Nanosensors: Small Package, Big

Delivery
Suggested Readings:
(1) Nanosensors: Physical,Chemical, and Biological,
Vinod Kumar Khanna, CRC Press, 2021.
(2) Chemical Sensors: An Introduction for Scientists
and Engineers, Peter Grundler, Springer, 2007.
Fundamentals:
 Technically sensing organs – like eyes and ears
 The word “sensor” is derived from the Greek word
sentire – meaning perceive
 A device that converts a physical stimulus (mechanical
motion, heat, light, sound, magnetic, electric, or radiant
effect) into an electrical signal, which is measured or
recorded by an observer or an instrument.
 E.g.: Thermometer, Thermocouple
 What are the differences between a
sensor and a transducer?
 Transducer converts one form of energy into other forms.
 A sensor is a device used to measure the physical changes in
the surroundings
 A sensor collects information from the real world.
 A transducer only converts energy from one form to
another.
 E.g.: a motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
 Every sensor in this world has three terminals:
 (1) Vcc – to power up the sensor
 (2) GND – to provide a fixed negative reference
 (3) Output – analog output of the sensor (in some sensors,
there may be more than one output terminals)
 The following block diagram demonstrates it.
Commonly Measured Quantities
 Classification of Sensors
1.Active and Passive sensors:
 Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation signal
or a power signal.
E.g.: Photovoltaic cells, Thermocouple
 Passive sensors do not require any external power signal and
directly generates output response.
E.g.: Magnetometer, Barometer
2. Based on the means of detection used in the sensor. Some of the
means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive
etc.
3.Analog and Digital Sensors:
 Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e., a continuous output
signal with respect to the quantity being measured.
 Digital Sensors work with discrete or digital data.
 Type of Sensors
 Light Sensor:

IR sensor(IR LED) Photodiode (IR Receiver) Light Dependent Resistor

(LDR)
 Temperature Sensor:

Thermistor Thermocouple

 Chemical Sensor Bio Sensor

Semiconductor- Based Microsensors

 Semiconductor-based sensors, mainly fabricated on silicon

substrates.
 The first semiconductor sensor was a point-contact rectifier
in 1904 for detecting radio waves, converting a radiation
signal into an electrical one.
 The semiconductor-based sensors were miniature in size and
required lower operating power.
 Nanosensors
 Nanosensors are nanoscale devices that measure physical
quantities and convert these to signals that can be detected
and analyzed.
 Any sensor fabricated by nanotechnological methods is a
nanosensor.
 Any sensor characterized by one of the following properties
will be labelled as a nanosensor:
(i) The size of the sensor is at nanoscale;
(ii) The sensitivity of the sensor is at the nanoscale; or
(iii) The spatial interaction distance between the sensor and
the object is measured in nanometers.
 Biosensors
 A biosensor is a device that measures biological or chemical
reactions by generating signals proportional to the
concentration of an analyte in the reaction.
 Biosensors are useful for dealing with biologically active
substances.
 The first ‘true’ biosensor was developed by Leland C. Clark, Jr
in 1956 for oxygen detection.
 He is known as the ‘father of biosensors’
 Applications – disease monitoring, drug discovery, and
detection of pollutants, disease-causing micro-organisms
Analyte: A substance of interest that needs detection. For instance, glucose is an
‘analyte’ in a biosensor designed to detect glucose.
Bioreceptor: A molecule that specifically recognises the analyte is known as a
bioreceptor.
Transducer: The transducer is an element that converts one form of energy into
another. In a biosensor the role of the transducer is to convert the bio-recognition
event into a measurable signal.
Electronics: This is the part of a biosensor that processes the transduced signal
and prepares it for display.
Display: The display consists of a user interpretation system such as the liquid
crystal display of a computer or a direct printer that generates numbers or curves
understandable by the user.
 Characteristics of a biosensor
1. Selectivity:
 Ability of a bioreceptor to detect a specific analyte in a sample
containing other admixtures and contaminants.
2.Reproducibility:
 Ability of the biosensor to generate identical responses for a
duplicated experimental set-up.
3.Stability:
 Stability is the degree of susceptibility to ambient disturbances in and
around the biosensing system.
4.Sensitivity:
 The minimum amount of analyte that can be detected by a biosensor
defines its limit of detection (LOD) or sensitivity.
5.Linearity:
 It is associated with the resolution of the biosensor and range of
analyte concentrations under test.
 Application of biosensors
 detection of biomolecules that are either indicators of a
disease or targets of a drug.
 Pollution monitoring requires a biosensor.
University of Bath, England –
Biosensors: sensing elements
 Microfluidics
 Microfluidics is the science of manipulating and controlling fluids,
usually in the range of microliters (10-6) to picolitres (10-12), in
networks of channels with dimensions from tens to hundreds of
micrometers .
 Microfluidics emerged in the beginning of the 1980s and is used in the
development of inkjet printheads, DNA chips, lab-on-a-
chip technology, micro-propulsion, and micro-thermal technologies.

