said in
in
paragraph 231.11,
231.11, the aa.pling
sampling design
dosign must oonsidered as nnstratified,
murt be considered \UlBtratified, .inco
since the
the exaot
exaot
siz.
size of each 8tratwo
stratum 10
is not
not kno"".
knorn. Indicatiollll given in
indications given in the
the above
above mentioned
mentioned paragraph
paragraph
conoerning the estimation
concerning tho e.ti_tion of
of the
the means
118all8 ard
and totals
totals per
per stratum
.traw.. are
are valid
valid aleo
also in
in this
thio caate
oase.
'lbe oaae
The case of continuous
oontinuous linos
line. can
oan be extended
extended to
to the
the case
case of
of continuous
continuous strips,
stripe, of
lines ot
lin.. plots and
of plots at clustare.
and of oluatare.
232
232 Area eatimates
•• U_tee with
with correction
correotion inin the
the field.
tield. In mealy
many caoes
cases there are
are
unavoidable .i.tak •• &Ld
mistakes ann bi .... in
biases in the
the photointerpretation
photointsrprstation work due to to the
interpreters, to the ~tratitioation
interpr.tera, adopted which
stratification adopted ~ be
whioh may be too
too refined,
rsfinsd, to
to the
the bad
bad
oharaoteri.tioa of
characterietics ot the photographs and, .moet often,
photographa and,.most often, to
to changes
ohangea in
in vegetation
vegetation which
whioh have
bave
ooourred
occurred b.tw ••n tho
betwen the aerial
aerial survey and the
.urvey and the field
field inventory.
iaventory. Eati_tion
Estimation ofot the
the areas
areas
aad.
made b;r
by photointerpretation needn.ed then
then to
to be
bo oorrected
oorreoted by field checks
by field checka made
.,ade in
in aa subsample
aubeOllple
ot
of the photointerprotation
photointerpr.tation ... pl ••
sample.
172-
- 172
We will confine ourselves to the

the design described below which is very much used
used in
in
forest inventory in temperate zones
foreet zonee and which needs
needs to
to be adapted
Adapted in an efficient
efficient way in
in
tropical forests,
mixed tropical forests, which
which consists
consists of:
of:
(a) seleotion unstratified sample

selection of an unstratified sample of
of plots
plots to
to be
be interpreted
interpreted onon the
the photographs
photographs
for an assessment of the strata h as as identified by photointerpretation, e.g. e.g. by a
by a
syetematic grid
systematic grid put
put on
on the
the effective
effective area
area of
of each
each photograph,
photograph, or or by
by aa systematic
syetematic grid
put
put on aa mosaic of these photographs,
photographs, or by a random selection on a map of points points
, transferred afterwards onto the corresponding photographs,
photographs, etc.);
etc.);
(b) selection (in

selection (in one
one stage)
stage) of
of .a
4 subaaaple
subsample plots among
of plots among the
the interpreted
interpreted plots,
plots, the
the
number of these plots
plots in each stratum h (as (as interpreted on the photographs) being
dependent or independent of
of the
the proportion
proportion of
of this stratum
this stratum (as
(as found
found by
by photointerpretation);
photointerpretation);
(c) the field of

identification in the of the
the actual
actual strata
strata k to
to which the plots of the
Bubeample
subsample belong and measurements estimatI'On of the stand
measurements for estimation E'tand characteristics
characteristics y in these
plots.
plots.
is the
If Ph is the proportion
proportion of
of plots
plots of
of the
the large
large sampin found in
sampl~ found in stratum
stratum hh by
photointerpretation
photointerpretation
'hk ths proportion of plots

is the plots of
of the
the subsample
subsample found
found to in stratum h by
to be in
fhk
photointerpretation aQp in
in stratum (whenever kk ~ h there
stratum k in the field (whenever there
misinterpretation)I'
is misinterpretation)
of the actual proportion of stratum the whole inventoried

inventoried zone
zone is
an estimate
given by:
given by:
~
estimate Dk k in the
L
~ (8 )
h-1 Phh.·llhk
~= 11..1IPcc
An estimate
An esti mate Yet
Yst of
of the ~ value
the mean value per
per unit
unit (or
(or per
per area
erea unit)
unit ) over
over the
the whole
whole
zone of the
inventoried zone the stand
characteristic y is given
given by:
by:
Yet k.1
1Ph.'hY-hk
where 37hk
where Yhk is the
ths estimate of the
the mean value per
per sampling
sampling unit
unH (or
(or per area unit)
unit)
of the stand
otand characteristic Y
y in the part of actual stratum
stratum Ie
k belonging to
to the
the
photoi nterpretation stratum
photointerpretation stratum h.
h.
The estimate of the ~ per unit

mean value per unit (or
(or per
per area
area unit)
unit) in
in stratum
stratum k of
of y
y is
is
to.
equal to:
L
L
_
_
h-!,Ph'P~hk
IiI)Ph.PhkYhk
(io)
(10 )
k L
EP
t,Ph'P
h.1 h. hk
The estimated
estimated totals
totals Y.
Y over inventoried -zone
over the whole inv-mitoried zone &nd
and Yk
Yk over
over the
the stratum , k:
k
are
are obtained by ,multiplying
multiplying the expressions
erpreesions in (9) and (10) respective by SSandand
L...
L . ... _
_
S(h~Ph'~)
S(51Ph.Phk ) , (S
(S
, being
being the
the area of the inventoried zone),
zone), yhk formulas (9) and
Yhk in formulas (10)
and (10)
being the .. ean value per

mean per area unit.
area unit.
-- 173
173 --
-
An estimation
eBtimation of
of the I'k is
the variance of pk iB given
given byby applying
applying the
the formula
formula of double
double
sampling with Btratification
stratification to the variable (1,0)
(1 , 0) indicating whether a plot
plot interPreted
interpreted
the photographs
in stratum h on the nhotographs belongn
belongs to
to actual stratum
stratum k orAnot.
or.not. Transformation
Traneformation
formula (3')
of formula (3°) givee thus (in
gives thus (in case ~ are independent of the Ph):
caBe the nh Ph):
Phko-kk) 1 ,vh;,k2
v(pk) -
v(i\) + n'
_
_7 (01)
11)
nh PhPhk)2
~ standing
n° and nh
n' Btanding as for the size
aB in formula (3) for lar~ photointerpretation
Bi.e of the large photointerpretation
sample and the number of units of the subsample
Bubsample selected in stratum h.
h. In most
In most
term
cases the term ~
Ph can be neglected.
can neglected.
i?
If aa proportional allocation of the subeample
Bubsample among the photointerpretation
photointerpretation strata hh
-
iB made,(i.e
is ~ • nPh,
mode,(i.e . if nh nPhl with
with no
Ile ~
1; ~), the formula
nh), then the formula (11)
(11) becomes:
becomeB'
h1k kk(1 Phk) (12)

- n L he1 rhPhk h Ph; hk )2 -7
Although the
the estimates
estimateB of
of the
the varianoes of of the
the means
mea DB and totals of
and totals of the
the stand
stand
per stratum
oharacteristios per stratum and
and for
for the whole inventoried
th~ whole inventoried zone
zone are
are somewhat
somewhat complicated,
complicated.
BUoh a design
such design is
1s very
very useful
useful as it permits
as it penni ts aa reduction
reduction of
of the
the error
errorby useof
byuse ofphoto--
photo-
interpretation, even when the
interpretation, the photographs
photographs are
are not
not completely
oompletely recent
recent as
as is
is often
often the
the case.
case.
(Assistance
(Assistance of aa statistician will be looked for to determine an estimate of the the variances
variances
of the meanB totalB of
means and totals of the
the stand
Btand characteristics.)
characteriBticB.) However it it must be realized that
if the diBcrepancieB photointerpretation and
between photointerpretation
diecrepancies between and ground
ground checke
checks are likely
likely to be large
large
and if the size of the subsample
subBample is
iB relatively
relatively small,
small, the
the areas
~eas ofof the
the strata
strata will
Mill be
estimated with a very low
low accuracy.
24
24 other unes
Other use. of
of double sampling
Bampli ng designe
deBigns
'!he
The double sampling designs indicated above are used to improve
used to improve the
the precision of
Btand characteristics
estimates of the stand
the eetimates characteriBticB through
through aa better
better estimation
eBtimation of
of the
the size
Bize (area)
(area)
the strata.
of the strata. They are called
They called double sampling
sampling methode
methodB for
for stratification.
Btratification.
However,
However, double sampling designs canoan be uned
used in
in foreet
forest inventor
inventory for other
other purposee.
purposes.
Double sampling for rsgseElLap
regression is also used in some
aome cases,
cBses, forfor instance when photogrammetric
measurements of a stand
meaeurements stand. characteristic
characteristio (e.g.
(e.g. groos
gross volume
vo1U1l1e of
of all
all species)
speoies) are
are made on aa
lar~ .ample
large sample of plots on the photographn
photographs and are corrected
oorreoted by by regression on the field
field
subsample of
of these
these plots.
plots. that each
Assuming that each sample
sample is
is an
an unetratified
unetratified random
"random sample,
sample,
the
the oorrected
corrected mean YRe per 'sampling
mean yRe unit i.
sampling unit is estimated by:by,
YRe
YRe • Y
y + bb (x'- x)
(;.- 1) ((13)
13)
where,
wheres y
Tr io
is the estimate of the mean per sampling
sampling unit of the characteristic
oharaoteriotio y
obtainad from the field eubsample
obtained from subssmple
n
i~lYi
,.. -;-
ir a"
- 174
- 174 --
x
x per sampling
is the estimate of the mean per sampling unit
unit of
of the
the photogrammetric
photogrammetrio
of this
measurements of this characteristic
characteristic on
on the
the plots
plots of
of the
the field
field subsample
subsBmple
n
. ~x.
1';1 1.
x - n
X' is
l' is the
the estimate
estimate of
of the
the mean
mean per
per sampling unit of
sampling unit of the
the photogrammetric
photogrammetric measurements
measurements
characteristic .on the
of this characterietic.on the plots
plots of
of the
the large
large sample
sample
n'
.
,j=1
=
n'
and bb is
is estimated by:
estimated by:
II
- .-y)
.~,(x.1. -x)(y -
1_ (x.--;)(YrY)
i-1 1.
b=•
b
.1,(x._i)2
1-
i=1 1
wllere xi
where Xi and Yi BtaT~d for the value of %
yi stand x (photogrammetric
(photogrammetric measurement) and
and
y (characteristic measured in the field)
field) in the plot i
i the field
of the subsam~le.
field subsample.
An estimate
An 8a+.imate of
of the
the variance of YRs when the size nn of the subsample
of -yrRe BubQample is
is not
not too
too
small is:
small 1s:
2 2
2 2
ss2 s - s
y y.x
~+
_LtI. y ('4)
(14)
IIGRe) n n'
with: n'
n being
being the large aample
the size of the large sample
n _ 2
2 ~,(Ycy)
(Y.--Y)2
e
nn-1
- ,
2
f-lE ( -)2 b2 _7
and n-2 L rzi Yi-Y
sy.x
Double sampling. tor regression

sampling for regreasion can be imagined for the estimation
e.~ima~ion of a
a s~and
stand
oharao~eristic
characteristic yy with any other auxiliary variate x estimated from a larger
with a~ larger sample
sample on
on
photographs
photographs or
or in the
the field
field and which is correla~.d with
is linearily correlated y.
Double
Double sampling fllr
for regression
regression is
is also
also useful
ueefnl with
with estimates
estimates of
of areas
areas of
of strata
strata
along parallel
by reconnaissance flights along
obtained by parallel transects
transeots uned, for ~anoe,
used, for instance, to oorrect
correct
estimates obtained b.r
estimates by photointerpretation.
photointerpretation. such methods must
However such must be
be used
used carefully
carefully
sinoe
since it is generally difficult toto locate
locate precisely
precisely on
on aa map a point
point overflown becauss
because of
the
the irregular speed and orientation
orientation of
of the
the plane.
plane.
-- 175
175 --
When the
the straight line representing the
straight line the relation between
between yy and the auxiliary
and the auxiliar,y
parameter xx goes
parameter goes througb
through the
the origin
origin - - i.e.
i.e.when tends to
when yy tends to zero
zero with xx -- double
double
is used for
sampling is for ratio
ratio estimation.
estimation. In this
this case
case the
the corrected
corrected ratio
ratio estimate
estimate
yR
y
will be equal to:
to: R
YR -X- (15
(15))
where yy is the estimate of the ~ mean

the per sampling
menn per sampling unit
unit of
of the
the characteristic
characteristic yy
obtained from
from the subsample
Bubsample
-
x 1s
is the estimate of the
the mean
mean per
per sampling
.ampling unit
unit of
of the
the auxiliary
auxiliary parameter
parameter
obteined
obtained from
from the field Bubsample
subsample
n
x
X - --'%'1 X 1'
1_
n y - n
x~
x' is the estimate of
of the
the mean
mean per
per sampling
sampling unit
undt of
of the
the auxiliary
auxiliary parameter
parameter
obtained from the large sample
n'
-
x' -
j~1~j
lE x
the smaller
An estimate of the variance of yp - the Yt -
(si ze nn )) bei
smaller sample (size ng aa subsample
being subsample
of the
the larger one (size 0-
(Bize n~ - is equal To:
0:
_ A2 .
-2 22 A2 2
.._
v(YR) -
2
ss2y - 2R
Y -
2ft es
x;y
XY
+
+ R
R .x
Bx
+
s
2R s
:g;
xY
-2
R ss 2xx
- R
(16)
v(R) n n'
n'
(16)
2
wi
with n, n'
th n, n',, R and.
and 82
yY
having tho
the Bame
same meaning as above and
2
s
x
n
i!;
i.1 (xCX)(YiY i-y)
(x1 ;)( --)
i Y
s (estimate of the covariance of x and y)
x;y
XY 0-1
n-1
An example of
An of double
double sampling
sampling with
with ratio
ratio estimation
estimation is
1s the
the one
ons where
where anan estimate
estimate of
timber volume is ~ on
i. performed in a quick way on aa field
field sample
sample (this
(thiB quick estimate
estimate being thethe
auxiliary parameter x) and a more accurate
accurate assessment
assesBment of
of the
the volume
volume (y)
(y) being
being made
made from
from
detailed tree measurements on a subeample.
Bubsample.
oampling designa
Double sampling de.igns are
are aa very
very powerful
powerful tool
tool in
in forest
fore.t inventory
inventory either
either for
tor
stratification or with the use of an an auxiliary
auxiliary parameter
parameter (regression
(regre •• ion or
or ratio
ratio estimation)
e.timation)
leads in
but leads in many
many cases
cases to
to difficult
difficult and rather complicated
and rather complicated estimation
the variances
varianoe. of
reoult..
the results. In case
In ot double
ca&e of double sampling
aaapling with
with ratio
ratio or
or regression
regre88ion estimation the
e.ti~atioD the
relationobip between
reletionship between the
the parameter
par~eter toto be
be estimated
e.timated and the auxiliary
and the auxiliary parameter
parameter has
has to be
... e.sed and the
assersed the design
deaign must be
be conceived
conoeived in
in order
order to
to reduce
reduce the
the unavoidable
unavoidable biases ot
biases of
estimates.
the eetimates. Assistance of
Assistance of aa statistician
statistioian proves
proves to
to be
be particularly
particularlyuseful
usefulininthis
this case.
oase.
- 176
176 --
33 Considerations on
on field
field sampling
sampling designs
section dealt with

