Sage Books

Formative Assessment: Making It Happen in the

Classroom

Author: Margaret Heritage

Pub. Date: 2021
Product: Sage Books
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071813706
Keywords: assessment, students, teaching
Disciplines: Communication, Staff Development & Professional Learning, Teaching Methods & Learning
Styles (general), Teaching Methods & Learning Styles, Education
Access Date: May 9, 2023
Publishing Company: Corwin
City: Thousand Oaks
Online ISBN: 9781071813706

© 2021 Corwin All Rights Reserved.

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Clarifying Formative Assessment

This chapter lays the groundwork for all the chapters that follow by clarifying what formative assessment is
and what it is not. We begin with a brief look at how we got here—the key research that has led to formative
assessment becoming an integral and essential part of classroom practice. Then we consider what forma-
tive assessment is and is not. Next, we examine formative assessment in the classroom as a feedback loop,
which is followed by a classroom vignette that illustrates the feedback loop in action. After the vignette, there
is a section on what makes fertile ground for formative assessment. The chapter ends with a discussion of
how formative assessment can contribute to educational equity goals.

How We Got Here

Formative assessment improves learning. That was the conclusion that two British scholars, Paul Black and
Dylan Wiliam, drew from their now-famous review of a wide body of research, ranging from classroom dis-
course practices, to student self-perception, to teachers’ assessment practices (Black & Wiliam, 1998a). For-
mative assessment, or assessment for learning as it is termed in many other parts of the world, had received
attention in the 1980s as a means to connect the two assessment activities of making judgments about stu-
dent learning and providing feedback to students intended to move learning forward (Crooks, 1988; Natriello,
1987; Sadler, 1989). Building on this prior work, Black and Wiliam (1998a), and the more commonly read
summary in Phi Delta Kappan published the same year (Black & Wiliam, 1998b), led to the widespread recog-
nition in many parts of the world that formative assessment is a powerful method for improving all students’
learning.

Their review determined that student learning gains triggered by formative assessment were “amongst the
largest ever reported for educational interventions,” with the largest gains being realized by low achievers
(Black & Wiliam, 1998b, p. 141). Since then, although the extent of the effect on achievement that Black
and Wiliam described has been challenged (e.g., Kingston & Nash, 2011), ample evidence clearly suggests
that considerable improvements in student achievement, even when measured by end-of-year summative as-
sessments, are possible when teachers implement formative assessment routinely (e.g., Andersson & Palm,
2017; Andrade et al., 2008; Black et al., 2003; Brown & Harris, 2014; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Supovitz et
al., 2018). Formative assessment is now firmly established as a clear and essential domain of practice in the
classroom.

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Black and Wiliam (1998b) identified three particular factors for effective formative assessment:

• Teachers make adjustments to teaching and learning in response to assessment information.

• Students receive feedback about their learning, with advice on what they can do to improve.
• Students are involved in the process through peer and self-assessment.

More than twenty years since their review, Black and Wiliam’s ideas remain at the core of formative as-
sessment and have been increasingly embedded worldwide into policy and the language of quality teacher
practices (e.g., Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2013). However, in sub-
sequent theory, research, and practice, these ideas have been elaborated and augmented. For instance, in-
creased attention has been placed on situating formative assessment as embedded in daily classroom prac-
tice, responding to student ideas as they emerge, expanding the role of students in the assessment process
with the associated development of their self-regulated learning processes, emphasizing disciplinary knowl-
edge in all elements of formative assessment, taking into account the assets that students bring with them to
the classroom from their homes and communities, and the role of formative assessment in supporting equity
(Heritage & Harrison, 2019). Across the book’s chapters, we will see how all these ideas play out in practice.

To help clarify the core ideas of formative assessment further, we’ll now consider what formative assessment
is and what it is not.

What Is Formative Assessment?

Formative assessment is the term used to refer to a range of practices that encourage both teachers and stu-
dents to obtain evidence of learning while students are in the process of developing their knowledge, skills,
and understanding with the intention of using the evidence to inform ongoing learning. Note the emphasis on
intention, which signals the deliberate nature of formative assessment. Teachers plan embedded assessment
opportunities into the ongoing learning activities and interactions in the classroom, from which they intention-
ally obtain evidence. They act upon the evidence to move the students’ learning forward to meet the intended
lesson goal. Importantly, students are very much part of the assessment process, as we shall see in exam-
ples throughout the book.