Microfluidic chip DNA Chip

 Lab-on-a chip technology

Micropropulsion system
for satellites
 How Does Microfluidics Works?
 Microfluidics deals with very precise fluid control, under small
volumes and space .
 Typically, micro means one of the following features:
 1. Small volumes (μL, nL, pL, fL)
 2. Small size (mm, μm)
 3. Low energy consumption
 Microfluidics systems/devices work by using a pump and a
chip.
 Different types of pumps precisely move liquid inside the chip
with a rate of 1microliter per minute to 10,000 microliters
per minute.
 Within the chip there are microfluidic channels which allow
the processing of the liquid.
 This processing can be mixing, chemical, or physical reactions.
Advantages of Microfluidics:

1. Work with small volume

2. Increase speed of reaction
3. Better performance with lower power
4. Precise mixing and heating
5. Can be integrated with other devices- Lab on a chip (LoC)
6. Reduce cost of reagents and power consumption
7. Ease of disposing of device and fluids
 Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
 This constitute the technology of microscopic devices,
particularly those with moving parts.
 It is a miniature machine that has both mechanical and
electronic components.
 The physical dimension of a MEMS can range from several
millimeters to less than one micrometer.
 They are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) batch processing
techniques.
 These devices have the ability to sense, control and actuate on the micro
scale, and generate effects on the macro scale.

MEMS consist of mechanical microstructures, microsensors, microactuators

and microelectronics, all integrated onto the same silicon chip.
MEMS can act as sensors, receiving information from their environment and
providing an electrical output signal, or as actuators, devices that convert an
electrical signal into an action.
 Fabrication of MEMs
 1. Fabrication using Bulk Micromachining:

Bulk Micromachining Technique Involving Photolithography

 2. MEMs Fabrication using Surface Micromachining

The first step involves the deposition of the temporary layer (an oxide layer or a nitride
layer) on the silicon substrate using a low-pressure chemical vapour deposition technique.
The second step involves the deposition of the spacer layer which can be a phosphosilicate
glass, used to provide a structural base.
The third step involves subsequent etching of the layer using the dry etching technique.
The fourth step involves the chemical deposition of phosphorus-doped polysilicon to form
the structural layer.
The fifth step involves dry etching or removal of the structural layer to reveal the underlying
layers.
The 6th step involves the removal of the oxide layer and the spacer layer to form the
required structure.
3. MEMs fabrication using LIGA Technique.
 It is a fabrication technique that involves lithography,
electroplating, and molding on a single substrate.
 The term is a German acronym for Lithographie, Galvanoformung,
Abformung – lithography, electroplating, and molding.
 MEMS Sensor Working Principle
 Whenever the tilt is applied to the MEMS sensor, then a
balanced mass makes a difference within the electric
potential.
 Then that signal can be changed to create a stable output
signal in digital, 4-20mA or VDC.
Modern cars use a lot of sensors and most of them are MEMS based
devices. The following is a list of MEMS Sensors that are used in a
modern car,
 Accelerometers – For Electronic Stability Control and Airbag
deployment.
 Inertial Measurement Units or IMU (they are combination of MEMS
Accelerometer and MEMS Gyroscope) – For measuring yaw, pitch
and roll for autonomous driving.
 Magnetometer – For direction used in navigation.
 Pressure and Inertial Sensor – For braking control.
 Pressure Sensor – Tyre Pressure Monitoring System.
 Airflow Sensor – Air intake monitoring.
 Fuel Sensor – Fuel Level Indicator.
 Impact and Crash Sensor – Impact detection and Airbag deployment.
 MEMS Microphone – For communication and Noise Cancellation.
 Temperature Sensor – For Automatic Climate Control and Engine
Temperature Monitoring.
 Nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS)
 Nanoelectromechanical systems, or NEMS, are MEMS scaled to submicron
dimensions.
 A class of devices integrating electrical and mechanical functionality on
the nanoscale.
 In 2000, the first very-large-scale integration (VLSI) NEMS device was
demonstrated by researchers at IBM.
 NEMS mostly contains miniaturized electrical and mechanical apparatuses like
actuators, sensors, resonators, beams, sensors, and motors.