The former section with some aspeots of
Bome aspects of the
the combination
combination of information obtained
trom remote sensing
from sensing imagery
imagery and
and information
information collected
collected in in the
the field.
field. It
It is
is important
important indeed
indeed
designing aa forest
when designing forest inventory
inventory toto reduce
reduce the
the field
field work
work as
as much
much as
as possible
possible by making
the
the greatest possible use of interpretation of remote sensing sensing imagery
imagery since
since this
this involves
involves
leB8
less manpower,
manpower, equipment and operating expenses than than field work.
work. However,
However, field workwork
cannot be avoided in 1n most forest
forest inventories,
inventories, especially
especially when
when stand
characteristics
including gross and extractable
extractable volumes
volumes have
have toto be
be estimated
estimated precisely.
prepisely. Even in
Even in the
the case
case
of surveys
surveys of homogeneous
homogeneous stands
stands using large-scale aerial photography
largescale aerial photography and
and photo
photo volume
tables , ground checks
tables, checks are necessary
necessary toto correct,
correct, through
through aa double
double sampling
sampling procedure,
procedure, the
estimates obtained from
from the
the photographs.
photographs. In mixed tropical
In tropical forests
forests field
field sampling
sampling isis
generally the
the most
~08t important
i~portant and expensive part
and expensive part of
of forest
forest inventory
inventory operations,
operations, due to the
limitati ons of interpretation of aerial photographs in these
limitatione these areas.
areas. As
As has already been
has already been
mentioned inin chapter
chapter IVIV the
the first
first constraint
constraint on on the
the use
use of
of aerial
aerial photographs
photographs forfor
estimation of stand characteristics
characteristics in in mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests
forests is
is the
the difficulty
difficulty of
identifying tree species.
identifying trae species. speuies could be identified satisfactorily,
But even if spesies satisfactorily, other
other
difficulties in thethe estimation
estimation ofof stand
characteristics fromfrom remote
remote eensing
sensing imagery remain,
remain,
such 8S loose correlation
as the relatively loose correlation between
between crown
crown characteristics
characteristics andand stem
stem dimensions
in these
thes e natural
natural forests.
forests. Furthermore there is no way to
Ferthermore to assess,
assess, from
from remote
remote sensing
imager,y,
imagery, characteristics of of regeneration,
regeneration, of
of quality
quality and
and of
of occurrence
occurrence ofof decay or of
accessibility such as soilsoil bearing
bearing capacity
capaCity or
or ground
ground roughness.
roughness.
the choice
Therefore the choice of
of the
the field
field sampling
sampling design
design isis particularly
particularly important.
important. Some
indi cati ons are given below
indications below of the
the suitability
suitability andand relative
relative advantages
advantages ofof various types of
distribut~on
distribution of thethe sample (sampling
(sampling design
design strictly
strictly speaking)
speaking) andand of
of the
the possible
possible nature,
nature,
size and shape of of the
the sampling
sampling units.
units. These two topics are considered separately although
they are
they in fact
are in fact very closely
closely linked:
linked I for , instance
instance the
the decision
decieion whether
whether toto use
use aa one-stage
onestage
two-Btage sampling
or twostage Buplingdesign
designdepends
depends partly
partly on
on the
the size
Bize of
of the
the sampling
sampling units;
units; if thethe
latter are
are rrelatively
e latively large
large aa two-stage sampling design
twestage sampling deBign may
may not
not bring
bring aa significant
significant
increase in efficienoy
efficiency even inin an
an inventory
inventory ofof aa vast
vast forested
forested area.
area.
31
31 Distribution of the sample
311
311 Unrestricted versus
Unrestricted verBus' stratified
stratified sampling.
sam li AB "Sampling
As said in Cochran's "Sampling
techniques" (2nd 2nd edition, page 99),
edition, page 99 , Btrlltification
stratification "if intelligently used
"if intelligently used
nearly alway!
always results in in aa smaller
smaller variance
variance for
for the
the estimated
estimated mean
mean or total than
o~ total than is
1s given
given
bY a comparable simple
by simple random
random sample".
sample". Stratification in in forest
forest inventory
inventory isis generally
performed through interpretation
interpretation of of remote
remote seneing
sensing imagery
imagery prior
prior toto the
the field
field sampling (or
Bampling if
after sampling if stratification
stratification criteria
criteria are
are assessed
OBssssed after
after the
the field
field sampling).
sampling). must
It must
be emphasized again
&gain that
that the
the field
field sampling
Bampling is
is actually
actually stratified
stratified only
only if
if the
the size
Bize of
of the
the
strata can
strata can be
be exactly
exactly (or
(or almost
almost exactly)
exactly) known
known oror if,
if, as
as in
in the
the case
case of
of double
double sampling
Bampling
for
for atratification,
stratification, their size is is estimated
estimated from
from aa larger
larger sample.
sample. Thus formulas
Thum: formulas ~ving
giving
eBtimated variances
the estimated varianceB obtained
obtained from
from stratified s~pleB (such
stratified eamples (Buch as
as formulas
formulas (6)
(6) or (8) of
or (8) of
chapter III) should notnot be applied
applied when
when limits
ll",its of
of "strata"
"strata ft are
are drawn
drawn around
around a set of
sampling
eampling units,
units, and there ie 1a no
no further
further interpretation
interpretation to to ascertain
asoertain whether
whether all the units
these "strata"
of these "strata" correspond
oorreBpond toto the
the criteria
criteria defined
defined for
for this
this stratification
stratification (e.g.
(e.g. elope
slope
than 50%,
greater than 50%, height
height ofof the
the dominant
do.inant trees
trees larger
larger than
than 1515 metres,
metres, ato...).
eto ••• ).
for stratification
The criteria fOr stratifioation must
..at be defined in
be defined in aa clear
clear and to~.
under.tandable form.
and understandable
Ver,r stratification by
Very refined stratification by photointerpretation
photointerpretation is is generally
generally illusory
illusory since
since the
the possible
possible
gain in precision
preoision by comparison with
by comparison with aa more simple classification
~ore simple olassification may be more
m~ be more than
than counter-
counter-
by subjective
balanoed by subjeotive biases,
biases, misinterpretations
miSinterpretations andand discrepancies
discrepancies between
between photointerpreters
photolnterpreters
and over
over time.
tlse . Even in the case of of a& simple
simple and
and easy
easy classification,
classification, misinterpretations
are possible
are pos8ible due
due to
t o low
low quality
quality and age of
the age
and the of the
the remote
remote sensing
Bensing imagery;
imagery; it is therefore
correct the
necessary to correct the areae
areas of
of the
the strata
strata by
by aa sampling
sampling procedure
procedure euch
such as
as the
the one
one
d~aoribed in paragraph
dlecribed paragraph 232
232 of
of this
thia chapter:
chapter. thethe precision of of the
the estimated
estimated meane
Means of
of the
the
oharaoteristicB over
over the
the whole
whole inventoried
inventoried area
area decreases
deoreases asas the
the proportion
proportion of
of
misinterpretations increases
increases and the gain
and the gain by atratification may
by stratification m~ become
become insignificant
insignificant
-- 177 --
compared. with the

compared.with the total
total cost
cost of
of the
the stratification
stratification work.
work. It must be
be realized
realized also
aleo that
that
when
when stratification has toto be corrected by
by aa sampling
sampling procedure
procedure an
an exact assessment of the
exact assessment the
actual location
location of
of the
the strata
strata is
is not
not possible,
possible, the
the estimates
estimates of
of their
their real
real areas
areas becoming
becoming
less
less precise
precise sa the field
as the intensity of the field sample
sample is
is lower.
lower.
312 Random versus systematic

systematic sampling.
sampling_ In the case of one-stage sampling designs
one-stage sampling designs
no doubt that
there is no that the
the practical
practical advantagee
advantage. ofof the syste~atic distribution
the systematic distribution
of the sampling unite
units greatly
greatly exceed
exceed its
its main
main theoretical
theoretical shortcoming,
shortcoming, that
that is
is the
the difficulty
difficulty
of estimating the variances of of the
the results.
results. Most
Most ofof the
the practical
practical advantages
advantages ofof systematic
systematic
sampling in temperate forests
forests are
are still
still more
more evident
evident inin tropical
tropical mixed
mixed forests
forests where
where
environmental conditione
condi tiona hamper
hamper field
field work.
work. AlIIong these advantages
Among these advantages maymay be
be quoted
quoted
reduction of
of access cost for
aCC8SB cost for ah area unit
art area unit of
of sample,
sample, greater
greater certainty
certainty ofof objectivity
objectivity inin
the
the selection of the sample
sample (the
(the systematic
systematic distribution
distribution of of the
the sample
sample leaves
leaves less
les8 room
room for
for
possible
possible modification of the
modification of the location
location ofof the
the sampling
sampling units
units by
by the
the field
field crews)
crews) and ~ore
and more
distribution of
uniform distribution of the s~ple (and
the sample (end consequently
consequently of of information)
information) over
over the
the inventoried
inventoried
area (this
(this latter
latter advantage
advantage being
being more
more significant
Significant in in areas
areas which
which are
are surveyed
surveyed for
for the
the first
first
time). Moreover research isis being
being pursued
pursued on
on the
the estimation
estiMation ofof statistical
statistical error
error inin
and it
systematic sampling and it is
is expected that methods
expected that methods based
based on
on the
the theory
theory of stochastic
of stochastic
prooesses Boon become
processes will soon beoome available
available inin practice.
practice. For all these ressons
all these reasons it isis highly
Nri
onestsarre.s.
recommended that
that aa systematic
one stage sampling is feasible.
distribution ofthe
of the sampling
sampling units
units should
should be adopted whenever
be adopted whenever
multi-Bt~ sampling
In multi-stage sampling designs, the choice
designs, the choice between
between aa systematic
systematic and random
and aa random
distribution of
of the
the sampling
sampling units
units has
has to
to be
be made
made at
at each
each stage
stage of
of the
the sampling
sampling procedure.
procedure.
The advantages of
of aa systematic
syetematic distribution
distribution are
are not
not equally
equally important
important in in the
the various stages.
stage ••
RegUlar
Regular distribution of information
distribution of information within
within the
the penultimate
penultimate units
units (within
(within the
the primary
primary units
unit.
in aa two-stage design) isis generally
generally not
not essential,
essential, while
while the
the syetematic l~out of
systematic layout of the
the
.""'pling
sampling units of the
the first
first stages
stages may
m~ bebe particularly
particularly useful.
useful. For instance,
For instance, in in aa two-
two-
stage sampling design where the the primary unit. are squares
units are square. of 22 kilometre sides,
sides, and
and
secondary units strips
oecondary imite strips of
of 22 kilometres
kilometres in
in length
length and,
and, say,
say, 10
10 metres
metres inin width,
width, the
the random
random
allocation of
of the
the strips
strips within
within each
eaoh primary
primary unit
unit will
will not
not bring
bring aa significant
significant increase
increase in in
acce •• cost but,
access but, on
on the
the contrary,
contrary, the
the systematic
distribution of of the
the squares
squares over
over the
the whole
whole
inventoried area may
may be
be of
of great
great value,
value, especially
especially ifif the
the area
area is
is eurveyed
surveyed for
for the
the first
first
time.
313v_n.)._,iv
313
design in
Olle-stage versus multi-stage. sampling.
in comparison
comparison with
with aa one-stage
one-stage design
design of
of the
The main
The
the same
main advantage
s8l!le overall
advantage of
k_.ati-stailiOile-staversueraft.
overall sampling
of aa multi-stage
multi-stage
sampling intennity
intensity and
and with
with
the
the same end shape
same size and shape of
of the
the (ultimate) sampling units,
ultimate) sampling units, is is that
that the
the component
component of of tht
the cost
cost
access of
allocated to the access of the
the (Ultimate) sampling units
ultimate) sampling units is is greatly
greatly reduced.
reduced. This is
This is
particularly true
particularly true in
in mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests
foresta where
where penetration
penetration is is difficult.
difficult. Ageinst this
Against this
the
the conoentration
concentration of the sample
of the sample resulting from aa multi-stage
resulting from multi-stage procedure increases the
procedure increases the
variance ofof the
the estimates,
estimates, and
and the
the greater
greater the
the variability
variability is is between
between the
the units
units of
of the
the first
first
stage, the larger
stage, larger is
is thie
thie increase
increase in variance.
oan be
These considerations can be illustrated
illustrated in
in aa very
very simple
simple and
and sketchy
sketchy way in the
way in the case
caee
two-etage designs
of two-stage deSigns (see
(see Desabie 1966):
neBabie -- 1966).
(a) the variance of

the of the
the estimate
estimate can
can very
very often
often be
be expressed
expressed as:
as:
A
A B
vv .. -n +--
-
n
nm
nm
where: n
n is primary sampling
is the number of primary s .... pling units
units
~
m is the mean number
number of
of secondary
secondary sampling
sampling units
unHs per
per primary
pri",ary sampling
sMpling
unit
A
A i8 a
is & measure of the
the variability
variability between
between primary
primary units
unite
B
B is a me&Bur~
is Average variability
measure of the average b~t~en secondary
variability between secondary units within
units within
W1i t.
a given primary unit.
a.
- 178
- 178 -
-
(b)
(b) of the
the cost of the sampling
sampling can
can often
olten be
be expressed
expreesed approximately
approximately as:
as:
C
1
niiic
nC ++ nmC2
C =• nC1
2
wh~rel
where: C coat of
is the cost of access
access to
to and
and reconnaissance
reconnaissance of
of one
one primary
primary unit
unit
C11
the cost of
is the of access
access to
"to aa secondary
secondary unit (when the
writ (when the primary
primary unit has
Wlit has
C2
been reached)
been reached) and
and of
of recording
recording inventory
inventory data
data in
in this
this unit.
unit.
It can be understood from these two

two formulas
formulas that
that v depende
depends very
very much on A A and nn
ilnd is likely
And likely to
to be
be larger
larger than
than the
the variance corresponding
corresponding to deeign with niii
to aa one-stage design M;
sampling units.
sampling units. hand the
On the other hand the second
second formula
formula explains
explains why C C will be smaller
the cost of
than the of reaching
reaching and recording nm
recording nin secondary units distributed inin aa one-stage
one-stage design.
design.
acceptable estimates
If acceptable estimates of
of A,
A, B,
B, C1
C1 and
and C2
C2 are
are available
available the
the two-stage
two-stage design can be
be
optimized under certain constraints using
using the
the procedure
procedure indicated in paragraph 341
341 of
of
chapter III.
III.
This
This simple formulation should be kept in mind when deciding between aa one-stage
one-stage or or
two-stage design.
two-stage design. As already said
said the
the size
size of
of the
the ultimate
ultimate sampling
sampling units
units is
is an
an important
important
f&etor
factor and some one-stage cluster sampling
sampling designa
designs do not differ much in cost
coat although
although they
they
are
are fundamentally different as far as variance estimation
estimation ie
is concerned.
concerned. The larger and and the
the
the inventoried
more inaccessible the inventoried area,
area, the
the more
more suitable
suitable aa multi-stage
multi-stage design,
design, but other
factors such as
factors are important such as the
the need
need for
for information
information uniformly
uniformly distributed
distributed over
oVer the
the whole
whole
inventoried area and also
also the eize
size of inventory
inventory units for which estimates
estimates have
have toto be
be
provided.
provided.
314
314 Equal
EaRaloror unequal
unequal probability
prob ..bility in
in sampling.
sampling. ~lost field
Most field sampling
sampling designe
designs. used
used in
in
forest inventory
inventory coneist
consist ofof sampling
sampling units
units selected
seleoted with
with equal
equal probabilities
probabilities
(and without replacement).
replaoement). But there exist some efficient designs
designs for which the
the probability
probability
sampling units
of selection of the sampling units are
are proportional
proportional to
to their
their size
size as
as the
the one indicated in
paragraph 422.122 of chapter III. When selecting
selecting such
euch aa design
design one
one has to remember
has to remember that
that
sizee of all the
the sizes the units
unite of the
the population
population connidered
considered (population
(population ofof the
the primary
primary units
unite in
the above-mentioned example) have
have toto be known and
and listed:
listed: in certain cases
cases the
the cost
coet of
of the
the
corresponding work may be too high compared
compared with the
the expected
expected gain
gain in
in precision.
precision •
..315
315 an auxiliary parameter.
Use of an parameter. an auxiliary
Whenever an auxiliary parameter
parameter which
which is
is
linearily correlat~d
correlated with the parameters to be estimated by the the field
field sampling
sampling
can be known exactly or estimated cheaply
cheaply from
from aa large
large eample,
sample, its
its use is recommended~
i8 recommended.
Examples
Examples of ratio and regreesion
regression estimates
estimatee in
in double
double sampling
sampling have
have already
already been given in
aection this chapter.
section 2 of this ohapter. A classical
A cl&8sical example
example in
in forest
forest inventory
inventory is
is also
aleo the
the use of the
the
size of the sampling
sam 11 units as
&8 an auxiliary
auxili arMeter for ratio
parameter ratio estimation
estimation of the stand
etand
ccharacteristics.
aracteristics. It is ve~ common
is very oommon in
in inventories
inventories of
of mixed
mixed tropical
tropical foreste
forests to
to have
ultimate units
unite of
of different
different size;
size; for instance, strips are
instance, if parallel strips are used
used as
as sampling
sampling units
units
their area .,ay
'ay vary due to the irregular shape of the the inventoried
inventoried arta
area and of the relevant
relevant
stratum or both,
both, and also with the steepness
ateepnees of the
the terrain (if
(if the
the dimensions of the
stripe
stripe are measured along the terrain andand not
not horizontally). However when
when ueing
using this
this type
type
of estimation,
estimation, it must not be forgotten thatthat the
the "ratio
"ratio of the
the meann"
means!! estimates are biased
and that this
this bias has
has to
to be reduced toto a minimum (see
(eee footnote,
footnote, page
pag< 49).49)
32liam units
32 Charaoteristics of the sampling units
321
321 Plot sampling
Plot e ....pling versus
versus polyareal
polyareal sampling.
sampling. s..,p11ng consists of
Plot sampling of designs
using area elements
el_ents as sampling
sampling units or record
recorQ units (with
(with the
the same sampling
samplfng
or reoord possibly composed
record unit possibly composed of
of two
two or
or three
three plots
plote of
of different
different size
size for
for the
the recording
recording
of different parameters - - see
eee for
for an
an example
example paragraph
paragraph 23
23 of
of chapter
chapter V),
V), while
while polyareal
polyareal
sampling corresponde to to point
point (or
(or line)
line) sampling
sampling designs
designs in
in which
which the
the size
size of
of the
the recording
recording
eaoh unit is a continuous function
area in each function of
of aa characteristic
characteristic ofof the
the tree
tree (e.g.
(e.g. its
its basal
basal
point sampling).
area in horizontal point sampling).
-- 179
179 --
In this latter case