Formative assessment is not an event; it is not a single test given to students to see what they have learned
for the purpose of grading, placement, or classification; it is not a test to ascertain if students “got it or didn’t

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get it” (see Otero, 2006). When teachers and students engage in formative assessment, they are not looking
for the right or wrong answers. Instead, they are looking to make sense of how students are thinking so they
can determine what steps to take to advance learning from its current status. Finding out if students can do a
predetermined thing is the job of summative assessment, which is used for a different purpose. For instance,
teachers may use quarterly, interim assessments to understand if students have reached medium-term goals
on the way to meeting standards, or end-of-the-year assessment to ascertain if students have achieved the
standards. These assessments can be used in a formative way in the sense that educators can take ac-
tion based on the results. For instance, interim assessment information can support decisions about revising
medium-term goals, or making curricular or program changes, and can help teachers see trends in learn-
ing across a class or grade level. Results from annual summative assessment can support decision-making
about resource allocation, program changes, certification, and professional learning needs as well as be used
for accountability purposes. But interim and summative assessment is different from formative assessment
practices, which are intended to provide qualitative insights about student learning—not a score—that teach-
ers and students can act on during the learning.

Perspectives on Formative Assessment From Around the World

New Zealand

Formative assessment is the process used by teachers and students to notice, recognize, and respond
to student learning in order to enhance that learning, during the learning. (Cowie & Bell, 1999, p. 32)

Australia

Assessment for learning [formative assessment] is part of everyday practice by students, teachers,
and peers that seeks, reflects upon, and responds to information from dialogue, demonstration, and
observation in ways that enhance ongoing learning. (Klenowski, 2009, p. 264)

UK

Assessment for learning’s prime concern is with the here and now of learning. It occurs in the flow of
activity and transactions occurring in the classroom. (Swaffield, 2011, p. 441)

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It is not the case that one form of assessment is good and the other bad, but rather that different types of
assessment have different purposes. An effective system of assessment comprises multiple types of assess-
ment that can support the diverse decision-making needs of all stakeholders: teachers, students, administra-
tors, parents, and the public. While teachers will find value in the results of other assessments in the system,
only formative assessment practices can provide the information they need minute by minute, day by day to
secure their students’ progress toward meeting learning goals (Leahy et al., 2005).

Before we go into more detail about formative assessment practices in the next section, a few words about
grading. Assigning grades is not part of formative assessment. Why? The purpose of formative assessment
is to improve learning while that learning is evolving. Grades are summative judgments and provide an eval-
uation of learning. At the very minimum, it is unfair to grade learners while they are in the process of learning.
We’ll discuss grading more fully in Chapter 6, but for now, suffice it to say that grading does not belong in
formative assessment.

For easy reference, Figure 1.1 summarizes what formative assessment is and what it is not.

Figure 1.1 What Formative Assessment Is and Is Not

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A Feedback Loop

Formative assessment acts as a feedback loop (Figure 1.2), providing information to both teachers and stu-
dents about where student learning stands in relation to short-term learning goals, for example, a lesson—one
or more class periods. The feedback loop operates as a continuous process during learning so as to keep all
students’ learning moving forward—and all means each one. In essence, formative assessment is woven into
the fabric of teaching and learning in the classroom.

Figure 1.2 Formative Assessment Feedback Loop

This illustration shows how formative assessment acts as a feedback loop.

Notice that the end point of the feedback loop is “close the gap.” This is because formative assessment is
intended to close the gap between where the students currently are in their learning and where the students
and their teacher want to be at the end of a lesson or a series of lessons. The idea of closing the “gap” comes
from Australian scholar D. Royce Sadler (1989). Sadler stressed feedback as the centerpiece of formative as-
sessment. Following Ramaprasad (1983), he emphasized that information is only considered feedback when
it is “used to alter the gap” (Sadler, 1989, p. 121). This means that the feedback generated from formative
assessment must be used to make changes in the students’ learning and help them close the gap between
their current status and the intended learning goal. It is important to note that Sadler’s conception of clos-
ing the gap does not denote the “achievement gap,” which refers to the gap in achievement between some
subgroups of students and others. Students who are learning something new should have a gap; otherwise

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learning does not have the potential to advance.