(A) Schematic of biodegradable NEMS pressure sensor. Inset shows location of the silicon-
nanomembrane strain gauge. (B) Optical micrograph of the strain gauge region. (C) Image of
complete device.
 Properties:
 NEMS are ultra low power devices.
 Measurements of extremely small displacements and forces.
 They dissipate less energy.
 Can built with masses approaching a few attograms (10-18 g).

What are the materials used to fabricate NEMS?

 NEMS generally fabricated by the materials of SiO2, SiC, GaN,
ZnO & Graphene.
 Fabrication methods of NEMS:
 By using compatible micro machining process the nano mechanical
components are fabricated. There are three main steps in
fabrication of NEMS.
 1. Deposition process : NEMS uses chemical methods for
deposition process. These are,
a. Chemical Vapour Deposition
b. Epitaxy
 2. Lithography : Photolithography
 3. Etching process :
 There are two types of etching process,
 1) Dry etching
 2) Wet etching
 Applications of NEMS:
 NEMS can measure extremely very small distances forces and
displacements.
 In inkjet printers nano nozzles directs the ink to print.
 NEMS can be used in smart phones.
 NEMS based MRI.
 Bio NEMS, bio chips for chemical force sensing.
 NEMS can be used as accelerometers which are used in airbag
deployment systems in automobiles.
 Active and Passive Sensors
 An active sensor is a sensing device that requires an external
source of power to operate.
E.g.: Scanning electron microscopes, LiDAR, radar, GPS, x-ray,
sonar, infrared and seismic.
 A passive sensor does not need any additional energy source
and directly generates an electric signal in response to an
external stimulus.
E.g.: Thermocouple, photodiode, and piezoelectric sensor.
 Depending on the selected reference, sensors can be classified
into absolute and relative.
Absolute sensor:
 An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to an
absolute physical scale.
 E.g.: thermistor: a temperature-sensitive resistor:- Its
electrical resistance directly relates to the absolute
temperature scale of Kelvin.
Relative Sensor:
 Relative sensor produces a signal that relates to some special
case.
 E.g.: thermocouple is a relative sensor :- It produces an
electric voltage that is function of a temperature gradient
across the thermocouple wires.
Sensor Selection Criteria
 Static Characteristics:
 1. Accuracy:
 which really means inaccuracy.
 Inaccuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a value
represented by the sensor from the ideal or true value at its
input.
 (IN)Accuracy is measured by the absolute and relative errors
ABSOLUTE ERROR = RESULT - TRUE VALUE
RELATIVE ERROR = ABSOLUTE ERROR / TRUE VALUE
 For instance, an oxygen gas sensor, which operates at a room
with 21% oxygen concentration, the gas measurement system is
more accurate if it shows 21.1% rather than 20.1% or 22%.
2. Offset:
 The output that will exist when it should be zero or,
alternatively, the difference between the actual output value
and the specified output value under some particular set of
conditions
 3.Linearity:
 The linearity of the transducer is an expression of the extent
to which the actual measured curve of a sensor departs from
the ideal curve.
 Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of
nonlinearity, which is defined as:

 Where Din(max) is the maximum input deviation.