case there
there is no sampling or record unit in the physical
physical sense
sense and
and
the whole population
population to
to be
be inventoried
inventoried cannot
cannot be
be considered,
considered, strictly
strictly speaking,
speaking, as
as the
the
collection of the points
points or
I)r linea
lines used
used as
as sampling
sampling "units".
!tun! ts ". practicality of
The practicality of
polyareal sampling designs in mixed tropical forests
polyareal forests has
has already been briefly discussed
discuseed
in paragraph 422.2 of of chapter
chapter III.
III. precision studies
Cost precision studies in
in temperate
temperate forests
forests have
have
.hown
ehown that
that horizontal point sampling is is generally
gonerally more
more efficient but there
there is
is no
no evidence
evidence
for the
the time
time being
being that
that it
it is
is the
the same
same in
in the
the tropics.
tropic.. Furthermore aa mere efficiency study
study
is
is not
not sufficient and other factore
factors have to be considered such as the reliability
reliability of
of the
the
data recorded -- selection of the treee
tree. to be recorded is is more difficult in point
point sampling
sampling
than in plot
plot sampling -- and the advantages
edvantagos of obtaining
obtai ning in each unit a!\ representative
representative pictur"
pictura
of
of the
the forest,
foreet, which is not
which is not provided
provided by point
point sampling.
sampling. There exist some combined point
co~b1ned point
sampling designs
designa where all trees belcw
below a given diameter (say
(say 30 am)
em) are recorded
recorded provided
provided
they fall
fall within the circular plot the radius
radius of which is determined by this this diame ter and
diameter and
the
the basal
basal area factor used in the sampling, trees being of course recorded
sampling, the larger trees recorded
iin
n the used in
the normal manner ueed in point
point sampling.
sampling.
322
322 Size of
of the
the sampling
sampling units.
units. It is commonly
commonly accepted
accepted that
that the
the coefficient
coefficient of of
variation Cv
Cv of a given stand
characteristio (parameter),(eay
(parameter),(s&y number of trees
treee
more than aa given diameter
diametsr per sampling unit) is linked
linked with the
the area of the eampling
s ....pling unit
unit
the following
by the following empirical
empirical relation:
relation, ----
Cv .!b.
Cry
..
-c
• kka-c ( )
7y
where: 'a-y
U the individual values of the
is the standard deviation of the the stand
the units of the population
oharacteristio y in the population
-
Y is
y i. the mean of the
the stand characteristic
char&Cteri.tic per
per eampling
sampling unit
a is
a is the
the individual
individual area
area of
of the
the eampling
sampling units
units
k and c are positive constants independent
indep<>ndent of a.a.
This
This relation can
oan .. lso be written in logarithmic
also logari thmio form:
form:
log Cy
Cv •e log k - o a • J(
0 log e K -- c log a
cc ia
is equal
equal to
to 0.5
0.5 when the
the diatribution
dietribution of thethe values
values per unit
unit of the
the stand
stand
charact ..riBtio is a random
characteristic rando," distribution,
distribution, such
such as
as the
the Poisson distribution.
dietribution. 'ibiB is
This is
approximately
approximately true parsmeterB related to the occurrence of trees
true of parameters treeB of species
&peciea with
with aa very
very
low density in mixed tropical
tropical forests
fore.ts (e.g.
(e.g. numbers
numbers of stems and corresponding gross
gross
vo lumes of the
volumee the "mahoganies"
umahoganies" in
in West Afrioa
Africa forests).
foreste). For ma.ny
many other parameters
J&TMleters in tropical
forest.
forests c
c to be
is found to be rather
rather lower
lower than
than 0.5.
0.5.
It is to compare
is interesting to oompare different sizes
.izea cf
cf sampling wlit in
s .. pling unit in unstratified
unstratified random
.... pling design for the alla_totOlm.intensity.
sampling SMI. SMlPling intensity. In this
In thi. case
oase we
we have:
havOl
na e
• oonstant
constant
where
where n and aa are
are respectively llUBIber of the ....
reepectively the number pling unite
sampling unit. and the
the ar.a
area ofof one
one
.... pling unit.
sampling The
The )?!rcentw standarderror
p.rcente standard errorofofy y(mean
(meanvalue
value per
per unit
unit of
or aa stand
stand
oharaoteriat
characteristic .qual tot
io y) is ecua tOI
ee •e
rvGi
- • ~.
Ex- k' (Cy.
k' (Cy. va- )) e.
VT k"a 0.5-c
k"a 0.5-c (18 )
(18)
Y Vn
V7-)
the
the latter .:cpreoaion
expression being obtained
obtainad from ... pirioal formula
froB the empirical On
foraul. (n)
-- 180
180--
of the
For most of the parameters
parameters in in mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests
forests we
we have
have C < 0.5-
Cdc 0.5. It can be
concluded from (18)
concluded from (18) that,
that, for
for aa given
given samplizy;
samplin(> intensity, the
the smaller
smaller the
the sampling
sampling units
units
better the
the better the precision.
precision. However it is is useful
useful to
to have
have in
in each
each sampling
sampling unit
unit aa fairly
fairly
image of
representative image of the
the forest
forest and
and this
this can
can only
only be
be obtained
obtained if if the
the sampling
sampline units
units
reasonable size:
have a reasonable size: a sampling 0.01 ha
UJlit of 0.01
8amplil~ unit ha in
in aa mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forest
forest forfor
estimation ofof the
the volume
volwne ofof exploitable
exploitable size
size would
would not
not bebe useful
useful in
in this
this respect.
respect. In
In
addi H a n the
addition the total
total number
number of
of borderline
borderline trees
trees in
in the
the whole
whole sample
sample (all
(all sampling
S&lllplilig units)
units) is
is
higher for a & sample consisting of a a large
1aree number
nwnber of small sampling uni to than
units than for
for an
an
~ample (same
equivalent sample (same total area)area) consisting of a smaller number number of larger
larger sampling
sampling
of' the
units of the same
same shape.
shape. SiMi of
The selected size the sampling
of the sampling unitsunits isis thus
thus a& compromise
comproMise
the conflicting
between the conflicting requirements
requirements of of the
the sampling
sampling precision
precision and and of
of the
the important
important
practical aspects
practical aspectsofreprelentutiveness
of rerre9! rrtativeness of the sampling
sampling units
u.."1i ts and
and reliability
reliability of of the
the basic
basic
datI<.
data. of the
An area of the sampling
Bampling unit equal to to 1 acre (0.4 ha) hal or
or to 0.5.1t.
to 0.5 ha io
is often
considered as sui table compromise
as aa suitable compromise in in inventories
inventories ofof mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests.
forests.
323 Shape of
of the
the sampling
Bampling units
units
323.1 Circular versus cquare

cquare or rectangular
rectangular plots
plots
The ~ain circular plots

main advantages of circular plots are:
are:
the minimum perimeter for

for a given
given area
area of
of the
the circle
circle compared
compared to
to other
other simple
simple
geometriC shapes, which in
geometric shapes, in turn
turn implies
implies the
the minimum
minimum number
number of
of borderline
borderline trees;
trees;
the isotropic
the isotropiC image
image of the
the forest
forest around
around the
the centre
centre given
given by
by aa circular
circular sampling
sampling
unit.
Its
Its use in
i n temperate
temperate areas
areas is
1a increasing
increasing although
although itit must
must be
be realized
realized that,
that, forfor
the form
practical reasons, the fonn of
of these
these plots
plots is
is in
in fact
fact elliptic
elliptic whenever
whenever there
there is
is aa slope.
slope.
(Interesting devices using aa range-finder
range-finder and
and aa stadia
stadia rod
rod with
with adjustable
adjustable sighting
Bighting marks
marks
for assessment of this type ofof plot are mentioned in in "Forest
"Forest Inventory" by Loetsch-Zohrer-
Loetsch-Vihrer-
Haller,
Haller, Volume II,
II, pages
pageB 324-325 and in "Dendrometrie"
"Dendrometrie" by by Pard6, pages 19~199.)
farM, pages 190-199.)
However the difficult environmental conditions
coudi ti ons and the
the need
need for
for aa larger size
size or'
of the
the
sampling units prevent
prevent the
the use
use' of
of circular
circular sampling
sampling units
units in
t n mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests
forests (but
(but
not
not that of circular recording
recording units:
units: seeBee below,
below, paragraph 324.3). Square or rectangular
sampling units (and
(and also
also record
record units)
units) are
are often
often preferred
preferred inin mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests.
forests. They
may be strips ofof aa given
given width (generally
(generally from
from 10 10 metres to
to 25
25 metres) along parallel linos lines
of penetration, undergrowth, and
penetration, cut through the undergrowth, anu going through all all the
the inventoried
inventoried area
area oror
through a part oror aa stratum
Btratum of
of it.
it. The width should not
The not be larger
larger than
than 30
30 metres
metres -- i.e.
i.e.
15 metres on each
each side
side of the
the transect
transect line
line -- in in order
order to
to allow
allow for
for a good control of óf the
the
recording operation, andand the
the width
width can
can be
be measured
measured either
either horizontally
horizontally or or along
along the
the terrain;
terrain;
in the first
first case no correction has has to
to be mad.e
made for thethe determination
detennination of the the area ofof the
the
strip,
strip, but the recording is more time-consuming and possibly lese les8 reliable because
because ofof the
the
borderline trees; the
borderline trees; the second method may be be more
more reliable
reliable but
but involves
involves measurement
measurement of of the
the
transverse
transverse slopes and more computations.
computatiol~. sampling units
The sampling units can
can also
also be
be either
either
rectangular plots,
plots, or linee
lines of rectangular plots,plots, the
the plots
plots being,
being, in the
the second case,
case, the
the
record unite
record WIi ts and
and not
not the
the sampling
sampling units.
uni ts. '!be plots cannot be used as the
The plots the sampling
8&111pling units
units
as the distance between
as b;t;een two
two consecutive
cOllsecutive plots along the the line
line is not sufficient to to secure
secure
statiatical
statistical independence
independence with
with regard
regard to the parameters to
to the to be
be estimated
estimated (.ee
(see paragraph
paragraph 322.2
322.2
chapter III).
of chapter III).
373.2
323. 2 Form of the rectangular plote
plots
In aa study
BtUdy made in Cameroon it has been found that that the
the more elongated the
the .hape
shape ofof aa
rect&~llar sanpling
rectangular sampling plot
plot of
of aa given
given size,
size, the
the better
better the
the preoi.ion,
precision, althoush
although thi tt.ot
• • ffect
this
preciSion of the shape of the
on the precision the sampling
sampling units
units was
was found
found to
to be less
les. important and 1lens•••
than the
significant than the effect
effect of
of their
their size.
size. However thie lo~
this was not true for very long
strips
strips (unit
(unit areas
areas of
of more
more than 55 hectares) and very wide strips
strips (100
(100 metres
metres and
and moss
more in
in
- 181
- 181 --
width) were
width) wers found
found to
to give
give better
better precision.
precision. Of
Of course the use
course the use of
of such
such very
very wide
wide plots
plots
not be possible
would not possible in
in practice ir the inventory of
practice in of miXed
mixed tropical
tropical forest.
forest.
323.3
323.3 Clusters
In inventories
inventories of of mixed
mixed tropical
tropical forests,
forests, sampling
sMlpling unite
units are
are often
often groups
groupe or
or clusters
clusters
of circular
of circular plots,
plots, in in order to profit from
order to edvant~e,of
from the advantage% of circular plots
plots while
while having
at the
at the same tim. sufficiently largo
SMle time large sampling
sampling units. case the
In this case the circular
circular plots
plote are
are
the
the recording units,
units, and are often arranged along
and are along"a straight
straight line
line or
or aa squared
sql:AJ'ed or rectangular
(lltraots lt of
line ("tracts" of some Europe~ national
some European national foreet inventorieo).
foree,t inventoriee). However for
for the
the same
Bame size
lise .
of sampling
of sampling unit,
unit, aa cluster
cluster of
of circular plot~ may
circular plots may have
have aa longer
longer total
total perimeter
perimeter (and
(and
oonsequently more
consequently more borderline
borderline trees)
trees) than
than,the
the equivalent
equivalent rectangular
rectangular sampling
.ampling unit:
unit. forfor
in.tanoe
instance a a cluster
cluster of of five
five circular
ciroular plots
plots of
of 0.1
0.1 haha has
b&B aa longer
longer total
total perimeter
perimeter than
than aa
reotangle
rectangle ofof 200
200 metres
metres long
long on
on 25
25 metres
metres width
width (roughly
(rot\8hly 560
560 metres
metre. against
against 450
450 metres).
metres).
Onoe
Once aa given size of
given size of circular
ciroular plot
plot (recording
(recording unit)
unit) is
is chosen
chosen the
the unit
unit size
.ize of
of aa
sampling unit
sampling unit must
must be
be ascertained,
ascertained, i.e.
i.e. what number MMof
what number cf plota each 8M1pling
plots eaoh unit must
sampling unit ..uat
ocntain.
contain. Thi. is
This ie an
an optimization
optimization problem with MMas
problem with one of
&8 one of the
the characteristics
oh&raot.ri.tica of
of the
the
."pling de.ign to
sampling design to be
be determined.
detemlined. The following paragraph gives
The give. an
an example
eXMIple of
of such
auch an
an
optimization procedure
procedure and
and is partly extracted
is partly extracted from
from "Sampling
"Sampling Techniques"
Teohniques" by
by Cochran
Cochran
edition, pages
(2nd edition, 244-247).
pages 244-247).
Let us
Let us consider
ccnsider an
an unrestricted
unrestricted random
random sampling equal clusters
sMlpling with nn equal clusters (sampling
(sampling
units) cf M
units) of circular plots
M ciroular plots each.
each. mean 7y per
The variance of the mean per circular
circular plot
plot (record
(record
unit) of
unit) of aa given
given stand
charaoteristic ie &qual to:
is equal to:
S2
S2
v(7) •
v(y) ,! ('9)
(19)
where S~ is
where 8? ie the
the varianoe
variance between
between olusters
clusters (variance
(varianceamong
amongthe
thetotal
totalvalues of ofy y in
values in
the
the cluaters
clusters on a circular plot
plot basis)
basis)
2
The first problem
prObl~ isis to
to estimate
estimate S.
Sb from
from the varianoee among the
variances among the values of yy in in the
the
oireular plata, i.e.
circular plots, i.e. SS variance among
among the
the values of yy in the M plots within
M plota within aa oluater
°luster
S2 variance
and S2 variance among
among Yhe
fhe valuea
values of
of y in the circular
oil'eular plots
plots in
in the
the whole
whole inventoried
inventoried area.
area.
We havoapproximatelys
We have'approximately.
2
# MS2 - (4-1) S2 (20)
( 20 )
(this
(this result
result being by an
obtained by
being obtained analysis of the
an anall!i. the variance
varianoe of
of y for the whole
population).
population).
ourveys s~
2
It found that,
baa been found
It has that, in mazv
many ourveya Sw can be expressed by the
the following
.... pirieal formula:
empirical formula.
2
- AMg
w
with A and
with A and gg poaitive
positive constants
oonstant. independent
independent of M.
M.
If we
If have aa cost
we have oost function
funotion of
of the
the seise type as
aame typo .. indicated
indioated in
in paragraph 313of
paragraph 313 of tbi.
this
chapter for
for two-stage
two-. tate sampling
sampling designs,
deaignB, i.e.:
i.e.:
C
C - nC,
• ne1 ++n14C2
nMC
2
(whero C, and
(where 01 and C
C2 have tho
2 have
0""''' meaning
the (same meaning &I in paragraph 313, the oluater
as in atanding
cluster standing
for the primary
for the primary unit
unit and the circular
and the oircular plot
plot for the .eoondary
for tbe unit)
seoondary unit)
-- 182
182--
then the
the optimization problem amounts finally
finally to find out
out the
the values of MM (and
(and also n)
n)
which minimizes
52 _ g-11
(11_1)AMg-
- (M-1JAM
v(3;-) ( 21)
(21)
n
total cost:
for a given total coat: C = nC1 + nMC2 = Co
Co ( 22)
(22)
the procedure
Applying the procedure indicated
indicated in paragraph 341 of
ofchapter
chapter III,
III, it can it can be easily
be easily
found that the optimal value Mo of
of MM is
is given
given by
by the
the following
following equation:
equation:
AM g-2
AM (C_M 3 + cC M2
g-2 (c,,43 M2 -
_ CC 1,2
Mc +
+ C 5 2 =_
C,) -- C2S2
C1) 0o
oo Z" 0 lo
10 lo
10 , 2
. The corresponding value no

n of the number of clusters is determined by replacing
M 1.1 0 in .the
M by Mo equation (22).
the equation (22). °
4 Contirruous
Continuous fcrest
forest inventory
41
41 Definition and utilization
utilizatio~
Continuous forest inventory

inventory comprises
comprises all
all forest
forest inventory
inventory designs
designs inin which
which sampling
sampling
successive occasions.
is used on successive occasions. This definition is
This is much broader
broader inin scope
scope than
than t~e one of
te one of
tne north
inc north American eFI in
American CFI in which
which all
all the
the ouccessive
Duccessive inventories
inventories use
use the
the same
same sample
sample (all
(all
uni ts are
the sampling units are said
said to
to be
be "permanent"
"permanent II units).
units).
.'
Samp1ine
Sampling on successive
Buccessive occasions
occasions should be considered
should be considered in designing aa forest
in designing forest inventory
inventory
when, in addition to
when, to an
an estimate
eotimate of
of present
present forest
forest conditions.
conditions! accurate
accurate determination
determination of of
past growth is required and
and the
the users
users of
of this
this information
information are
are willing
willing to
to wait
wait the
the necessary
necessary
period of
and often lengthy period of time
time for
for its
its accumulation.
accumulation.
Assembling growth
growth information
information inin this
this manner
manner presupposes
presupposes that
that forest
forest management
mana.geme!lt will
will
be carried out on a continuing
011 a continuing basis.
basis. Although forest management on on a continuing
continuing basis is is
at a very early
early stage
stage in
in many
many tropical
tropical countries,
countries, andand has even been
not even
has not been started
started inin some
80me
o...s, inventory officers
cases, officers should
should always
always keep
keep in
ill mind
mind the
the need
need of
of such
Buoh inventories
inventories for
for forest
forest
management purposes andand should
should initiate
initiate continuous
continuous forest
forest inventory
inventory programmes
programmes whenever
whenever thethe
management and
fore~t management
concern for forest and the
the probability
probability of of making
making une
use of the results
of the results of
of such
Buch
deemed sufficiently
inventories are deemed Bufficiently high.
high. In this respect the the concept
concept ofof forest
forest
m~ment
management must bebe understood
understood in
in aa broad
broad sense;
sensei the the monitoring of the forest cover through
the use of permanent plots on remote senning
sensing imagery represents large field
represente aa large field of
of
forest inventory
application of continuous forest inventory which
which does
does not
not relate
relate only
only to
to forest
forest management
management
but also to land use policy
policy and
and environmental
environmental concern.
concern.
42 Description of design
421
421 continuous forest
Different types of continuous forest inventory.
inventor The objectives of repeated
obje~tiveB of repeated
sampling in forest inventory are threefold:
three old:
1. to
to estimate characteristics of
of the
the forest
forest present
present at
at the
the first
first inventory;
inventory;
2. to
to do
do the
the same on the
the occasion
occasion of
of the
the second
second inventory;
inventory;
3. to
to estimate the changes
stimate the changes in
in the
the forest
forest during
during the
the period
period between
between inventories.
inventories.
(Note
(Note that the repetitive process
process can
can be
be continued
continued and
and on
on the
the occasion
occasion of
of all
all
subsequent inventories the
the previous
previous inventory
inventory is
is referred
referred to to as the "first
&8 the "first
inventory" .)
inventory".)
- 183
- ,83 --
There
There are
are four
four basic ways in which the
the above information
information can
can be
be obtained:
obtained:
1. A completely new
A completely new sample
sample can
can be
be drawn
drawn from
from the
the forest
forest at
at the
the time
time of
of each
each inventory.
inventory.
The
The sampling units on
on ocoasion
ocoasion 22 are
are different
different from
from those
those taken
taken on
on occasion
occasion 1.
1.
2. The sampling
sampling points
points taken
taken at
at the
the first
fir.t inventory
inventory are
are remeasured
remeaaured at
at the
the second
.econd and
and
all succeeding
succeeding inventories.
inventories. This
This is
is the concept of
the concept of permanent
permanent sample
sample plota
plot a and
and
the basis
the basis of
of the
the Continuous
Continuous Forest
Forest Inventony
Inventory (CFI)
(CFI) developed
developed in
in North
North America.
America.
3. At ' the
the second
second inventory
inventory "a of the
pOI,ticn of
a portion the initial
initial sampling
sampling units
units are
are remeasured
remeasured and
and
new ones are taken.
taken. This
This is
is often called successive sampling with partial
replaoement (SFR).
mplacement (SPR).
4. At the
the second inventory
inventory a portion of the
the sampling units taken at
at the
the fir.t
first inventory
inventory
are remeaaured.
&r6 remeasured.
422
422 Sampling with partial
Sampling with partial replacement
replacement (SFR).
(SPR). Of the
the four
four approaches
approaches the
the most
most
efficient is third, successive sampling
is the third, sampling with
with partial
partial replacement.
replacement. If
If
repeated inventories are
are planned,
planned, inventory
inventor,y officers
officers should
should design
deSign their
their proceduree
procedures on
on
thiB baais.
this basis.
Only aa concise
conci.e summary
summary of
of the
the design
de.ign and
and analysis
analysis of
of this
this one
one method
method is
i. attempted
attempted
here
here and for more details reference
reference should
should be
be made
made to
to Ware
Ware and
and Cunia
Cunia (1962) as shown
(1962) as .hown in
in
the
the list
list of references. A
A good description
description of
of this
this and
and the
the other
other three
three kinds
kinds ofof repeated
repeated
sampling are alao in F.
also covered in F. Loetsch
Loetsch and
and K.
K. Haller
Haller "Forest
"Forest Inventory"
Inventory" (volume
(volwne 1,
1, paces
pages
259 to 277).
At the initial inventory
inventory there
there are two
two kinds
kind. of sampling
.ampling units;
unit.; plots
plots measured
measured only
only
on the first
fir.t occasion (unmatched)
(unmatched) and plots measured at the first first inventory andand to
to be
be re-
re-
the second
meaSured at the second (matched).
(matched). the second
At the second inventory
inventory there
there will
will be
be the
the plots
plot. taken
taken
at
at the first
fir.t inventory
inventory and
and now
now to
to be
be remeasured
remeasured (matched).
(matched). In addition
addition there
there will
will be
be
plot. to be taken
new plots taken which
which did
did not
not appear
appear at
at the
the first
fir.t inventory
inventory (new).
(new). 'lbe follOwing
The following
symbols for the number
number of
of sampling
sampling units
units and
and the
the observations
observationa are
are needed:
needed:
~
First inventory
u • number of unmatched
unmatched sampling
sampling units
Uluts taken
taken at
at the
the first
fir.t inventory
inventory
ui • (stand characteristic)
parameter (stand characteri.,t ic) measured
measured on
on unmatched
unmatched sampling
.ampling units
unit. at
at
firs t inventory
first i nve ntory
m . number of matched eampling
sampling units
unite taken at the first
first inventory
inventory
x . . parameter measured on matched sampling ura ts a.t
unite at first
firet inventory
inventory
mJ
u +
.4- m
III • n,.
n1 . total number of sampling units at the first
first inventory
Seoond inventory
Second invento
m number of matched sampling