The feedback loop is grounded in three questions:

• Where am I going?
• Where am I now?
• Where to next? (Hattie & Timperley, 2007)

These questions are for both teachers and students and are answered by the range of practices in Figure 1.2:
understanding learning goals and success criteria, eliciting and using evidence of learning while learning is
taking place, and peer and self-assessment (e.g., Absolum, 2010; Black et al., 2003; Shepard, 2019). Each
practice is elaborated in subsequent chapters, but we will briefly review them here to provide a baseline
overview of formative assessment.

Learning Goals and Success Criteria (Where Am I Going?)

Formative assessment begins with clear learning goal(s) for a lesson or a sequence of lessons. As Figure 1.2
shows, the learning goal is derived from college- and career-ready standards (CCRS) and should represent a
lesson’s worth of substantive learning on the way to meeting the standard(s) so that it is situated in a broader
progression of learning. The goal identifies what the students will learn during the course of the lesson (one
or more class periods) or several lessons. The success criteria illustrate what meeting the learning goal en-
tails and are actively used by teachers and students to determine where students are in relation to the goal
throughout the lesson(s). The goals and success criteria are discussed with the students or are co-created
with them. Success criteria are the guide to learning while the student is engaged in the learning tasks and
activities. Ensuring that students have fully understood what meeting the goal and criteria entails is essential
for their use of feedback, self-assessment, and their capacity to engage in peer assessment.

Eliciting Evidence (Where Am I Now?)

While teaching and learning are underway during a lesson, teachers and students are intentionally seeking
evidence of how learning is developing through teacher assessment, students’ self-assessment, and peer as-
sessment. The opportunity for students to express their understanding “should be designed into any piece of

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teaching” (Black & Wiliam, 1998b, p. 11). When this is the case, teachers are able to obtain evidence rela-
tive to the learning goal and success criteria through observing, listening, questioning, and analyzing student
work. They do not need to design tests or quizzes to be given at the end of the lesson because the means
to obtain evidence is already threaded through the lesson in the tasks and interactions. During the process of
self-assessment, students generate internal evidence about how they think their learning is progressing. Peer
assessment, through which students provide feedback to each other about their learning, is another source
of evidence for both the teacher and the student.

Interpreting Evidence (Where Am I Now?)

Evidence does not become actionable until it is interpreted in relation to the goals and the criteria and answers
the questions “what is this evidence telling me about the status of learning?” and “what is the gap between this
student’s current learning status and the intended learning goal?” It may be that the teacher’s interpretation of
the evidence reveals that some students are harboring misconceptions, or it might show that some students’
grasp of a complex idea is just at the early stages of development, while others are closer to achieving a fully
formed understanding. In terms of student’s own assessment, self-assessment can assist them in monitoring
progress toward the goal. Peer assessment can add to students’ understanding of where their learning stands
and what they need to do to improve.

Taking Action (Where to Next?)

The assessment is formative only if action intended to advance learning is taken based on the interpreted
evidence. The action can include teacher modeling, providing explanations, prompting and questioning, and
offering feedback. We should note the significance of the word “intended.” While teachers’ action may be
intended to help students progress, the action may not always be successful in this regard. However, an un-
successful action will be revealed the next time the teacher elicits and interprets evidence, and actions can
be rectified at that time. Importantly, teachers are not the only ones to take action. Students also take action
based on the internal feedback they generate through self-assessment. This might include, for example, do-
ing more research, chunking a task into smaller units, drawing a diagram, using a graphic organizer to help
them understand a concept, and asking for feedback from a teacher or peer.
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Working in the Zone of Proximal Development

Originating with Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is defined as
the distance between what the child can accomplish during independent problem solving and the level of
problem solving that can be achieved with the assistance of adult or in collaboration with a more expert peer
(Vygotsky, 1978). As the term implies, Vygotsky conceived the ZPD in the context of the broad maturation of
the child’s developmental structures (Chaiklin, 2005) to describe the current level of development and the po-
tential next attainable step. The term proximal suggests that the assistance provided goes just beyond learn-
ers’ current competence, complementing, and building with their existing abilities (Cole et al., 2005).