 INf.s. is the maximum full scale point
 Dynamic Characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics describe the sensor’s transient
properties (time-dependent characteristic).
 It is advantageous to use linear and time invariant mathematical
representations for sensing systems.
 The relationship between the input and output of any linear
time invariant measuring system can be written as:

 where 𝑥(𝑡) is the measured quantity (input signal) and 𝑦(𝑡) is

the output reading and 𝑎0, …, 𝑎𝑛, 𝑏𝑜, …, 𝑏𝑚 are constants.
Step function:
 𝑥(𝑡) can have different forms and values. As a simple and
commonly encountered example in sensing systems, 𝑥(𝑡) may
be considered to be a step change (step function)
 When the input signal is a step change, Equation

reduces to

since all derivatives of 𝑥(𝑡) with respect to 𝑡 are zero.

 if output shows an instantaneous response to the input signal
then all a1,…, an coefficients except a0 are zero,
 as a result: the equation

 becomes 𝑎0𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑏0𝑥(𝑡)

 or simply 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑥(𝑡)
 where 𝐾 =𝑏0/𝑎0 is defined as the static sensitivity. Such a
response represents a perfect zero order system.
First order system:
 If the system is not perfect and the output does show a
gradual approach to its final value, then it is called a first order
system.
 A simple example of a first order system is the charging of a
capacitor with a voltage supply, whose rate of charging is
exponential in nature.
‘C’ is the value of capacitance and ‘R’ is the resistance value.
The ‘V’ is the Voltage of the DC source and ‘v‘ is the
instantaneous voltage across the capacitor.
 Such a first order system is described by the following,

 Or

 Else
 where 𝜏 = 𝑎1/𝑎0 is the time constant.
 Solving this equation reveals that the output y(t) in
response to x(t) changes exponentially.
 Second order system:
 The response of a second order system to a step change can
be defined as:

 undamped natural frequency defining the undamped natural

frequency 𝜔 = 𝑎0/𝑎2, and the damping ratio 𝜀 = 𝑎1/(2𝑎0𝑎2)
 The above equation reduces to

 The damping ratio 𝜀 plays a significant role in the shape of the

response.
 If ε = 0 there is no damping and the output shows a constant
oscillation, with the solution being a sinusoid.
 If ε is relatively small then the damping is light, and the
oscillation gradually diminishes.
 When 𝜀 = 0.707 the system is critically damped.
 When 𝜀 is large the response is heavily damped or over
damped.
 Example for second order sensor:
 Pressure transducer - converts pressure into an analog
electrical signal.
Physical effects involved in signal transduction:
 Physical effects employed for signal transduction generally
involve the coupling of a material’s thermal, mechanical and
electromagnetic (including optical) properties.
 chemical interactions may also be overlaid with the above
effects.
 Table: examples of effects that are obtained when thermal,
mechanical and electromagnetic properties are coupled with each
other, or with themselves
 1.Photoelectric effect
 When a material is irradiated by photons, electrons may be emitted
from the material. The ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.
 Their kinetic energy, Ek is 𝐸𝑘 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙
 where h = 6.625×10−34 Js, φ is work function and v is the photon’s
frequency.

 The photoelectric effect is ideal for use in light sensitive devices.

 As the work function depends on the material, sensors may be
designed that are tuned to specific wavelengths (hν0)
 The work function can be tuned by changing material’s
dimensions. The large surface-to-volume ratio of
nanostructures may enhance the photoelectric device’s light-
to-energy conversion efficiency.
 2. Photoconductive Effect
 Photoconductivity occurs when a beam of photons impinges on
a semiconducting material, causing its conductivity to change.
 The conductivity results from the excitation of free charge
carriers caused by the incident photons.
 Application as sensors: This effect is widely utilized in
electromagnetic radiation sensors, and such devices are termed
photoconductors, light-dependent resistors (LDR)
 Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe) are the
two most common materials for the fabrication of
photoconductive devices and sensors.
 CdS has a wide range of resistance values, from approximately a
few ohms when the light has high intensity, to several mega
ohms in darkness.
 A commercial LDR based on CdS
Semiconducting nanomaterials exhibit a charge depletion layer,
which extends a few nanometers. This extension of the depletion
region changes when exposed to irradiation.
Depending on their dimensions and the amount of doping,
photosensitive devices may become completely depleted of charge.
 3. Photovoltaic Effect
 A voltage is induced by the absorbed photons at a junction of
two dissimilar materials (heterojunction).
 The induced voltage in the heterojunction causes the charge
carriers to move, resulting in current flow in an external
circuit.
 Materials used for fabricating such heterojunctions are
typically semiconductors.
 A photon impinging on the junction is absorbed if its energy
is greater than or equal to the semiconductor’s bandgap
energy.
 This can cause a valance band electron to be excited into
the conduction band, leaving behind a hole, and thus
creating a mobile electron-hole pair.
 If the electron-hole pair is located within the depletion
region of the p-n junction, then the existing electric field will
either sweep the electron to the n-type side, or the hole to
the p-type side.
 As a result, a current is created that is defined by:

where q is the electron charge (1.602 × 10–19 C), k is Boltzmann’s

constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K), and T is the temperature of the p-n
junction in Kelvin.
Applications:
 Analytical apparatus such as spectrophotometers, radiation
monitors, automatic light adjustment systems in buildings, as
light sensors in optical communication systems.
4.Photodielectric Effect:
 Materials whose dielectric properties change when
illuminated by radiant energy are called photodielectric.
 Photodielectric measurements have been widely employed in
photochemistry as in the study of kinetics in photographic
materials and semiconductors.
 5.Photoluminescence Effect
 Light is emitted from atoms or molecules after they have
absorbed photons.
 The absorbed photons give their energy to the molecule,
causing it to change to a higher energy state.
 Then after some time, the molecule radiates the excess energy
back out in the form of a photon, and it consequently returns
to a lower energy state.
 Fluorescence and phosphorescence are examples of
photoluminescence.
 For fluorescence, the period between absorption and emission
is typically between 10–8 and 10–4 s. However for
phosphorescence, this time is generally longer (10–4 to 102 s).
 6.Electroluminescence Effect
 Electroluminescence occurs when a material emits light as a
result of an electrical current flowing through it, or when
subjected to an electrical potential.
 Electrons can recombine with holes, causing them to fall into a
lower energy level (Conduction band ⇒ valence band) and
release energy in the form of photons. Such a device is called
light-emitting diode (LED)
 7. Chemiluminescence Effect
 Luminescence that occurs as a result of a chemical reaction is
known as chemiluminescence.
 It is commonly observed at wavelengths from the near
ultraviolet to the near infrared.
[Α]+[Β] → Intermediate product → [Products]+ light
where A and B are reactants
 When chemiluminescence takes place in living organisms, it is
called bioluminescence.

 SULFUR CHEMILUMINESCENCE
DETECTOR (SCD)
8. Doppler Effect
 The Doppler effect is the apparent change in a wave’s frequency
as a result of the observer and the wave source moving relative
to each other.
 If the observer and wave source are moving toward each other,
the wave appears to increase in frequency and is said to be blue
shifted.
 If the wave source and observer are moving away from each
other, then the wave appears to decrease in frequency and
becomes red shifted.
 The observed Doppler shift in frequency is given by:

 where ν is the speed of the wave in the medium, νsource is the speed
of the source with respect to the medium, and fsource frequency of
the source wave.
 Common examples of the Doppler effect in sensing include
speed monitoring devices and ultrasounds.
 The Doppler effect also plays an important role in radar and
sonar detection systems.

Doppler motion sensor: frequency represents the speed at which an

object is moving towards or away from the sensor.
 9.Hall effect:
 when a magnetic field is applied perpendicularly to the
direction of an electrical current flowing in a conductor or
semiconductor, an electric field arises that is perpendicular to
both the direction of the current and the magnetic field.
 Commercial Hall effect sensors are utilized in sensing fluid
flow, power, and pressure sensing, they are most often
employed for the measurement of magnetic fields.
 10. Nernst/Ettingshausen Effect
 Walther Hermann Nernst and Albert von Ettingshausen
discovered that an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced
across a conductor or semiconductor when it is subjected to
both a temperature gradient and a magnetic field.
 The direction of the e.m.f. is mutually perpendicular to both
the magnetic field and the temperature gradient.
 The effect can be quantified by the Nernst coefficient |N| as:
 11. Thermoelectric effect
 An e.m.f. is generated at the junction of two dissimilar
conducting or semiconducting as a result of a temperature
gradient.
 It was first observed in metals in 1821 by Thomas Johann
Seebeck and the effect named after him.
 For two dissimilar materials, A and B, a voltage difference V is
generated when two junctions are held at different temperatures.
 The voltage difference is proportional to the temperature
difference, ΔT = T2 – T1, and the relationship is given by:
V= (SA- SB)ΔT
 where SA and SB are the Seebeck coefficients of material A and B,
respectively.
 This phenomenon provides the physical basis for thermoelements
or thermocouples, the standard devices for measuring temperature.
 12. Thermoresistive Effect
 Thermoresistivity is concerned with the change in a material’s
electrical resistance with temperature and is widely used in
temperature sensing applications.
 This effect is the basis of temperature sensing devices such as
resistance thermometers and thermistors.