• .".,pling units
units taken
taken at
at the
the second
second inventory
inventory (same
( .... e as
as
m
III fir.t inventory)
of first
ye j
parllllleter (same
parameter (s ..... as
as x)
x) measured
.easured on
on matched
matched sampling
sampling units
unit. at
at second
.econd
inventory
n - second inventory
new sampling units taken at eecond
ynk . param.ter (oame
parameter (811/11e as
.... x)
x) measured
lI.asured on
on new
ne!, sampling
sampling units
unite at
at second
second inventory
inventory
m n n2 - number of
total number of sampling
sampling units
uni ts at
at the
the second
.econd inventory.
inventory.
- 184 --
. -i~XUi
1.1 xUl .
Then: xX-Uu - -u mean of values of the

the parameter
parameter per
per sampling
U- -
unit
unit measured on first
first occasion from
from unmatched
wlits
units
X
Xmm
mean of values of the parameter per sampling
unit
unit on first occasion
occasion from
from matched
matched units
units
J.1 mj
y .
Ym = mean of v&lues of the

values of the parameter
parameter per
per sampling
sampling
unit
unit on second oCCSBioll
occasion from matched units
k Ynk
• mean of values of the parameter per sampling
Y11 n
unit on second occasion
occasion from
from unmatched
unmatched units
units
(a) Estimation of the means per

per sampling
sampling unit
unit at
at first
first and
and second
second inventories.
inventories.
1.
1. Th.
The estimate x7 of the
the mean per
per sampling
sampling unit
unit of
of the
the parameter
parameter at
at the
the
~
first inventory is:
inventory is:
mx + ux
- mri
;:Xmj
~x .
+ .
uU
.2:Xui
~x.
~1 mJ 1.11 u,
MX
xX '"
UXu
U
j.1
J- 1-
n
nl
1 n1
2.
2. The b.at
best estimate y of the mean per sampling
-jT sampling unit of
of the
the parameter
parameter at
at the
the
i8 given
second inventory is given by:
by:
a( 7u - 7m) + cym- + (1-c)-;n
uU S
m(-
n
)r
m(-)r ...Ji.
.13.1i7X
8
11 X
where: aa .•
u . 22
( -Inr
nn2- -(71)nr
2 "1
cC • I MI
..
n2-(~)nr2
n -(2-'-)nr2
2 n
n11
ir ~2
",n1 2 _ X.2512 .2.111 _
",
n1
2. ~x2 x - ni
11,
4 u • xx,.j
m
Jdthl
with:
• xX •
4...
n1
"1 -- ,1
(
( Ex
1:x • Cl
0 xmi +
1.1 x..u F-,
2:
+ j.1 mj
"2
n2 ,22
a
II
ix2
~1x2 -• t x22
fl--1 ui
• x22
li:
.lxu! + '-'x,.j
Li_i2
f..-1 mj
)
)
-~
nn22
n2 n
e
2
"1
Y
(z1)2
•
.
~ 2
12
2:y- n2
n2
nn22 --
n,
1
n
,
"2 n22 , ni
(L
(lEy and %/
Ty- being
being obtained .1.il&l" l;y to
obtainod similarly %x2 ))
and rx2
to %x and rx
n1
--185-
165 -
s.nd rr •
~1(XMj-~
(xma ) (7~j - ;~) ) (5.
-.a.1
4(x
J-1 m3 m
171
i.:E (Y"j-i./
.f (X,.rX,.)2 a.1 (Y -Tr )2
J.1 mJ m
)2
AD e.ti"ate of
An estimate of the varianoe of i,
the variance Tr, V(7),
v(Y), is given u,,1
giv.n by:
vCi) a2 (-1 4. 1)82 + /- 22+ il=21! 732 - 2 =-

re x n y sc re s
s x y
u
"M oh can
which can be expressed
."Pre•••d more
.ore simply as:
vG)
r
v(y) •
1- 11- r2
1 2 E (1- E
%
21 .2
'y
n -(11 )nr2 n1
2
n1
(b)
(b) EeU,..Uon
Estimation of diff.reoo. b.t....n the ••
difference between an valu
mean .. per ...
values pling unit
sampling unit of the
the paraa.hr
parameter
at first
fir.t and eeoond
•• oond inventories.
inventorie ••
In the 0".
the oaxe when the parumeter
"h.n the and y
paraaeter indicated by x and is a vol
7 ie ... , thie
volume, thta diff.reoo.
difference
will .xpreu the
"ill express the &maph
Eorih of the stand
.tand corresponding
oorre_pond1", to
to this
W. volume
vol..... aver
over the
the period
period between
bet• •11
the two inventories.
inv.ntori ••
be.t estimate
'lb. best
The •• Ullate of
of this
tM • • ean growth
mean crorlh per
per sampling
... pUng unit
un1 t is given by
1& given by the
the formula:
fONulal
g • AYII
+
+ (1-1);n - Bx---. - (1-B)i
(1-A)711 - (1-B)111
u
m+n )r :01
wh.r.1
1dIere: A
n2-(u )2nr
ni
m(11 )r -I + n2()
1/1 sx 1
I·
'
n t- )nr
2
n1
An 'etiolate
An •• Uaate of
of the
the variano.
variance of ,g &iv.n bys
ta given
te byl
v(,) •
- 186 --
which can
which can also
also be
be written
written as:
as:
v(g) 1
u L(1
u r2 62
y
(n2 2E2 82 2 mr
mr
2.,..... B 8
x y
J7
2
n1 'la1 n1
n
n11
"y
n2(711)nr
55 S.quential sampli
Sequential sampling
ng
SAllpling, like
Sequential sampling, like continuous
continuous forest
forest inventory,
inventory, aYso aeries of
&1.80 involves a series
samples but each
samplee but each of
of these
these samples
samples includes
includes!!! the sampling
all the sampling units
units of
of the
the former
former sample
sample
(u • ao whatever
(u whatever the
the sample)
sample) and
and in
in addition
eddition the
the time
tiMe span
span between
between two
two successive
suocessive samples
samples is
is
negligible so that
negligible that from
froM aa forestry
forestry viewpoint
viewpoint all
all the
the samples
samples can
can be
be considered
considered as as
silftUl taneous.
simultaneous.
'lbe purpose
The purpose ofof sequential
sequential sampling
aampHng is to permit
is to pel"llli t the
the taking
taking ofof aa relatively
relatively secure
secure
deobion about aa population
decision about population (forest
(forest stand)
stand) from
from aa limited
limited number
number ofof units
units of
ofthis
this population.
population.
us consider the
Let un the example
example of
of aa planted
planted area
area where
where it has to
i t has to bebe decided
decided whether
whether a cleaning
plants ie
of the plants is necessary
necessary to
to free
free them
theM from
frOM weed
weed vegetation.
vegetation. US suppose also that
Let us that
tht.
this planted area can be divided into equal linee 11nes (unite)
(unit.) of twenty plants.plants. Line. will
Linee will
be selected at random
randOM to
to conotitutethe successive eamples
constitutethe successive samples and and inin each
each sample
aample the
the total
total
number of freed
freed plants
plant. is
is recorded.
recorded. Each sample drawn
drawn (the(the second
seoond sample
sample including
including all
all
lines of the
the lineo the first and some
some new
new ones,
ones, the
the third
third including
including allall the
the lines
lines of the second
and new ones,
ones, and soso on)
on) will
will be
be represented
represented by by aa point
point on on aa ohart,
chart, the
the x-coordinate
xcoordinate of
this · point being
this-point being the
the size
.i.e (number
(number of of linea)
linea) ofof the
the sample,
sample, the the r-coordinate
y-coordinete being
being the
the total
total
number of
number freed plants
of freed plants of
of this
this sample.
s ... ple. Moreover on
Moreover on thisthis "sequential
"sequential sampling
sampling chart"
chart" two
two
parallel lines are drawn which whioh divide the the chart
chart into
into threethree regions:
regions: "no "no cleaning",
cleaning",
sampling" and
"continue sampling" "cleaning necessary".
and "cleaning necessary".
n\Ullber of
total number
freed plants in
freed plants
.... pl.
eaoh sample
NO CLEANING
240-
240
180-
180
120
120
CLEANING
60 tm:C3SART
NECESSARY
Fig.1I
Fig.
"""ber of
number of
obaerved tre ••
observed trees
00 100 200 300 400 500
500 600
reF •• entatlve points

If the representative points of
of the
the last
last samples
samples remain
remain in
in the
the region
region "no
"no cleaning"
cleaning"
(as
(as in fi«Ure .... pling procedure can
figure 1) the sampling can be
be stopped
stopped and the decision
and the decision is
ia taken
taken not
not to
to
carry out &111" cleaning operation.
any cleaning operation. If the points stay
.t • .1' in
1n the
the region
region "cleaning
"cleaning necessary"
necesaarytl
further
further ... pHng 10
sampling is unnece .. ary and the decision
unnecessary decision is
10 taken
taken to to begin
begin cleaning.
Cleaning. If the
representative points
points are
are in
in the
the region
region "continue
"continue sampling",
sampling", no
no decision
decision can
can be
be taken
taken with
with
- 187
- 187 --
oufficient security
sufficient security and the eampling
and the sampling has to be
has to be pursued.
pursued.
The
The slopes and zero
slopes and zero ordinates
ordinate. of
of the
the two
two parallel
parallel lines
line. which
whioh are
are the
the basic
bo8io elemento
el..ent.
of this
thio sampling
o..pling procedure
procedure are
are aa function
function of:
of.
- d1atribution of the "decision

the distribution "decision parameter"
parMeter" in the studied population (in the
the
number of freed trees per
above example number per line),
line), which is to be asoi_ilated
assimilated for
for the
the
SiMplicity to a classic distribution such &S
sake of simplicity binesial or Poi.son
as binomial Poisson
distribution;
distribution;
the lIinimUM proportion of freed trees in a line

minimum proporiion 11n. for considering that this
thie 11ne
line
does not need any cleaning
cleani"¥ treatment (aay 0%
treatMent (say 6af. or
or 12
12 trees);
trees); ("acoeptable"
("acceptable"
proportion of
proportion of freed
freed trees);
trees);
- the Maximum
maximum proportion of freed trees in a lineline for considering
oonsidering that this
thiB line
line
need aa cleaning
does not need cleaning treatment
treatment (say
(say 50%
50% or
or 10
10 trees);
trees); ("unacceptable"
("unaooeptable"
proportion of
proportion of freed
freed trees);
trees);
acoepted ~
the two accepted erpressed in percentages of probabilitys
risks expreseed probability,
- of cleaning
oleaning the planted area although it has in fact
fact a& sufficient number
ot ("rejeotion" risk
tree a ("rejection"
of freed trees risk or
or "producer's
"producer' 8 risk");
risk") i
- of making no cleaning at all in

in the
the planted area although it
it has in
in foot
fact
an insufficient proportion of freed
treed trees
treea ("acceptance" "ooMUMer'lI
(lfaoceptance" risk or "consumer's
risk").
The distribution being known and the four
four quantities above bting
being decided upon,
upon, it
it
poBsible to draw
is possible draw the
the linee
lines of the
the chart
chart which
which will
will help
help in
in taking
taking the
the decision.
deoision. A
A
desoription of
detailed description of the
the deeign
design and
and the
the corresponding
corresponding formulas
fonoulas is
is given in "Forest
given in
Loetsoh and K. Haller
Inventory" by F. Loetsch Haller (Volume page. 278
(VolUMe I, pages to 289).
278 to 289).
Although this procedure

prooedure i. is very attractive,
attractive, it has found
it has relatively ~ttle
found relatively application
Uttle application
forestry, Mainly
in forestry, for the
mainly for the reoson
r ... on that
that /ittle
little is
is known
known onon the distribution
distribution of forest
forest
parueters.
parameters. In mixed
Mixed tropical foresto
foreats there
there is
io another drawback which
whioh results
reaulta from
tro.. the
that all sampling
fact thot a&llp11ng unite
unit. must
IBUJlt be selected
seleoted at
at random,
random, which
which increases
inorease. the
the total access
aooe ••
cost of the sampling
ooat sampling prooedure.
procedure. It haz
It been applied
baa been applied inin forestry
forestry for
for regeneration
regeneration surveys
survey"
for disease
and for disease and inseot surveys.
and insect .urveya.
- 188
188 -
ANNEX II
EXAMPLE OF TD::IINICAL
TECHNICAL SPEX:IFICATIONS
SPECIFICATIONS
for inclusion
for inclusion in
in aa contract
contract of
of aerial
aerial surveying
eurveying
11.• SPEX:I FICA TI ONS

CAMERA SPECIFICATIONS
(a) Vertioal photography

Vertical photograp~ is is required
r~quired toto be
be made
made with
with single
single lens
lens precision
precision aerial
aerial oamera
camera
21 cm
of 21 em focal
focal length and 18 18 cm x 18
18 cm
em format.
format. The
The camera
camera mWlt be aa modern
must be modern high-
high-
preoioion aerial camera
precision camera of
of the
the Wild
Wild RC 5, RC 8,
RC 5, or Zeiss
8, or Zeios RMK
RMK 15/23
15/23 type,
type, equipped
equipped
with a high resolution lene lens capable
oapable of
of producing
produoing the
the highest
highest quality of photograp~
photography
with panohromatio
with panohrOll .. tio cr
or infrared
infrared film.
fil... Details of
of the
the camera,
camer.., lens
lens and
and filters
filters which
which
the Contraotor
the Contractor usesWles for
for this
this Contract
Contract shall
shall be
be supplied
supplied to
to the
the Organization(1)
Organization(1) and
and
stated in
in the
the contract.
contract.
(b) Where the Contraotor interpose a window or hatch
Contractor wishes to interpose hatoh cover
oover of transparent
tranoparent
material between
material between the
the camera
o... era and
and the
the ground,
ground, he
he will
wi 11 eneure
ensure that
that the
the said
said window or
hatoh
hatch oover has
has been fully
fully tested
tested within
within six
six months of the
menthe of the proposed
proposed date
date of
of
oommenoement
commencement ofof photography
photograp~ to to establish
establish that
that it
it falls
falls within
within accepted
..ccepted tolerances
tolerances
for homogeneity, resolution,
resolution, and
and freedom
freedom from
from distortion.
distortion. A certificate
A oertifioate ofof this
this
test
test will
will be
be 8ubmitted to the
submitted to the Organization
Organization forfor approval
approval with
with the
the Calibration
Calibration
Reports
Reports de.oribed in Section 3 of the Speoifioations.
described in Specifications. The contraotor
The oontraotor shall
shall ensure
ensure
that such window
window or
or hatch
hatch cover
cover is
is perfectly
perfeotly alean
olean and
and free
free from
from blemishes
blemishes at
at all
all
tillles.
times°
(0)
(o) 'The
111e overall
overall fooal plane surface
focal plane surfaoe of
of the
the platen
platen of
of the
the camera
camera shallshall be
be flat,
flat, wlder
under
oonditions, to within
operating conditions, within plus
plWl or minus 0.005
0.005 mm.
III!I\. 'The
111e film shall be held
. fl .. t in the
flat the focal
fooal plane,
plane, at
at the
the instant
inst ..nt of
of exposure,
exposure, to to within
within plus
plu.s or
or minus
minus
0.005 mm.
0.005 10M. '111. camera
The oamera platen
platen shall
shall be
be tested
tested with
with all
all the the operating
operating str.sses
stresses present
present
at the
at ths instant
ins.t ant ofof exposure
expoour. duplioated.
duplioated. The platen tested
The platen test.d shall ohall bebe positively
pooitiv.ly
identified by having having the
the camera
oamera cone,
oons, oror magazine
me.gazine number
numb.r of of the
the unit,
unit, permanently
and irremovably marked lIarked thereon.
thftreon. rus identifying
This numb.r shall
identifying number shall be be noted
noted onon the
the
report
report of of the
the test.
test. .
(d) Between-th.-lens shutters,