Interestingly, Vygotsky introduced the concept of the ZPD to criticize the dominance of psychometric-based
assessments in Russian schools at the time. He was concerned that this type of assessment reflected only
the current level of learners’ achievement, the zone of actual development (ZAD), as is the case with many
psychometric-based assessments used in American schools today, for instance, the end-of-year state as-
sessments. From a teaching and learning point of view, the ZAD does not sufficiently describe the potential
of development in the future, as Vygotsky put it “the tomorrow of development” (Shabani et al., 2010). In this
vein, one of Vygotsky’s colleagues, A. N. Leont’ev, noted that “American researchers are constantly seeking
to discover how the learner came to be what he is; we in the USSR are striving to discover not how the learner
came to be what he is, but how he can become what he not yet is” (Bronnfenbrenner, 1977, p. 528, cited in
Shabani et al., 2010).

The idea of working in the ZPD within a classroom setting is that teachers and students mediate between
these current and potential levels of learning through the action they take based on the evidence interpreted.
When the action taken is successful, a next attainable step is reached and becomes part of the student’s in-
dependent achievement, such that no further external assistance is needed.

One final point about the ZPD is in order here. The ZPD of students will differ, which means a diet of one-size-
fits-all lockstep instruction will not work to advance each student’s learning. While it is unreasonable, nor is
it desirable to expect continuous one-on-one instruction, teachers have to calibrate their instruction to where
individual learners are. In the following example of formative assessment, we will see how a mathematics
teacher managed this through the selection of tasks with multiple entry points and pathways so the students
could move ahead at their own pace, through grouping students (they worked in pairs), and through the differ-

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ential interventions she made as she obtained evidence by observing and listening to them during the course
of the lesson.

Closing the Gap

Recall that the purpose of formative assessment is to close the gap between the status of student learning at
the beginning of a lesson and the desired end goal. Placing appropriate demands on learners within the ZPD,
based on the evidence obtained, assists them to close the gap. As one gap closes, new learning goals are
identified and another gap is created, renewing the formative assessment feedback loop.

An Example of Formative Assessment Practices

The standard this eighth-grade mathematics teacher1 was focusing on in a series of lessons was:

CCSS Math Content 8.F.B.4: Use functions to model relationships between quantities.

• Construct a function to model a linear relationship between two quantities

• Determine the rate of change and initial value of the function from a description of a rela-
tionship or from two (x, y) values, including reading these from a table or from a graph
• Interpret the rate of change and initial value of a linear function in terms of the situation it
models, and in terms of its graph or a table of values

In the teacher’s words:

“[At] the heart of the lesson, 8th graders are expected to be able to not only understand what functions
are, but be able to represent them in a variety of ways. When they get to the point where they’re mak-
ing a conjecture, they’re really engaging in deep math reasoning.”

The math practices addressed in the lesson were:

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• Reason abstractly and quantitatively

• Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others
• Look for and make use of structure

In the prior lesson, the students had been examining sets of figures that differed in their rate of change to
determine the function of each set and come up with conjectures for them. The teacher’s goal for this les-
son—two class periods—was for the students “to move beyond the set of problems that’s provided to start to
notice important mathematics structures and to really make a conjecture.”

What to Notice

The teacher begins the lesson by connecting new learning with prior learning.

The teacher began the lesson by asking pairs of students to explain their thinking about conjectures from the
previous lesson, which they had represented on large sheets of paper. The students discussed the represen-
tations as a whole class, supported by prompts from the teacher, such as “what up there [the representations]
convinces you?” After this lesson opening, the teacher explained to the students that their learning goal for
the lesson was to analyze a set of figures and make a conjecture; they were to think of a mathematics state-
ment that went beyond the specific set she provided them for analysis, and that would always hold true. She
explained to the students that they were using the visual patterns to build their understanding of important
mathematics structures so they could use functional relationships to solve real-world problems.

What to Notice

The learning goal is derived from the standards and the criteria provide indicators of what a successful
performance is.

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She then reminded them of their discussion in the previous lesson when they co-constructed criteria for mak-
ing a conjecture, which she had posted on a large sheet of paper:

• Use a range of examples.