 where Rref is the resistance at the reference temperature, α1… αn

are the material’s temperature coefficient of resistance,
ΔT = (T – Tref ) is the difference between the current temperature
T and the reference temperature Tref
 13. Piezoresistive Effect
 The piezoresistive effect describes the change in a material’s
electrical resistivity when acted upon by a mechanical force.
 Piezoresitance can be described by the following equation for
semiconductors:

 where π is the tensor element of the piezoresistive coefficient,

σ is the mechanical stress tensor, and R and ΔR are the
resistance and the change in resistance, respectively.
 The most widely used form of piezoresistive silicon based
sensors are diffused resistors.
 The effect also can be used in cantilever based sensors (gas
sensor).
 14. Piezoelectric Effect
 Piezoelectricity is the ability of crystals that lack a centre of
symmetry to produce a voltage in response to an applied
mechanical force, and vice versa.
 The most popular piezoelectric materials are quartz, lithium
niobate, lithium tantalite, PZT(Lead Zirconate Titanate) and
langasite.
 E.g.: Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
 15.Pyroelectric effect
 When heated or cooled, certain crystals establish an electric
polarization, and hence generate an electric potential.
 The pyroelectric materials are employed in radiation sensors,
in which radiation incident on their surface is converted to
heat.
 The increase in temperature associated with this incident
radiation causes a change in the magnitude of the crystal’s
electrical polarization.
 This results in a measurable voltage, or if placed in a circuit, a
measurable current given by:

 where p is the pyroelectric coefficient, A is the area of the

electrode and dT/dt is the temperature rate of change.
 E.g.: pyroelectric thermal detector
16. Magneto-Mechanical Effect (Magnetostriction)
 Magnetostriction, also called the magneto-mechanical effect, is the
change in a material’s dimensions when subjected to an
applied magnetic field.
The change in length of the ferromagnetic rod depends on
the intensity of applied magnetic field and the nature of the
ferromagnetic material
  Magnetostrictive materials convert magnetic energy into
kinetic energy, and vice versa.
 E.g.: linear magnetostrictive sensors.

Magnetostrictive position sensors use the momentary interaction of two

magnetic fields to produce a strain pulse that moves along a waveguide
 17. Mangnetoresistive Effect
 Magnetoresistance is the dependence of a material’s electrical
resistance on an externally applied magnetic field.
 The applied magnetic field causes a Lorentz force to act on
the moving charge carriers, and depending on the field’s
orientation, it may result in a resistance to their flow.

magnetoresistive sensors are used to determine angle and speed, where the
magnetic field indicates the motion or position of a mechanical system.
 18. Faraday-Henry Law
 An electric field is induced by changing the magnetic field.
 Microphones, analogue current/voltage meters, and reed-relay
switches make use of this effect.
 E.g.:radio frequency identification (RFID) tags
 The relation between the electric field, E, and the magnetic flux
density, B, is defined in differential form,
 19. Faraday Rotation Effect
 The polarization plane of an electromagnetic wave propagating a
material becomes rotated when subjected to a magnetic field that is
parallel to the propagation direction.
 This effect was the first experimental evidence that light is an
electromagnetic wave.
 The angle of rotation is defined by the equation:
θ = VBl
 where B is the magnetic flux density, V is the Verdet constant and l is
the length of the material through which the light is passing.

Optical current transducer (OCT)

 20. Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect (MOKE)
 In 1877, John Kerr
 The polarization plane of a light beam incident on a magnetized
surface is rotated by a small amount after it is reflected from
that surface.
 If the material has some magnetization, M, then the reflected
wave gain a small electric field component (called the Kerr
component, K).

 E.g.: Pressure sensor based on a micromembrane coated with a

magnetostrictive thin-film