Betweenr-thelens shutters, such
such that
that light
light is
is transmitted
transmitted simultaneously
simultan.ou.sly to
to all
all
parts of the
parte the emulsion
.mulsion plane
plane when
when the
the ·shutter is open,
shutter is open, shall
shall be
b. used.
u.sed. Th.
The effioi.noy
efficiency
of the
the shutter
shutter shall
.hall be
be at
at least
l.aet 75 per
per cent
c.nt of
of the
the marked
mark.d value
value at
at the
the fastest
fast.st
spe.d.
speed. Th.
The spe.ds shall be
epeeds shall be acaurate
accurate to to within
wi thin 10
10 per
per oent
o.nt of
of the
the mark.d
marked value
value wh.n
when
tested at
tested ..t room
room temperature.
t~perature. 'The
111e results of the efficiency
.ffici.noy test
test and
and the
the date
date of
of the
the
teot shall
test ohall be
be reoorded.
reoorded.
(e) When aa camera
o...r .. is
io equipped
equipped with
with aa pressure
preesure altimeter,
altill.ter, the
the altimeter
altimeter shall
ahall be
b. connected
oonneoted
to the
to .t ..tio ¡system
the mtatio syotem of the
the aircraft.
airoraft. altimeter automatioally
The altimeter ..utomatically recorded
reoorded by tho
by the
o....ora IIWlt
camera must be adjusted
adjuated to
to give
give the
the same reading as
I. ..... reading as the
the aircraft
airoraft altimeter
.. lUMet.r prior
prior to
to
the commencement
the oOllllenoem.nt of
of eaoh
eaoh photographic
photographio flight.
flight.
(f) Wh.n
When aa camera
o_era is18 equipped
equipped with
with aa cloak
olook for
for recording
reoording times
Um.s of
of exposures,
exposur •• , the
the cloak
olook
.hall
shall be .et to correct
set to correot local
100..1 time
ti •• prior
prior to
to each
eaoh photographio
photographio flight.
flight.
2. COMA CALIBRATION
(a)
(a) o....r .. optical
Each camera optical unit
unit to
to be
be used
uaed in
in the
the performance
performano. ofof the
the Contraot
Contraot shall
ehall be
b.
calibr ..ted before the
calibrated the flying
!lying of
of the
the photography
pIIotogra~ by by aa competent
oompet.nt authority
authority to beb.
approved by the
approved Orsani.~tion and
th. Organisation oalibration report;
and calibration report. rendered
rend.red as
... required
requir.d inin Section
S.otion
33 below.
belo.. , '111. interval between
The interval b.t.... n calibration
oalibration and .hall be
photograp~ shall
and photography be as
as short
.hort as
as
po.e1ble and in
possible 1n no
no wise
oue shall
.hall exceed
exoe.d one
one year.
yoar.
amsollM111.1.M.....0.4MINNSAAMIO-gmesesowla
(1)
(1) 6r....l_Uon is
0Teanitation " ••d herninafter
h used hftrei ... tter to
to designate
d.a1gnaie the
the party
party which
whioh lets
let. the
the aontract.
oontract.
- 189
189 -
Cb)
(b) Cali bration shall
Calibration "hdl be
be carried
carried out
out with
with the
the optical
optical unit
wti t in
in the
the same
.... e condition
condition asao
when used
when u.ed for
for the
the contract
contract photography
photography and
and with
with the
the filter
filter fitted
fitted in in the
the same
...e
position. After calibration, no
After calibration, no adjuetment
adjustMent oror repair
repair which
which could
could in any way
in any way
affect the calibration shall bebe made.
~ade. If the
the optical
optical unit
wtit should
.hould be be accidentally
acoidentally
di.turbed, no
dieturbed, no further
further photography
photography may be taken
~ay be taken with
with that
that camera,
camera, which
which must
must be
be
replaced by
by another
another that
that has
has been
been calibrated
calibrated and
and approved
approved by by the
the Organization.
Organization.
3.
3. REPORTS
CALIBRATION REPORTE
A calibration report
A calibration report for
for each
each camera
camera used
used shall
.hall be
be submitted
submitted to
to the
the Organization
Organization and
and
ohall
shall contain the following
following informations
information.
Ca) A certificate of
A certificate of calibration
calibration showing
ahowing the ~e of
the name of the
the approved
approved authority,
authority, date
date and
and
place
place of oalibration, the
of calibration, the maker's serial
serial number
number of
of the
the camera
camera optical unit, the
optical unit, the
aerial number
serial number of
of the
the lens
lens and or the
and of the platen.
platen.
Cb) The
The ooordinates the principal
coordinates of the principal point
point of
of auto-collieation relative to
autocollimation relative to the
the fiducial
fiducial
",arks.
marks.
(0
Cc) The radial distortions
distortion. of of the
the image
image with
with reference
reference toto the
the principal
principal point
point of
of auto-
auto-
collimation at
at zero, .. e""ur~d outwards
zero, measuree outwards at
at intervals
intervals of
of not
not more
IIIore than 7e toward
than 7-}o toward
the fiducial marks or reseau
the reseau crosses
croases in
in the
the format
format corners.
corners. (A statement of
(A of the
the
arithmetic mean of
arithmetic mean of these
theae distortions
di.tortions will
will notnot be
be accepted
accepted by
by itself.)
itaelf.) Asymmetry
AByNftetry
of the distortions may
may not
not exceed
exceed 0.03
0.03 mm.
""".
Cd) The principal distance at

at which
whioh these distortions apply.
th~ae distortions apply.
Ce) The
The distance between
between all
all fiducial
fiducial marks.
.. arka.
(f) ibe
The mean resolution
resolution of
of the
the image
iroag<o as
as determined
detet'ft\ined across
acro •• two
two diagonals
diagonals at
at an
an interval
illt.rval
les8 than
of not lees 7t
than 71°O by the
the standard
otandard method
method of of the
the approved
approved authority.
authority.
(g) meaourement• •
All measurements hall be
ehall be recorded
recorded to
to the
the nearest
neare.t onehundredth
one-hundredthof
ofaa millimetre.
millimetre.
(h) Th •• e reports
These report. will be
be retained
retained by
by the
the Organization.
Organization.
4. SCALE
The photography 'ri.ll

will be token
token from
from aa flying
flying height
height such
.uch that
that the
the mean
",ean 'contact
oontaot ocale
scale
ot an;r exposure is
of any ia ••••••••• and
and. "shall
ahall not
not deviate
deviate from the required
froM the required height
height above
above
",ean toes
mean aea level
level b;y
by more than plua
more tb&n minus 55 per cent.
plus or m.inua cent.
5. OVERLAP
The foro
fore and aft
aft overlap
overlap between
between eucceosive
.ucoes.ive photographs
photographs in in each
e_ch strip
.trip shall
ahall be 60
be 60
c.nt with tolerances
per cent toleranoe. of plus
plus 10 peroent minus 55 percent.
peraent or Minus peroent. The lateral
The lateral overlap
overlap
between photographs
photographo of of every
every adjacent
adjaoent strip
.trip shall
ohall be
be 30
30 per
per cent
cent with
with tolerances
toleranae. ofct
plus 20 percent
plun percent oror minan
Minus 15
15 peroent.
peraent. However, the Organization
However, Organization may ~ agree
agree toto accept,
aaaept,
1n
in exceptional cases,
caee8, photographs
photographo where the aaxiNUN overlaps (70 per
maximum overlapa per cent
cent and
and 50
50 psr
per
c.nt
cent respectively) are are exceeded
exceeded for
for reasons
reason. ofof terrain.
terrain. Wherever variation
Wherever variation ofof
graund cause. aa significant
ground level oausee aign1f1aant change
ch.an&e in
in the
the contact
contact scale
.aale ofof the photagrap~,
the Photography,
an inare .. e IIUIIt
increase must be .. ade in
made 1n the
the. fore
fore and aft overlap
and aft overlap which
which must
!lust in
in no
na case
caeo be Ie ..
be less
ihan 55 percent,
than percent, to to acoo_odate
accommodate the enlarged .cale
the enlarged scale of a part or the the whole
whole afof ~any
.trip.
strip. ibe
The corre.ponding inorease in
corresponding increase in the
the lateral
lateral overlap,
overlap, which
whioh must
lIu.et in
in no
no case
caee bebe
1••• than 10 percent,
lesm percent, must
Must be
b• •ade to
made to the whole of ot every
every strip
.trip whioh i. so af~cted
is so affected
diatortion.
by height distortion.
....MENNEN Em =MN/ -
.190
6. CRABBING
CRABBING
not exceed
Crab shall not exceed 5 percent or be such that
that it
it causes
causes gaps in the
the stereoscopic
cover of the contract
contr&ct area.
area.
1. CAKERA TILT
CAMERA
Tilt shall not exce~d 30

not exceed f or any
)0 for any exposure.
exposure. The
The average tilt for
f or k.1l3 section of
.ny r.;(lctiofl 10
of 10
expo~ures shall not
exposures ~xceed 20
not exceed 2° and it shall
and it shall not
not exceed
exceed 10
1° for
for the
the entire
entire photography
photography
produced.
3.
B. EFFECTS OF OVERLAP,
COMBINED EFFElJTS CRAB, DJUFT
OVERLAP, CRAB, AND TILT
DRIFT AlID
(!pplicable
(Applicable for
for mapping photography.) !ny point at
Any point at one-tenth of the
onetenth of the width
width of aa
photograph from
photograph froJ!'! the
thelateral
lateraledgeedge must
must ::.ppea.rill
api..ear ttU"ec succei;d1r.
ill three :suc.:ce :;:; iv(, 2hoto;i.aphs of
:)ho t .::J51'nphs of
the s:ire
the S1J,;e flight
flight l;;,e
line and
and ill
in three
three photographs
photographs of the the adjacent flight flight line.
line.
9. FLIGIf1'
FLIGHT LINES
The area shall

s hall be covered by
by parallel
parallel lines
line. flown
flown in
in aa specified
specified direction
direction and
and these
these
flight lines
lines should
ohould not diverge from
from the
the prescribed
prescribed directions
directiotlS by
by more
more than
than five
five
degrees.
10. STRlFS
JUNCTION OF STRIPS
,/here of a
Where the end of " strip
.trip of photography
photography joins
joins the
the end
end of
of another
another strip
strip flown
flowil in
in the
the
same L~neral
general direction, t~e overlap
direction, the overlap of
of the fir~t Htrip
the first ~trip over
over the
the second
second will
will be
be 44
photographs
photographs.•
CLOUD
not lie
Cloud shall not lie over
over the
the principal
principal point
point of
of any photograph nor
any photograph nor shall
shall it
it obscure
cbacure
control point.
any ground control I'oint. are .. of
The aggregate area of cloud
cloud and/or
and/or cloud
cloud shadow
.hadow onon any
any
single
single pho t ograph shall
photograph shall .not exceed 5
not exceed 5 peroent of the area of photogr •.ph.
cf the photograph.
12. TIME OF DAY
I'hotographic
Photographic detail shall notnot bebe obscured
obscured by
by the
the shadows
shadows of of topographic fe~ture.
tOI'ographic features
due to
to the
th,e low aizle the 2111/,
G.ugle of the f; WJ, nor by the pre;:ence
by the pre fH!Jl C'.e of "hot-:3r'Jts".
of "hotNI.ots".
13. FILl!
FILM AIID
AND FILT:ill
FIU_2t
Thi.
This will be determined
detel'1llined as
as appropriate for
for each
each contract.
contract.
1( .
U.,. PHOTOGRAPHIC .::;!J/
;UtLITYLITY AND
AlIT'> PROCESSING
PROCiliSJNH
(a) Th~ photographs

Tho photographs are
are required
required for
for detailed foroat
forest t7P8
tyTe mapping and photointerpretation
mapping and photointerpretation
studie.
studies and should, be of
should, therefore, be of the
the highest
highest photographic
photographic quality,
quality, according
according to
to
the following specifications.
specifications:
(b) 'DIe
The film fil .. base
film emulsion and film base will
will be
be determined
determined to
to suit
suit each
each case.
caee. film
The film
shall have
base shall have the
the minimum
minimum differential
differential distortion
distortionand
andthe
thenegatives s~~ll be
negativesshr,11 be
free stai,,", scratches,
free from stain8, scratches, barbar markLi,
marks, dirt
dirt and blemishes
blemhhes of all
all kinds,
kinds, and
and finger
finger
or static marks.
marks.
(c) Precautions
Precautions must be taken to
to avoid
avoid distortion
cistortion of
of the
the film
film during
during processing.
prooe •• in£.
-- 191
191 -
-
(d) All relevant fiduci~l marks

relevant fiducial m~ks must
must be
be distinct
dietinct on
on every
every photograph.
photograph.
(e) &utomatic&lly reoorded

All automatically reOOrded data
data such
such as
ao flying
flying height,
height, time
time of
of photography,
photography, and
and
oalibrated focal length
calibrated length must
Must be
be clearly
clearly visible
visible onon every
every print.
print.
(f) required for

The negatives are required for pontact
contact printing
printing and
and the
the density,
density, contrast,
contraot, and
and
freedofl the negatives
freedom from fog on the negatives is
is to
to be
be such
"uch that
that "normal" grades of
"nonal" grades of paper
paper
suitable for
will be suitable for the
the majority
Majority of
of the
the negatives
negatives without
without excessive
exceseive shading
shading and
and
with reasonable times
times of
of exposure.
exposure.
(g) The definition and contraet

The contrast of
of the
the negatives
negatives shall
shall bebe such
such that
that prints
prints made
made as
ao in
in
preceding paragraph
the preceding par&graph and
and the
the prints
prints supplied
supplied shall
shall show
Dhow ample
ample detail
detail throughout
throughout
the
the full
full range of tones
tone. over
over the
the whole
whole photograph
photo(lt';<ph and
o.nd ouch
such that
that identification
identification ofof
frOM one
detail from one photograph
photograph to
to another
another shall
,hall be
be possible
possible with cert~inty.
with certainty.
(h) Prints
Prints shall be made using
using an ~lectro!Jic printer.
an electronic printer.
(i) ~sulphite in
Residual hyposulphite any print
in any s}~ll not
print shall not exceed
exceed 0.023 M~. per
0.023 mgm. per equsre
square centimeter,
centimeter,
relidual ailver
while residual silver shall
shall not
not exceed
exoeed 0.01
0.01 gm, per square
gmt per square meter.
meter.
(j) Prints
Prints shall
shall be
be trimmed to leave a
to leave a rebate
rebate of
of up
up to
to 66 Mm.
mm. on
on 3 sides. On the side
of instruments
where the images of instruments automatically
automatically reccrded
recorded inin the
the camera
camera are
are located,
located,
reb..te should be
the rebate be sufficient
sufficient to
to include
include these
the.e images.
i.ages.
15. MARKING OF Fl LMS ANl]

FILMS IIDlA TIVg;
AM) NEGATIVES
(a) Eaoh exposure in

Each ~ach flight
in each flight line
line shall
shall be
be numbered
nw,bered in in oonsecutive
oonseoutive order.
order. Tnin
Tnic
m.herinc shall
numbering .hall be
be in
in the
the north-east
north-eut or or south-west
.outh-ve.t oorner
oorner ofof the
the negative.
n.ptlY.. '!'h.
The
numbering
IIIIIberillg should not le .. than
not be lose than 4 _. nor More
mm. nor than 66 mm.
more than _. inin height.
haight. Tha
The
oona.outi". numbering
oonmeontive mabenllg ofof exposures
expo.ur •• should
ahould bebe repeated
repeated forfor each
each flight
!light line
lin. (e.g.
( •• g.
.xposur. . in
the first three exposures in flight line 55 would be
flight line b• • 5-1, 5-2
arked 5-1,
marked 5-2 and 5-3). 'ftl.
&lid 5-3). The
mabarillg should
numbering should include
inolud. all
all negatives
negdlY.s whether
lIh.ther falling
fallillg inside
insid. oror outside
outside the
the
apacified ar.u and
specified areas lIh.~her or
&lid whether or not
not conformiog
coufol'llillg to
to the
the specificatione,
apacifications, excluding
.xolwlillg
onl7 obyioua17
only obviously ua.l.sa napti".asuoh
uselss negatives suchasu those
thoa. completely
oaopl.t.17obscured
oblcured byb7 cloud.
oloud.
(b) A film
A fila mhall
ahall beb. in
in one
one oontinuomm
oonU_ length1.lIgth without
without joins,
joina, except
uo.pt for
for the leader
l.ad.r &lid
and
lIh10h shall
trailer which ahall be
b. at hut 11 metre
at least ••tre long.
101lg. A fila and
A film and ita
ita leader may
l.ader . q include
ino11l4.
unrequired naptlY
1UD'aqairad .. and
negatives ba given
&lid will be glY.n a fila ba indicated b7
...ber to be
film roll number by the
OrpnisaUon which
Organisation lIh1ch will
will be
b. shown
ahoom at
at each
.ach end
and ofof the
the film.
fila.
(0)
(o) 'ftl.
The aarcin
margin of
of the
the fint and lut
first &lid last napUn
negative for
for .ach !light line
ach flight line shall
ahall be 01.ar17
olearly
.arked wi th.
marked with:
(i) '!'h. indication

Tho indicaUon of
of the
the Organisation,
OrpnlsaUon, .....
name of locality
10cal1t7 and the number
".ber of
contract.
(11) ... the film

bar of the
Number fila roll.
roll.
(11i) Data
Dato or dat .. on
dates on which
whioh axposed
=posed;I tho month to
the .onth to be
b. given
g1 ".n by
b7 name
..... not
IIIIt number.
maber.
'1'1
Tim. •• of exposure
.xpo....... in
in terms
taNa of
of local
local time.
U •••
"'ber OM.ra opti

Number of osmora opUoal
cal 11111
unit t and
and 1lonc
... &lid dist&DII.
and the principal distance
oorraspondi". with
corresponding with the
the calibration
calibration particulars
partioulara supplied
npplied under
under this
this
spaoification.
specification.
(n) Height above mean sea level at which exposed, in metres.