• Use color coding (making connections between representations).
• Use precise math vocabulary.
• Justify why it [your conjecture] works.

Next, the teacher gave each student the growing dots problem—one function illustrated through a sequence

of three figures2 (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Growing Dots Problem

The growing dots problem is illustrated at three stages - the beginning, at one minute, and at two minutes.

She selected this particular set of figures because it represented a pattern she wanted the students to rec-
ognize, and because there were multiple ways that students could approach the problem of identifying how

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many dots the figure would have at 100 minutes and at time t. First, the teacher gave the students some in-
dividual time to look at the set of figures and then asked the class what they noticed. One student noticed,
for instance, that they each started at different times, and another that zero minutes had no arms, whereas
the dots per arm increased across the other two figures. The teacher discussed each student’s observation
with the class and reminded them of the lesson goal: to analyze the diagrams and make a conjecture. Then,
working in pairs, the students began their task.

What to Notice

The teacher is obtaining evidence of learning through observation, questioning, and listening while
students are engaging in the task.

As they were working, the teacher interacted with each pair, observing their work and asking them to explain
their thinking, for example, “Tell me more,” “Tell me what you are thinking,” and “What were you noticing?”
She also asked them specific questions related to the stage of their work, for instance “so you said each one
has the same rate of change, and what is that rate of change?” In addition, she listened in to the discussions
among pairs while they were working together. Based on what the students revealed through their represen-
tations and discussions, she was able to nudge their thinking further, and because students were at different
points in thinking her teaching responses to them varied. For example, she heard from their discussion that
two students were struggling with the last pattern of dots; her teaching point was focused on helping them un-
derstand that because there was no beginning provided, they were going to get into some negative numbers.
Another pair had advanced beyond the others and had graphed two of the functions on the same plane. She
had heard them talking about parallel lines and “jumped in to the conversation,” nudging them to think about
where the third parallel line might fall and why.

What to Notice

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The teacher was taking action based on the evidence she interpreted in the moment and provided as-
sistance in the students’ ZPD.

At the end of the pairs’ work time, the teacher let the class know that while they had all moved forward, they
were not yet at the point where they could make a solid conjecture that they could all reason about. She told
them that they would continue this work in the next day’s class period. She gave the students an exit slip with
the prompt “What are you noticing so far about this set of geometric patterns and functions?” The students’
responses would provide her with another source of evidence about their learning. After they had responded
to the prompt, to conclude the lesson, the teacher asked the students to think about the two or three math-
ematics practices from the CCRS that were helpful to them while they were doing their work, and to discuss
them with their peer. After the pairs’ discussion, she invited one pair (the pair that had been struggling) to
share their ideas with the class. One of the students volunteered that his group had identified “look for and
make use of structure” as a helpful math practice. The teacher asked him to relay to the class what she had
heard them discussing about why this practice was helpful to them. She ended the lesson by reminding the
students about the importance of the mathematics practices as tools for them in problem solving.

What to Notice

The teacher provided opportunities for self-assessment through the exit slip and their reflection on the
mathematics practices that were most helpful to them.

In this example, we have seen a teacher implementing formative assessment practices to move her students
along a progression of learning related to making conjectures about functions. Recall that prior to this lesson,
the students had examined a set of growing patterns that differed in their rate of change to determine the
function of each pattern and make a conjecture about the set. In this lesson, students were examining what
happens when the pattern stays the same but the starting point shifts or changes. In subsequent lessons,
the teacher intended that the students would examine patterns that do not have a constant rate of change,
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extending to nonlinear functions. The teacher had carefully selected the tasks so that students could pro-
gressively develop their knowledge and understanding across a series of lessons. Additionally, these tasks,
combined with the student discussions and her interactions with them, provided the teacher with evidence of
her students’ thinking. In this vein, Richard Shavelson and colleagues observed, “A good assessment makes
a good teaching activity, and a good teaching activity makes a good assessment” (Shavelson et al., 1992,
p. 22). By seeking and interpreting evidence of learning during the lesson, she was able to take action in re-
sponse to where the students were in their learning and move each one of them forward.

This teacher’s approach to teaching and learning provided fertile ground for formative assessment to be em-
bedded in the tasks and interactions of the lesson. Let us consider why this was the case.