-- 192
19 2 -
-
(d) Each print

Eech print shall
shall be
be titled
titled in
in the
the rebate
rebate along
along its
its northern
northern or
or southern
southern margin.
margin.
(e) titling required

The titling required on
on each
each print
print is
is to
to be
be clear
clear block
blook lettering
lettering (between
(between 33 mm.
mm. and
and
55 mm.
mm. in height for items (i) to (v)
for items (i) to (v) below,
below, and between 44 mm.
and between and 66 mm.
mm. and mm. for
for item
item
(vi)
(vi) below) and is
is to
to read
read and
and print
pri nt in
in the
the following
followi ng order:
order:
(0
(i) indication of the Organization
The indioation (an
(an appropriate projeot
project deBignation)
designation)
(ii) Flying height above mean

mean sea
sea level
level in
in metres.
metres.
(iii) fooal length

Camera focal length (in
(in mm.)
mm.) if not automatically
if not automatically reproduced
reproduoed on
on negative.
n.gative.
(iv) Date of photography.

photography.
(v) oorreeponding map

Number of corresponding map sheet.
sheet.
(Vi) Line and photograph

photograph number.
number.
An example of
of complete
oomplete marking
marking is:
is:
~O
RAO NlC/68/509 -- 3230M --
NIc/68/5o9 153.4mm -- 6 SEPT 72
12 -- 12 -- 1-18
16
16 REPOR'IB
FILM REPORTS
(a) A report
A report containing
oontaining the
the following
follOwing details
details and
and any
any others
othere that
that are
are considered
oonsidered to
to be
r.l ....ant shall
relevant sha1l be provided
provided with each
each film:
film:
The number of thethe contract

oontraot
Name of Contractor
Nema Contraotor
lllmber
Number of film
fUm
Nome of territory
Neme
time of first
Time firat and last
last exposure
exposure (local
(looal time)
time)
.xpoBed
Date exposed
'Dle number of the
aerial number
The serial the camera
oamera optical unit, the magazine and lene.
the magazine lens.
The prinoipal dietance as given in
principal distance in the
the calibration
calibration report
report supplied
eupplied under this
this
apaoification
specification
Le
Lene.. aperture
aparture and negative numbers
and negative IN1IIbera at
at which
which change
change in
in the
the aperture
aperture setting
setting was made.
was made.
Filter.
Filter. Shutter speed
speed
Make and trade name of film,
film, batch number
IN1IIber and of coating
and date of ooating (if known)
(if known)
Aircraft registration
Aircraft registration marks
marka
Reight above
Height above mean
mean sea
sea level
level and
and negative
negative numbers
numbers between
betwe.n which
which changes
changes of
of height
tcok
took place
Weather conditions.
Weather conditions.
(b) A list
A list of
of all
all the
the numbered
numbered negatives
negatives on
on the
the film
film in
in numerical
numerical eequence
eequenoe and in two
and in two
columna,
columns, with remarks on the
the following
fo11owing linee:
lines:
PHOTOGRAPHY
PHOTOaRAPHY REMARKS
Offered
Offered Additional
1-1 to
to 1-20
1-20 Tb speoifioation
To specification
1-~1
1-21 to 1-25
1-25 Some cloud
Some cloud
1-26 to 1-36 Heavy
Rea"" cloud
1-37 to
1-37 1-40 Tb apeoification
To specification
1-41
1-41 to
to 1-60 Insufficient lateral
Insufficient lateral overlap;
overlap;
reflown.
- 193
193 -
(0)
(o) Although the information
Although the information in
in this
thia paragraph
paragraph mayma,:r not
not be
be complete
complete on
on the
the original
or1«1nal
compiled in
reports compiled in the
the field,
field, it ITIWIt be
i t must be completed
oompleted in in the
tbe two
tw copies
copies of the final
of the final
film
film report to be supplied.
eupplied.
(d)
(d) A
A general statement
atat ... ent on
on the
the photographic
photographic quality.
qualH,..
17 •
17. JWiXI FIlJI CONTAINER
Hl OF FILM
MARKING CO lIrAI!tiI
aide of
On the side of each
eacb tin
tin there
there shall
shall be
be firmly
firml,. fixed
fixed aa label
label showing cl ....17:
showi", clearly:
1. Number of the contract

2. _ e of the countr;r
Name country or of thethe region (BLOCK CAPITALS)
CAPIULS)
3. looalit,.
Name of locality
4. ~e
Name of the Contractor
5. Date(s) of exposure
Date(e) of exposure
6. !llIIIIber
Film roll number
1. and laat
First and last. negative
negative numbers of each
numbers of each line
U". contained
contained on
on roll
roll
8. Serial number
number of ot camera
oamera optical
optical unit and lens.
1lIIi t and 1....
18.
18. FLIGIlT INDICES
FLIGHT I IIIlICES
Flight line ot the

Une indioes of photogra~ are
the photography are required and may
required and ....,. vary
Yar, for
for each
each oontraot.
oozm.aot.
19. ADDITIOIAL
ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIOIiS
SPECIFICATIONS
'nle following
The following claueee
clauna may beII...,
be included
included in
in the
the body of the
bod;r of tbe contract:
contract:
(a)
(a) Inspeotion and acceptance
Inspection
(1) The Organization

The Organization reserves
reaerYes the
the right to
to reject
rejeot within
wi thin six ... aka of tb.
weeks the d.liYt1Z7
delivery
print. any
of the oontact prints al\1 photography
photograph;r Which
1dIioh fails
taile to
to meet
.... t the
tb. epecifioatione.
apecifioatio ...
(11) Subjeot pertinent provisionm

Subject to other pertinent proYhlo .. of
of the
tb. contract,
contract, the
the contractor
cozm.actor will
will
hay. the cption
have option either to forego
forego payment tor rejected photography
pa,:rm.nt for photograph;r or to
to
produoe acceptable substitute
produce substitute photography.
photograph;r.
(i11) If the Organization

I f the Organization determines
dete11llines that
that certain
oertain photography
photograph;r isi8 not
not in
in awards:ace
accordanc.
wi th the
with tbe specifications, or
or that
that there
tbere are
are gape in the
gape in photographi~ coverage,
the photographic oonr... ,
the contractor shall
ahall make good euch ehortoominga prior to
such ehortoomings to ext.nding
extending tb.
the
photographic °overage,
photographic coverage, if ao required
i f so required by the Organization.
b;r the Organization.
(b)
(b) photographY
Additional photography
Addi tional photography,

Additional photograph;r, if taken in
&n.Y, taken
i f any, in the
the oouree
oourae of
of the
the contract
contraot and l)'ing
lying
adjacent to
to the
the areas
areas to
to be
be photographed
photographed in in aocordanoe
accordanoe with
with ihe
tbe indications
Indioationa given
«1y'" to
to
Contraotor by
the Contractor b,. the
tbe Organization
Organization may
m..., be
be offered
offered to
to the
the Organisation.
Organiaation. It ehall
.hall be
b.
at the Organization'
Organization'e a discretion whether
wh.tber or not to aooept &I\Y all of
any or all of tb.
the
additional photography
photograph;r offered.
ottered.
- 194 -
ANNEX II
SEL&)= ANNOTA=
SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
90~e of
Only some of the ~08t useful documents
the most documentB dealing
dealing with
with one or
or several
several techniques
techniques used
used
in forest
forest inventory are quoted in this bibliography. mainly include.
It Mainly textbooks or
includes textbooks or
Manuale; articles
manuals; communic,tions have been selected only when they were
articles or communications were considered
considered
essential. With very
very few
few exceptions,
exceptions, all references 1n English.
~eferencea are in English. When they also
alao
exist
exist in French and/or in Spanish,
Spani.h, this is indicated in the margin
this is Margin by (F)
(F) and/or
and/or (S).
(S).
More French and Spsni.h reference. will be indicated
Spanish references indioated in the
the bibliography
bibliograp~ ofof the
the
oorr•• pondin« versions
corresponding vereionll of thi. manual.
of this Manual.
(al
(a) Fore.t inventorz in general
Forest inventory rn.ral
Fore.t
Forest inventory is generally dealt with in specific chapter(s) in forest
fore.t
mensuration textbooks
textbooks and
and manuals,
manuals, but
but is the specific
i8 the specific subject
subject of
of some publications,
BOM. publications,
among which the following can
c&n be quoted:
Bonnor O. M. - 1972.
Bonner O.M. Forest sampling
sampling and
and inventories.
inventoriea. A bibliography.
A biblio&rap~.
Forest Man~Ment
Management Institute, ottawa, Ontario.
Institute, Ottawa, OntariQ, Internal Report
Internal Ruport FMR-24,
FMR-24,
27 pp.
27
from English
Selected references from English language
language publications
publicationa excluding
excluding
point sampling,
articles on point sampling; on
on air photo Meaaure~entB and theses.
photo measurements thesea.
FAO 1967..
- 1967 Report of
Report of the
the· Headquarters
Headquarters Meeting of Forest
~1eeting of Forest Inventory
Inventory Experts
Expert.
Projects (held
on UNDP/SF Projects (held in
in Rome
ROMe 11-22
11-22 September
SepteMber 1967). FO:SF/67 - IM
1M 17,
259 PP-
pp .
These proceedings include cOMm~cations of
include communications of the
the participante
participants to to this
this
meetil\g
meeting and thethe reports
report. and
and recommendations ofof its
it. various
variouB working
commi t t ees.
committees. The ",oat infornlation given
most useful information given by this document
by this doc'Ulftent has
has
been taken
take n up again inin the "Manual
"Manual for
for forest
forest inventory
inventory operations
operations
FAD" and
executed by FAO" and in this
this manual.
Loetsoh F.
Loetsch F. and
and Haller K.E. - 1964. Forest
Haller K.E. Fore.t inventory.
inventory. VolUMe 1,
Volume 1, 436
436 pp.
Loetsch F.,
Loetsoh F., ZUhrer F. and
Zhnrer F. and Haller K.E. - 1973. Forest inventory.
Haller K.E. inventory. VolUMe 2,
Volume 2,
469
469 pp. BLV Verlagage.ellschaft MUnchen - Basel - Wien.
Verlagsgesellschaft München
This is reoent textbook on forest inventory
is strictly speaking the only recent inventory and
it techniques.
it covers the whole range of relevant techniques. of
Tropical aspects of
foreot
forest ' inventory work have not been neglected
neglected (as
(as in
in former textbooks
textbooks on
forest bibliographie. of the
forest inventory) and the bibliographies the two
two volumes
volUMes are very
comprehensive.
NyyssSnen A.
Nyysstinen - 1961. of tropical
Survey methods of tropioal forests.
foreats. FAD
FAO publication
no.
no. 13407.
study of
Comparative study of the
the inventory
inventory methods
MethodB used
used in
in the
the tropics
tropics in
in the
the late
fifties.
fifties.
Proceedings of the 1st

1st FAO/SIDA training
training course
oourse on
on forest
forest inventory
inventory
(to be published in
(to in early
early 1974
1974 by the Swedish
Swedish Royal
Royal College
College of
of Forestry)
Forestry)
195 --
-- 195
(b) Purpo •• and planning

Purpose planning of
of aa forest
forest inventory
inventory (Chapter
(Chapter II)
II)
Husch B.
Rusoh - 1971.
B. - 1971. Planning aa forest
forest inventory. FAD forestry and
FAO forestry Rnd forest
forest
product. studies
products Btudie. No.17,
No.17, 121
121 pp.
pp.
As stated
Itated in
in its
ita preface
prefaoe this
this concise
coneiRa study
study "outlines
"outlinee the
the principal
problems •• , suggests
problems ... suggests a
a logical
logical sequence for considering
conaidering the",
them a110
aleo 0• • •
discusseR briefly
discussee briefly some of the
8o~e of the most
moat modern inventory
inventory techniques and their
!Wer! ta and
merits and limitations"
lb'!i tatioJUl" but does not
but does not "cover
"cover technical
technioal methode".
!lathods".
(6) Basic forest inventory

Baaic sampling techniques in forest inventory (Chapter
(Chapter III)
Chacko V.J. -- 1965.

1965. A manual
A m&Dual on
on sampling techniques for
B~plil~ techniques for forest
forest surveys.
surveys.
172 pp.
pp. Delhi.
Delhi. Manager of
of publications.
publicationa.
(S)
(s) Ccchran W.O. -- 1963 (2nd
Cochran W.G. (2nd edition). SaMpling techniques.
Sampling technique •• 413 pp.
pp. John
Wiley and Sons Inc.,
Inc., New
New York
A clear textbook
A very clear textbook on
on sampling
sampling techniques,
teohniques, describing
describing and
and demonstrating
demonstrating
Moat
most of the sampling designa
deeigns which may be useful in forest inventory.
inventory.
(F only)
(F only) Desabie J. -- 1966.
1966. Th«orie at pratique des
Théorie et 80ndages~
des sondages. Dunod, Paris.
Dunod, Paris~
48
4811 PP.
pp.
French on sampling
Easy, clear book in French
Easy, sampling techniques
techniques with
with emphasis
emphasiS on
demographio surveys.
demographic surveys.
Free •• F. -- 1962.
Freese 1962. Elementary forest
Elementary forest sampling.
sampling. Agriculture No.232.
Handbook No.232.
Agriculture Handbook
U~S~ Department of
U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agriculture, Forest
Forest Service, 91 pp.
Service, 91 pp~
Very useful and practical handbook on sampling

sampling techniques
techniques for forest
forest
inventory with
with many numerical examples.
~any numerical eXaMples. by most
Reco~ended by
Recommended of the
~08t of the
specialists consulted
conoulted when compiling this
this manual.
Hansen M.H.,
Hansen M.H., Hurwitz
Hurwitz W.N.
W.N. and
and Madow
Madow W.G.
W.G. -- 1953.
1953. SaMple methode and
Sample survey methods
theory.
theory. Vol"",e
Volume /I -
- Methods and applications.
~lethod. and applications. 638 pp.
pp. VolUllle II -- Theory.
Volume Theory.
332 pp.
pp. John Wiley
John WUey and
and Sons Inc.,
Inc., New
New York.
York.
cOMprehenaive book
Very comprehensive book with
with emphasis
eMphasis on
on demographic surveys.
de~ographic surveys.
(F)
(F) SohWlacher IUld Chapman
Schumacher F.X. and Chap"'an R.A.
R.A. -- 1954.
1954. SIIIIIpl1ng methods
Sampling "ethode in
in forestry
fore.try and
and
range Manage.ent~
management. DurhaM,
Durham, North Carolina. University, School of
Duke University,
Forestry. Bulletin No.7,
No.7, revised.
reviaed. pp.
222 pp.
textbook on
Useful textbook on sampling
8aMpling techniques
techniques used
used in
in forestry
forestry although
although new
new
Method. such
methods as point
euoh as point sampling
SaMpling and
and SPR
SPR are
are not
not covered.
covered.
Sukhatlle P.V. -- 1954.

Sukhatme P.V. 1954. S..... pling theory
Sampling theory of
of surveys
surveY" with
with applications.
applications. Iowa
Iowa
College Press,
State College Pre.s, Ames,
AMea, Iowa.
Iowa. 491 pp.
491 pp.
textbook with
Well-known textbook with emphasie
e.. pbaei. on
on agricultural
agricultural surveys
Burveyo
(F)
(F) Yat •• F. -
Yates - 1960 (3rd edition).
edition). Sanpll~
Sampling Methods for
methods for censuses
cenauaes and
and surveys.
surveys.
440 pp.
440 pp. Griffin, London.
London.
This book is less
Ie •• comprehensive
COMprehensive than
than Cochran's
Coohran'. as
as far
far as the number
&8 the nuMber of
... pling methods
sampling .ethoda and
and demonstrations
de.onatrationB are
are concerned,
oonoerned, but
but gives
give. more
More
explanations and aore exaaplea.
~.rioal examples.
more numerioal
-- 196
196 --
On point
point or line sampling
or line
Grogenbaugh L.R. -
Grosenbaugh L.R. 1958.
- 1958. Point
Point 9ampling
sampling and line
line sampling:
sampling: probability
probability
theory,
theory, geometric implications, synthesise
implications, synthesis. USDA Southern
Southern Forest
Forest Experiment
Station. Occasional Paper No.
No. 160.
Labau V.J.
V.J. -- 1967. Literature
Literature on the
the Bitterlich method of forest
forest cruising.
cruising.
USDA Pacific
Pacific Northwest
Northwest Forest
Forest and
and Range
Rnnge Experiment
Bxperiment Station
Station Research
Research Paper
Paper
PNW-1 9.
PNW-19.
(d) ReMote
Remote gensing Mapping (Chapter
sensing and mapping (Chapter IV)
IV)
(i)
(i Photogrammetric measurements in
in forest
forest inventory
inventory
refflr ences to photogrammetric mea8ur~ments

Most of the references for forest
measurements for forest inventory
inventory are
are
cOTllmunications.
articles and communications. An account ofof these
these references
references is made inin the
the bibliography
bibliography
of the following
following documents
documen ts and
and also
also of
of the
the textbooks
textbooks on
on photointerpretation
photointerpretation (see (iii).
(see (iii)).
AMerican Society of
American Society of Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry -- 1966
1966 (3rd
(3rd edition).
edition). Manual of
of
PhotograNNetry.
Photogrammetry. George Banta
George Banta Co.,
COl, Menasha,
Menasha, Wisconsin,
Wisconsin, 1220
1220 pp.
pp. (2
(2 volumes).
volumes).
Nielsen U. 1971.
U. -- 1971. Tree
Tree and stand
stand measurements from aerial
~easurements from aerial photographs:
photographs: an
annotated bibliography.
bibliography. Forest Management
Forest Management Institute,
Institute, Ottawa,
Ottawa, Ontario.
Ontario.
FMR-X-29. 111 pp.
Internal report FMR-X-29. pp.
Spurr S.H. 1960. (2nd edition)

S.H. -- 1960. Photogr&mmetry and
Photogrammetry and Photointerpretation
Photointerpretation
(with na section on application
applioation to
to forestry).
forestry). New York,
New York, The
The Ronald
Ronald Press
Press Co.
Co.
472
472 pp.
(ii) Vegetation and
and ecological
ecolOgical classifications
classifications
In addition to
to the
the documents
doc~entB quoted in section 22 of Chapter IV the
the following
following
should also be considered:
considered:
L.R. -- 1967.
Holdridge L.R. Life zone
zone ecology
ecology (revised
(reviged edition).
edition). Tropical
Tropical
Science
Science Center,
Center, San Jos~, Costa
San Joe4, Costa Rica.
Rica. 205 pp.
205 pp.
(F)(S) Unesco -- 1973.

1973. International 'classification and mapping
classification and mapping of
of vegetation.
vegetation.
Ecology
Etology and conservation no. 6.
oonservation no. 6. Paris. 93
Paris. 93 pp.
pp.
A recent classification
A very recent classification worked
worked out
out under
under the
the auspices
auspices of
of Unesco.
Unesco.
(iii) Photointerpretation
Photointerpretation in
in forest
forest inventory
inventory
AMerican SOCiety of Photogrammetry

American Society Photogr""""etry -- 1960. of Photographic
Manual of Photographic
Interpretation. George Banta Co., Menasha, Wisconsin.
Wisconsin. 868
868 pp.
addition to
In addition to two
two chapters
chapters on,
on, respectively,
respectively, the
the procurement
procurement of
of aerial
aerial
photography and
photography and the
the fundamentals
fundamentals ofof photointerpretation,
photointerpretation, aa chapter
chapt.r ofof 64
p~B is
pages is included
included on
on photointerpretation
photointerpretatlon in in forestry.
forestry.
Avery T.E. -- 1966.

Avery T.E. 1966. Fore.ter'a guide
Forester's guide to
to aerial
aerial photointerpretation.
photointerpretatton.
usno, Handbook no.
USIJI. Handbook no. 308,
308, 40
40 pp.
pp.
Hildebrandt G. 1968.
G. -- 1968. Bibliographie des Schrifttums
Bibliographie des Schrifttumo auf
auf dem
dem Gebiet
Gobiet der
der
forstliohen Luftbildau9wertung, 1887
forstlichen Luftbildauswertung, 1887 - 1968.
1968.
-- 197
197 --
Howard J.A.
J.A. -- 1970. Aerial photo-ecology.
photo-ecolo~. Faber and.Faber, London.
London.
3325
25 pp.
Very olear and useful book on
on the
the utilization of aerial photography
photography with
special study of vegetation,
special reference to the study vegetation, and aa fairly co~prehensive
fairly comprehensive
bibliography (35
(35 pages).
pages).
Stellingwerf D.A. 1966.

D.A. -- 1966. Praotical applications of
Practical applicationn of aerial
aerial photographs
photograph. in
in
foreatry
forestry and
and other
other vegetation studies.
studies. International Training Centre
International Training Centre for
for
Survey.
Aerial Survey. I.T.C. Publioationa,
Publioationn, Series B.
B. No.
No. 36-37-38-46-47-48.
Thio
Thin seriee
series of booklet. oontains a largr
booklets containe large number .tereogr...~es showing
~ber of stereogrammea .howing
vegetation and forest
forest types in the
types in the tropics
tropics and
and in
in temperate
temperate zonen,
zonee, and
and. is
1.
therefore
therefore very
very useful for training
training purposes.
(iv) New remote sensing techniques

techniques
IUFRO,
IUFRO, Seotion 25 -- 1971.
Section 25 1971. Applioation of remote
Application of .enaors in
re~ote sensors in Forestry.
Fore.try.
.
Joint Report by
Joint Report by Working
WOrking Group
Group "Application
"Application of
of Remote
Remote Sensors
Sen&ora in
in Forestry",
For •• t17",
189 pp.
189
This
This report comprises 13
13 communications
cOmAunications of
of foresters
foresters who
who are
are specialiets
speciali8t.
in
in remote sensing techniques
remote sensing techniques and
and gives
give. aa good
good account
acoount of
of the
the application
application
to
to forestry of the new
new techniques
teohniques in
in 1970.
1970.
American National Research

Researoh Council -- 1970.
1970. Remote sensing
Remote sensing with
with special
speoial
refsrenoe to Agriculture and
reference and Forestry.
Forestry. National Academy
Academy of
of Sciencea,
Soienc.~,
Washington D.C.,
Washington D.C., 424
424 PP.
pp.
This
This book,
book, to
to which many Amerioan oontributed, provides
American specialists contributed, provides the
the
user with
with the
the basic
basic technical
technical background
background concerning
concerning remote
reMote seneing
sensing in
in
general and in relation
relation to
to vegetation,
vegetation, soil
Boil and
and water
water resources.
re8ourceo.
Krumpe P.F.
P.F. -- 1972.
1972. Remote sensing
sensing of terrestrial
terre.trial vegetation:
vegetation: aa
comprehensive bibliography. University of
The University of Tennessee,
Tennessee, Knoxville,
Knoxville,
Tennessee. 69
69 pp.
pp.
"850 referencea deali"l; with
references dealing with the
the utilization
utilization and
and application
application of
of remote
rellote
sensing in forestry,
forestry, agriculture
agriculture and
and plant
plant ecology,
acology, as
as well
well as
as closely
closely
allied fields such as land-une
land-use planning,
planning, resource
resource inventory
inventory and
and management,
man&«ement,
and 90i
soils analysis."
18 and terrain analysis."
R.C. -- 1970.
Wilson R.C. applioation in
Remote seneing application in forestry
forestry (A
(A report
report of
of
under the
perro~ed under
research performed the auepices
auspices of
of the
the forestry reNote senning
fore8t~ remote Bensing
laboratory,
laboratory, School of Forestry
Forestry and
and Conservation,
Conservation, University
University of
of California,
California,
Berkeley, for
Berkeley, for National
National Aeronautics
Aeronautic. and
and Space
Space Administration).
Administration). 199 pp~
199 pp.
'nle
The su~ti tle of this report gives
sub-title gives the
the following
follOwing preciaion:
precision: "potentially
"potentially
forest and
efficient forest and rangr
range application
application of
of remote
remote sensing
sensing using
ueiD! earth
earth
spaoecraft -- circa 1980".
orbital spacecraft
(e)
(e) Meaauraoent considerations
Measurement oonliderations (Chapter
(Chapter V)
V)
(i) Forest mensuration
lluBoh B.,
Huech B., Miller C.I.
C.I. and T.W. -- 1971.
Beere T.W.
and Beers 1971. Foreat mennuration.
Foreet mensuration. The
Ronald Press
Pre.s Co., New
New York.
York. 410 PP.
410 pp.
A recent
A recent textbook
textbook on
on forest
forest mennuration
.ensuration with
with four
four ohaptees
ohapters on
on forest
fore.t
16 pages
inventory and 16 pages of
of references
referenoe. to
to relevant
relevant literature (~ainly English).
literature (mainly English).
- 198
- 198 --
(F only) Pard~
Pard6 J. -
J. - 1961. Dendrom~trie.
Dendrométrie. Edi tiona de
Editions de l'Ecole
l' Ecol~ Nationale
Nationale des
des Eaux
Eau>:
For@ts, Nancy.
et Fortts, Nancy. 350 pp.
350 pp.
useful and
Very useful and practical
practical textbook
textbook on
on forest
forest mensuration
mensuration (but
(but with
with very
very
little emphasis on tropical forestry).
(ii) Volume equations

equations
T. -- 1964.
Cunia T. 1964. Weighted least square method and
and construction of volume
volume
tables.
tables. Forest Science,
Science, Volume 10,
10, No. 2.
No.2. 12 pp.
12
main document
First main document on
on the
the use
use of
of weighted
weighted regression
regression for
for volume
volume table
table
construction.
Draper N.R.
N. R. and Smith H. - 1966.
H. - Applied regression
Applied regression analysis.
analyais. John
and Sons
Wiley and Sons Inc.
Inc.
Freese F. 1964. Linear Regression

F. -- 1964. Regression Methods
Methods for
for Forest
Forest Research.
Research. USDl
USDA
Forent Service
Forest Service Research
Research Paper,
Paper, FPL 17, 138
FPL 17, 138 pp.
pp.
clear manual
Very clear manual on
on regression
regression techniques
techniques with
with numerical
numerical application.
ap?lication.
M. -- 1968.
Prodan M. Ferest
Forest Biometrics (English translation by S. Gardiner
(En«lish translation Gardiner
BiOlOetr1e")
of "Forstliche Biometrie")
(iii) Quality ... e.sment and

Quality assessment reoovery studies
and recovery studie.
IUFRO, 25 -- 1969. Proceedings

IUFRO, Section 25 Proceedinge of Qf the
the meeting
meeting held
held in
in Reinbek,
Reinbek,
Gennany, of the
Germany, ~lorking Group
the Working Group on
on "Mensurational
"Mensurational Problems
Problems of
of Forest
Forest Inventory
Inventory
in Tropical Countries". Mitt. Bundesforsch. anst. anat. f. Forst- und
f. Forst- und Holzw.
Holzw.
verI. Max
Komm. verl. ~lex \hedebusch, HarRbur.p;_
iedebusch, Hamburg.
A record
A record of
of the
the discussions
discussions held
held and
and background papers submitted
oo.ckground papers sutmi tted at
at this
this
~eeting which
meeting which focused
focused principally
principally on
on quality
quality appraisal
appraisal and recovery studies.
and recovery studies.
(iv) Accessibility
G. -- 1969.
Von Segebaden G. Studies on the accessibility
aooessibility of forest and
land in
forest land in Sweden.
Sweden. Studia Foreetalia
Forestalia Tecnica No. 76.
Tecnica No. 64 PP.
64 pp.
(f)
( f ) Data recording and
and processing
processing in
in forest
forest inventory
inventory (Chapter VI)
(Chapter VI)
Anderson, D.l~. -- 1966.

Anderson, D.M. 1966. Computer Programming
Programming FORTRAN
FORnlAN IV.
IV. Appelton Century
Century
Crafts, New York.
Crafts, New 430 pp. including appendices.
York. 430
A manual written
A written for
for beginners
beginners on
on computer
computer programming
programming in
in FORTRAN
FORTRAN IV.
IV.
Very instructive,
instructive, suitable
suitable for
for home
home tuition
tuition and
and teaching
teaching purposes,
purposes, with
with
ma~ graphs, exercises
many exercises and
and comparison
comparison ofof FORTRAN compile~ of
FORTRAN Compilers of different
different
makes (IBM series, Univa~Burrough.,
(IBM series, General Electric,
Univac;Bwroughs, General Eleotrio, Honeywell,
Honeywell, etc.)
eto.)
H.C. -- 1968.
Dawkins H.C. 1968. STA'lFORMS
STATFORMS -- Formats for elementary
elenoentary statistical
otatistioal
calculation. Commonwealth Forestry
Forestry Institute,
Institute, Oxford.
Oxford. Institute Paper
Paper
No.
No. 41
41
26 predesigned forms
forms for hand calculations
calculatione in
in statistical
statistioal techniques
techniques
such as
such as analysis
analysis of variance (Latin
(Latin square)
square) and
and co-variance,
co-variance, linear
linear
regreSSion, strati fied random
regression, stratified random sample,
sample, etc.,
etc., indicating
indicating the
the different
different
steps.
computational steps. Very useful
Very useful for
for small
small manual
manual calculations,
calculations,
instructive examples.
-- 199
199 --
Dixon, W.J. -- 1968.

Dixon, W.J. mm
BMD -
- Computer Programs.
Biomedical Computer Progr...... Univer.i ty
University
of California Press,
Press, Berkeley
Berkeley and Los
Los Angeles.
Angelea. 600 pp.
600 pp.
A collection
A colleotion of
of standard pro~amme. (FORTRAN
.tandard programmes (FORTRAN IV),
IV), originally
originally written
written for
for
IBM 7094 (approx.
IBM (approx. 3232 K-words).
K-words). Routine. in forest
Routines useful in forest inventory,
inventory,
especially mm
eepecially BMD 05D (plotting scatter diagrams and histograms),
hi.tograms), BMD 06D
(description of .trata),
strata), BMD 03M (factor
(factor analysis),
analysi.), BMD 03R (multiple
(multiple
regression). Detailed description of
Detailed description co~putational procedures,
of computational procedures,
cards and
preparation of parameter cards and output.
output_ Software available
available at
at many
maqy
computer centres.
(G only) DRZ- - 1969.

DRZ 1969. Statistische Programme
Programme des
des Deutschen
Deutschen Rechenzentrums
Rechenzentrums (statistical
(statistical
programmes of the German
German Calculation
Calculation Centre),
Centre), parts
parte AA and
and B.
B.
Deuteches Rechenzentrum
Deutsches Re chenz'entrum Darmstadt
Darmstadt (Fed.
(Fed. Rep.
Rep_ of
of Germany),
Germany), Programme
ProgrM'lme
information PI 32 and 33.
information PI 33. 120
120 pp.
pp.
A collection
A collection of
of statistical
statistical standard
standard programmes
programmes (FORTRAN
(FORTRAII IV)
IV) as
as aa
co~plement to
complement to the
the BMD
EMD series.
eeries. To be noted in particular NRMP (test on
To
REV (comparison
normal distribution), REV (comparison of
of regression of several
regreSSion of several strata),
strata).
LIPR (check
(check of linearity of
of equations).
equational. Documentation and
Documentation and software
software from
from
Calculation Centre,
the German Calculation Centre, Darmstadt,
Darmstadt, upon
upon request.
request.
Frayer E.,
E., Wilson W., Peters R.
W., Peters R. and Bickford C.A.
C.A. -- 1968. '~INSYS, an
"FINSYS,
efficient data processing
processing system
system for
for large
large forest
foreet inventories".
inventories". Journal
of Forestry,
Fores try, Vol. 66, No.12.
No.12. 4 pp.
PP.
General description of this
description of this data
data processing
proceeeing system
system written
written in
in FORTRAN
FORTRAN IV
IV
for IBM system (32 K-words of
IHM 7094/7040 computer system of CPU
CPU capacity
capacity required)
required)
and covers
covers the following
fol lowing designs:
designs: 1.
1. Complete enumeration (100
(100 percent);
2. Simple random or systematic
2. systematic sampling;
sampling; 3.
3. Stratified random
random sampling;
samplir~;
4. Double sampling
sampling for
for stratification.
etratification.
(F only) Ouinaudeau F. -- 1973. Exp~rience

Exp4rience acquise parpar le
Ie CTFT en matitre
mati8re de
auto~atique des
traitement automatique donn~es d'inventaire
dee donn4es d'inventaire (Experience
(Experience gained
gained byby
Technique Forestier
Centre Technique Forestier Tropical
Tropical -- Nogent
Nogent sur
sur Marne,
Marne, France
France -- in
in
automatic processing
automatic proceeeing of
of inventory
inventory data).
data). Meeting of IUFRO Subject Group
S4.02
54.02 (Forest
(Forest Inventory) in Nancy
Nancy (France),
(France), June 1973.
1973. Proceedings to
publiehed. 10 pp.
be published.
The paper describes the
the data
data processing
processing method
method developed
developed at CTFT for
at CTFT for the
the
processing of field
processing field inventory
inventory data
data in
in tropical
tropical high
high forests.
foreats. Examplee of
Examples
eheet and
field sheet and output
output attached.
attached.
Haller K.E. -- 1968.

Haller K.E. 1968. Inventory of national
national tropical
tropical forests
foreste -- AA computer
computer
prograMme for
programme for the
the proceseing
proce.eing ofof data.
data. Unasylva, Vol.22, No.
Unasylva, 89. 77 pp.
No. 89. pp.
The paper given
The paper give. primarily
pr i ~arily aa thorough
thorough problem
problem analysis
analyaie of
of aa data
data processing
proceesing
system for forest
forest inventory.
inventory. system, designed for an IBM 1401,
The system, 1401, is
is of
l.es importance because it is written in Autocoder language
leso language and epecifically
specifically
deaigned for an inventory in Liberia.
designed Liberia.
McCrackenD.D.
MOCraoken D.D.-- 1963.
1963. Digi co~puter programming.
tal computer
Digital programming. J. Wiley and Sons
Wiley and 50na
Inc., London.
Inc., New York, London. 240 pp.
240 PP.
advanced home
Textbook for advanced home tuition
tuition of
of how
how to
to solve
solve problems on modern
problems on modern
digital computers.
computer.. Recommended for additional reference.
Recommended for Useful index
Useful
of subjects.
8ubject ••
-- 200
200--
(0
(G only) Muller K.H. Streker I.
K.H. and Streker 1. -- 1970. FORTRAN Programmieranleitung
Progr"",mieranleitung (FORTRAN
(FORTRAN
Programming Manual). Hochschultaschenbucher, Vol.
Hochschultaschenbücher, Vol. 804.
804. Bibliographisches
Institut Mannheim, Wien t Zürich.
Mannheim, Wien, zurich. 140 PP.
140 pp.
Very handy and comprehensive

comprehensive manual for
for self
eelf tuition
tuition with
with application
application of
of
progr""""ing IV (IBM)
programming in FORTRAN IV (IBM) and
and FORTRAN
FORTRAN VV (UNTVAC).
(UN:tVAC). Some basic
knowledge of
of FORTRAN
FORTRAN recommended.
recommended.
Nilsson, N.E. -- 1967.

Nilsson, 1967. So~e views on
Some on data
data processing
processing problems
problems in
in forest
forest
inventories. Report on FAO
FAO Headquarters meeting of forest
forest inventory
inventory
experts, Rome, FO:SF/67/M 17.
experts, Rome, 17.
the paper
In the paper the
the role
role of
of data
data processing
processing in
in forest
forest inventory
inventory is
is treated
treated and
and
some rec~endationa
aome including flow-charts
recommendations including flow-chart. for
for the
the organization
organization of
of data
data
procesuing
processing are given.
(g)
(g) Conoiderationo on inventory
Considerations on inventory designs
deaigns (Chapter
(Chapter VII)
VII)
(i) forest inventory

Continuous forest
Ware K.D. and Cunia T.

Ware K.D. T. -- 1962. Continuous forest
forest inventory
inventory with
with partial
partial
replacement of
replacement of samples.
samples. Science Monograph
Forest Science Monograph 3, 40 PP.
)t 40 pp.
study on
Comprehensive study on SFR
SPR including
including mathematical
mathematical formulation
formulation and
and cost
cost
Ilnalysi
analysis.••
(ii) sampling
Sequential sampling
Chacko V.J. - 1966.

V.3. - 1966. sampling in forest
Sequential sampling forest insect
insect surveys
surveys and
diseaBea.
diseases. The Indian Forester, Volwoe 92,
Foreoter, Volume (pp 233-239).
92 , No.4 (pp 233-239 ).
Theory &nd sampling analysis
and use of sequential sampling analysis inin the
the case
case of
of binomial
binOMial
distribution (absence
distribution (absence or
or presence
presence of
of insects
insects oror of
of damage)
damage) or
or negative
negative
blno~i&l distribution
binomial distribution (contagious
(contagious type
type of
of distribution
distribution applying
applying toto insect
insect
counts).
FAO TECHNICAL
TECHNICAL PAPERS
PAPERS
FAO FORESTRY
FORESTRY PAPERS
PAPERS
1 Forest utilization
Forest utilization contracts on public
publi c land,
land , 1977
1977 31 Appropriate technology in
Appropriate technology in forestry.
forestry, 1982
1982 (E)
(E)
(E
(E F S) 32
32 Classification and
Classification and definitions
definitions of forest
forest products,
products,
2 Planning forest roads roads and
and harvesting
harvesting systems,
systems , 1982
1982 (Ar/E/F/S)
(Ar/E/F/S)
1977 (E FF S)
1977 (E S) 33 Logging of
Logging of mountain
mountain fore
forests,
s ts. 1982
1982(E (E FF S)
51
33 World list
Ii lit of
of forestry
forestryschools,
schools. 1977
1977(E/F/S)
(E/F/S) 34 Fruit-bearing forsst
Fruit-bearing forest trees,
tres8, 1982
1982(E (E FF S)
5)
3 Rev.
Rev. 11.. World list of of forestry
forestryschools,
schools, 1981
1981(E/F/S)
(E/F/S) 35 Forestry
Forestry in
in China,
China, 11982
982 (C
(e E)
El
3 Rev.
Rav. 2. World
World list
list of
of forestry
forestryschools,
schools. 1986
1986(E/F/S)
(E/F/S) 36 Basic
Basic technology in forest operations,
operations. 1982
1982 (E
(E FF S)
51
4/1
4/1 World pulp and and paper
paper demand,
demand, supply
supply and
and trade
trade 37 Conservation andand development
development of tropical forest
- Vol.
Vol. 1,
1.1977
1977(E
(E FF S)
S) resources, 1982
1982(E (E FFS)
5)
4/2 and paper
World pulp and paper demand, supply
supply and
and trade
trade 38 Forest products prices
Forest products prices 1962·
1962-1981,
1981. 1982
1982(E/F/S)
(E/F/S)
- Vol.
Vol. 2, 1977 (E
2.1977 (E FF SI
S) 39 Frame saw manual, 1982
Frame 9aw 1982 (E)
(E)
5
5 The marketing of tropical wood,
wood, 1976
1976(E IE S)
5) 40 Circular saw manual, 1983 1983 (E)
(E)
6
6 National parksplanning,
National parks planning,1976
1976IE(EF FS··)
S) 41 Simple technologies
tachnologies for charcoal making, 1983
charcoal making,
7 Forestry local community development,
Forestry for local development, 19781978 F S)
(E F S)
(Ar E
EFF S)
S) 42 Fuelwood supplies
supplies in the developing countries, countries.
8 Establishment techniques for
Establishment techniques for forest plantations,
plantations, 1983 (Ar
1983 (Ar EE FF S)S)
1978 (Ar
(Ar C E" FF S)
C E" S) 43
43 Forest revenue
revenue systems in developing countries, countries.
9 Wood chips - production,
production. handling,
handling. transport,
trans port, 1983
1983 (E(E FF SI
S)
1976 (C
1976 (C EE S)
S) 44/ 1
44/1 Food
Food andand fruit·
fruit-bearing
besring forest
forest species
spacies
10/1
10/1 Assessment
Assessment of of logging
logging costs
costs from
from forest
fore s t - 1.1.Examples
Examples from from eastern
eestern Africa,
Africa. 1983
1983(E IE FF SI
5)
inventories in thethe tropics
tropics 44/2
44/2 Food
Food andand fruit·
fruit-bearing
beering forest
fore9t species
species
- 1.,.Principles
Principlesand
and methodology,
methodology. 19781978(EIEFFS) S) - 2.2.Examples
Examples from from southeastern
s outheastern
10/2
10/2 Assessment of logging costs from forest fore s t Asia, 1984(E
Asia . 1984 IE FF S)
5)
inventories in the tropics
tropics 44/3 Food
Food andand fruit·bearing
fruit-bearing forest species species - 3. 3. Examples
Examples
- 2.2.Data
Datacollection
collectionandand calculations,
calculations, 19781978(E IE FF S)51 from Latin
Latin America,
America, 1986 1986(E (E S)
S)
11
11 Savanna afforestation in Africa,
Savanna afforestation Africa. 1977
1977(E IE El
F) 45
45 Establishing
Establishing pulp pulp and paper mills.
and paper mills, 1983
1983 (E)IE)
12
12 China: forestry support
support for
for agriculture,
agriculture, 1978
1978(E) IE) 46 Forest products prices
Forest products prices 1963·
1963-1982,
1982. 1983
1983(E/F/S)
(E/F/S)
13
13 Forest
Forest products prices 1960-1977,
1960· 1 977, 19791979(E/F/S)
(E /F/S) 47 Technical forestry education - design
Technical design andand
14
14 Mountain forest
forest roads
roads and
and harvesting,
harvesting, 19791979(E) IE) implementation, 1984
implementation, 1984 (E (E FF SI
5)
Rev.
14 Rev. 1. Logging
logging and
and transport in in steep
steep terrain,
terrain. 1985
1985(E) IE) 48 Land evaluation for forestry.
Land evaluation forestry, 19841984(C IC EEFF SI
5)
15 AGRIS forestry -- world
AGRIS forestry world catalogue
catalogue of of information
info rmation 49 Wood extraction with
Wood with oxen
oxen andand agricultural
agricultural
and
and documentation services,
services. 1979
1979 (E/F/S)
(E /F/S) tractors, 1986
1986 (E IE FF S)
5)
16 China: integrated
China: integrated wood processing indu industries,
s tries, 1979 50
50 Changes in
Changes in shifting
shifting cultivation
cultivation in Africa,
Africa. 1984
1984(E IE F)
F)
(E
(E F S) 50/1 Changes in
Changes in shifting
shifting cultivation in Africa
17
17 Economic analysis
Economic analysisof
of forestry
forestry projac
projects,
ts, 1979 .- seven case-studies,
case·studies, 1985 1985 (E) IE)
(E
(E F
F S)
SI 51/1
51 /1 Studies on the volume and
Studies and yield
yield of tropical
tropical forest
forest
17 Sup
17 Sup.. 1. Economic analysis of
Economic analysis of forestry
forestry projects:
projects : stands - 1.
stands 1. Dry
Dry forest
fore s t formations,
formations, 19891989(E IE F)
F)
case studies, 1979
case studies. 1979 (E
IE S)
S) 52
52/1
/1 Cost estimating in sawmillingsawmilling industries:
industries: guidelines,
guidelines.
17 Sup.
Sup. 2. Economic analysis
Economic analysi s of forestry projects:
projec ts :readings,
readings, 1984 (E)
1984 (E)
1980
1980 (C E)
(e E) 52/2
52 /2 Field manual on
Field manual on cost
cost estimation
estimation in in sawmilling
18
18 Forest products
Forest products prices
prices 1960-1978,
1960-1978. 1980
1980(E/F/S)
(E /F/S) industries, 1985 (El
industries. lEI
19/1
19/1 Pulping and
Pulping and peper-meking
paper-making properties
properties of
of 53
53 Intensive multiple-use
multiple·use forest forest management
management in in Kerala,
Kerala,
fast-growing plantation wood
fast·growing wood species
species 1984 (E
1984 (E FF S)
S)
-- Vol.
Vol. 1,
1. 1980
1980(E)
(E) 54
54 Planificación
Planificaci6n del del desa
desarrollo forestal, 1984
rrollo forestal. 1984(S) (5)
19/2
19/2 Pulping and
Pulping and paper·making
paper-making properties
properties of
of 55
55 Intensive multiple-use
mUltiple-use forest forest management
management in in the
the
fast-growing plantation
fast·growing plantation wood
wood species
species tropics, 1985
1985(E IE FF S)
S)
-- Vol.
Vol. 2,
2. 1980
1980(E)
(E) 56
56 Breeding
Breeding poplars for disease disease resistance,
resistance . 1985
1985(E) IE)
20 Forest tree
Forest trae improvement,
improvement, 1985 1985 (C IC EE FF S)
S) 57
57 Coconut wood - processing
Coconut processing and and use,
use, 1985
1985 (E IE SI
S)
20/2 guide to
A guide to forest seed
seed handling,
handling. 1985 fE IE S I) 58
58 Sawdoctoring manual, manual, 1985 1985 (E IE S)
SI
21 Impact on
Impact on soils
soils of
of fest·
fast-growing
growing species lowland
specie s in lowland 59
59 The ecological
The ecological effects
effects of eucalyptus,
eucalyptus, 1985
humid tropics,
humid tropics, 1980
1980 (E IE F
F S) E FF S)
(C E S)
22/1 Forest volume
Forest volurne estimation
estimation andand yield
yield prediction
prediction 60
60 Monitoring and evaluation
evaluation of participatory forestry
-- Vol.
Vol. 1.
1. Volume
Volume estimation,
estimation, 1980
1980 IC (e E E FF S) projects, 1985
1985 (E (E FF S)
S)
22/2 Forest volume
Forest volume estimation and and yield
yield prediction 61
61 Forest products prices
Forest products prices 1965·1984,
1965-1984, 19851985(E/F/S)
(E/F/S)
-- Vol.
Vol. 2.
2 . Yield
Yield prediction,
prediction, 1980
1980 (C IC EE FF SI 62
62 World list ofof institutions
institutions engaged
engaged in forestry
forestry and
and
Forest products prices 1961
1961-1980,
· 1980, 1981 1981 (E/F/S)
(E/F/S) forest products
products research,
research. 1985
1985(E/F/S)
(E/F/S)
24 Cable logging
Cable logging systems,
systems, 19811981 (CIC E) E) 63 Industrial charcoal
charcoal making,
making. 1985
1985(E) IE)
25 Public forestry
Public forestry administrations in in Latin
Latin America,
America, 64
64 Tree growing by rural
Tree rural people, 1985
1985 (Ar(Ar EEFF SI
SI
1981 (E)(E) 65
65 Forest legislation in selected African
African countries,
countries,
26 Forestry end and rural development.
development, 1981 1981 (E IE FF S)
SI 1986 (E
1986 (E F)
F)
27 Manual
Manual of forest inventory,
inventory, 1981
1981 (E IE F)
F) 66
66 Forestry extension organization, 1986 1986(C IC EES)
S)
28 Small and
Small and medium
medium sawmills in developing countries, 67
67 Some medicinal forest
Some medicinal forest plants of Africa
Africa andand Latin
Latin
1981 (ES)
1981 (E S) America, 1986
1986 (E)(E)
29 World
World forest products,
products, demand
demand and
and supply 1990
1990 68 Appropriate forest industries,
industries, 1986
1986(E) (E)
and 2000, 1982
and 2000. 1982(E (E FF S)
S) 69 Management
Management of forest industries,
industries. 1986
1986(E) (E)
30 Tropical forest resources,
resources. 1982
1982(E(E FF S)
S)
70 Wildland
Wildland fire management terminology, 1986
management terminology. 92 Forestry policies in
Fore s try policies in Europe
Europe -- an an analysis,
analysis, 1989
1989 (E)
IE)
(E/F/S) 93 Energy conservation
Energy cons ervation in the mechanical
mec hanical forest
71 World
World compendium
compendium of forestry and and forest products
product s industries, 1990
1990(E IE S)
51
research institutions, 1986
research institutions. 1986(E/F/S)
(E lFIS) 94 Manual
Manual on on sawmill operational
operational maintenance,
maintenance.
72 Wood gas as engine
Wood fuel,. 1986
engine fuel 1986 (E) IE) 1990 (E)
1990 (E)
73 Forest products: world outlook
Forest products: outlook projections
projections 95 Forest products prices
Forest products prices 1969-
1969-1988,
1988. 1990
1990(E/F/S)
IE /F/SI
1985-2000,
1985-2000 , 1986
1986(E/F/S)
(E /F/S) 96 Planning
Planning endand managing
managing forestry
forestry research:
res earch: guidelines
guidelines
74 Guidelines for
Guidelines for forestry information processing,
process ing. for managers,
managers, 1990 1990 (E)lEI
1986 (E)
1986 (E) 97 Non-wood
Non-wood forest products:
products: thethe way
wayahead,
ahead,
75 An operational guide
guide to the
the monitoring
monitoring and and 1991 (ES)
1991 (E 5)
evaluation of
evaluation of social
social forestry in India,
India. 1986
1986 (E)IE) 98
98 Les plantations
Les plantations ità vocation de de bois
bois d'oeuvre
d'03uvre en an
76 Wood preservation
preservation manual,
manual. 1986 1986 (E)IE) Afrique
Afriqua intertropicale humide,
humide, 1991 1991 (F)
IF)
77 Databook on endangered
Datebook endangered tree and and shrub
shrub species
s pecies 99
99 Cost control in forest
forest harvesting
harvesting and and road
road
and
and provenances.
provenances, 1986 1986 (E) IE) construction, 1992
construction, 1992 (E)IE)
78 Appropriate wood
Appropriate wood harvesting plantation forests.
harve s ting in plantation forests, 100
100 Introduction to ergonomics
ergonomics in in forestry
forestry inin developing
developing
1987 (E)
1987 (E) countries, 1992
countries. 1992 (E)
IE)
79 Small-scale forest-based
forest-bas ed processing
processing enterprises,
enterprises. 101 Aménagement et
Am~nagement et conservation
conservation das des fon~ts
forks denses
denses enen
1987 (E
1987 (E FF S)
5) Amérique tropical
Am~rique tropicale,a, 1992
1992(F)IF)
80 Forestry extension
Forestry extension methods,
methods, 1987 (E) IE) 102
102 Researchmanagament
Research managementinin forestry.
forestry, 1991 (E) (E)
81 Guidelines for fore
Guidelines for forest
s t policy formulation,
formulati on. 1987
1987 (C IC E)
E) 103 Mixed and
Mixed and pure
pura forest plantations in the the tropics
tropics and
a nd
Forest products prices 1967-1986,
1967-1986. 1988 1988(E/F/S)
(E /F/S) subtropics, 1992
subtropica, 1992 (E)IE)
83 Trade in
Trade in fore
forest
s t products:
product s : a study
study ofof the
the barriers
barriers 104 Forest products
Forest products prices
prices 1971
1971-1990,
-1990, 1992
1992(E) IE)
faced by the developing
faced developing countries,
countrie s . 1988
1988 (E)IE) 105 Compendium of pulp
Compendium pulp and
and paper
paper training
training and
and
84 Forest products: world outlook
Forest products: outlook projections
projections research ins
research institutions,
titutions. 1992
1992 (E) IE)
1987-2000 - product
product andand country tables,
ta bles. 1988
(E/F/S)
85 Forestry extension curricula,
curricula. 1988
1988 (E/F/S)
(E /F/S)
86
86 Forestry policies in Europe,
Europe, 1988 (El IE) Availability: December
December 1992
1992
87 Small-scale harves
Small-scale harvesting operations
ting ope rations ofof wood ande nd
non-wood forest products
non-wood products involving
involving rural
rural people,
people. A,
Ar Arabic Multi! - Multilingual
Multil Multilingual
88
88
1988 (E
1988 (E F
Management
F S)
5)
Management of
1989 (E F P)
1989(EFP)
of tropical
tropical moist
moist foresl
forests in Africe.
s in Africa,
C
E
E
F
Chinese
English
French
..
II
Out
Out of print
In preparation
preparation
89
89 Review of
Review of forest management systems of tropical
management systems p Portuguese
Asia, 1989
Asia, 1989 (E)
IE) S Spanish
90 Forestry and
Forestry and food
food ssecurity,
ecurity, 1989 (Ar(Ar EE S)51
91 Design manual
manual on
on babasic
sic wood harvesting
harve s ting The FAO
The FAO Technics1 Papers are
Technical Papers are (Ivai/able through the authorized
available through euthorized
technology,
technology. 1989
1989 (E IE FF S)
51 FAO Sal8s
FAO SalesAg
Agents or directly
ents or directly from Distribution
Distribution and
IJndSales
Sales Section,
Section.
(Published only
(Published only as FAO
FAD Training Series,
Seri es . No.
No . 181
181 FAO, Viale
FAO, delle Terme
Viele delle Terme didi C(lraC(JIIs,
Caracalla, 00100
00100 Rome,
Rome, Italy.
Itely_

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111111111"111'

With special reference

The Forestry Department

To take the experience gained by FAO

CHAPTER - PURPOSE AND PLANNING

CHAPTER SAI~PLIIIG TECHNIQUES

12 Outline of the chapter 14

223 central value

232 sampling error

33 Basic mathematical and statistical

312 Estimation of the sampling

332 Stereoscopic interpretation 78

55 Are. e.till.tion from

31 Stopa proce •• ing

33 Some practical aspects

CHAPTER VII -- CONSIDERATIONS

42 Description of design 182

422 Sampling with replaceMent (SPR)

3) Tb improve the efficiency of inventory

4) Tb intensify the cooperation and collaboration between forest

This manual obviously aannot

d) Almost all forest

It is very important to define

photo interpretation and

122 Priority of objectives.

FNen if not explicitly

logging parameters, i.e.

Other data, not of

124 Most important

iii) o t the information

'nle following outline is

i) interpretation of remote sensing imagery

b) Procedures of interpretation of remote sensing imagery:

BASIC SAMPLING TEx:IIIIQUES

But the selection of the sampling

The following remarks

(1) The term "population"

(i1) Sometimes the

(iii) may happen

(iv) The population to

Most of the following considerations inin this

The value of the parameter to estimate in all the units

- on the m-axis the number

lie oan imagine

We can aleo write 7 -.

(xi. -- X}2 -~, Pi,[ii'

Eotimating saMpling error

Probability of •• l.ction in sampling

Pi -" if with gipi - x

b) probability proportional to the .i.o

Wh.n the first

- to draw the seoond

..... pling with

Mo.t the formulae

(2) Let Ill! ..as"",. that

i. called a.. ratio

Theae obow that

242 Measurement errors.

The meaourement error affects

(y) E f - E Cij)_72 - 17/ ;!- (3,3 -

Sampling theory .how. that V(Yj)

e 0a Gj ) . + 1,96 ~ m(Yj.l • + 1,96

•• tt;:t.. of the true mean

It should be kept in miA, rni ' !el, as