Fertile Ground for Formative Assessment

Alignment With College- and Career-Ready Standards

We noted in the Introduction that the implementation of CCRS has led to changes in classroom practice all
over the United States, many of which are illustrated in the example above. Contrast what occurred in the
lesson example with a traditional mathematics lesson paradigm that typically features review, demonstration,
and practice (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2014). It might be said that this paradigm
is not just confined to mathematics but could just as easily be observed in other disciplines. Such a lesson
paradigm leaves little room for formative assessment because the focus is on correctness and accuracy. If
the students’ work during the practice time is accurate and correct, the teacher knows they have “got it” and
can move on. If it’s not, then some form of remediation is needed so that next time they practice the students
will hopefully be successful, and on and on. Missing from the traditional lesson paradigm, which were evident
in the example, are opportunities for students engage in deep conceptual learning by using and connecting
mathematical representations, engaging in mathematical discourse, and describing and justifying their math-
ematical understanding (NCTM, 2014). All of these learning opportunities are aligned with CCRS, and in turn,
provide occasions for formative assessment.

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It is instructive to reflect on the changes in teaching approach this teacher made with respect to the CCRS. In
a post-lesson interview she said:

Like generalizing, conjecturing relies on the ability to extend the reasoning beyond the domain that
started the conversation to begin with. This represents a tremendous shift in my teaching. We used
to just represent functions in four ways and solve problems. And while we still do this, we do it for a
reason—we are constantly looking to conjecture and generalize. This leads naturally to investigating
why and will end with either justification or something that has been refuted … and we start again.
(Teaching Channel, n.d)

Recalling Black and Wiliam’s observation from earlier in the chapter, the changes the teacher had made in
her practices enabled her to design opportunities for students to express their thinking into her teaching, and
consequently, make an assessment at the point of learning possible. The teacher did not have to design extra
assessment events because they were already embedded in the lesson through the students’ investigations,
interactions, and justifications. What she did have to do, though, was to make sure that she intentionally used
these opportunities throughout the lesson, enabling her to obtain the evidence needed to continuously ad-
vance each student’s learning.

Enacting Principles Supported by Cognitive Research

When considering how the teacher’s approach was fertile ground for formative assessment, it is important to
bear in mind Paul Black and colleagues’ account of one reason for the effectiveness of formative assessment:
The principles of learning implemented in formative assessment are firmly supported by cognitive research.
These are:

• Start from a learner’s existing understanding.

• Involve the learner actively in the learning process.
• Develop the learner’s overview, that is, metacognition: this requires that students have a view of pur-
pose, an understanding of criteria of quality of achievement, and a self-assessment.
• Emphasize the social aspects of learning (i.e., learning through discussion). (Black et al., 2011)

We saw these principles enacted in the lesson example. The teacher started the lesson by building on the

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students’ existing understanding from the prior lesson. The students were actively involved in the learning
process and the social aspects of learning; they participated in joint work to complete a task, which involved
them in discussions with peers and interaction with the teacher. They were clear about the purpose of the
lesson—to notice important mathematics structures and to make a conjecture—and they had clear criteria for
achievement. They engaged in self-assessment, responding to the prompt “what are you noticing so far about
this set of geometric patterns and functions,” and reflected on the mathematics practices that they had found
useful in completing their task.

The combination of teaching practices aligned to the CCSS and the implementation of principles supported
by cognitive research permitted the teacher to successfully embed formative assessment into her ongoing
classroom work and to involve the students in the process.

In the final section of this chapter, we consider the contribution that formative assessment can make to edu-
cational equity.

Equity and Formative Assessment

In 2017, a joint publication from the Aspen Education and Society Program and the Council of Chief State
School Officers (CCSSO)—the membership organization for state education chiefs—began with this state-
ment:

Every student deserves an education that prepares him or her for lifelong learning, success in the
world of work, and participation in representative government. Unfortunately, far too many students
are not receiving the high-quality educational experiences needed to help them reach these goals.
(p. 1)

This is a bold statement and one that inherently calls for equity across schools and classrooms. It is echoed
in this perspective on equity from Linda Darling-Hammond: Equity is “addressing the needs of all students
(academic, psychological, emotional, social); recognizing differences; compensating for disadvantages; and
responding to the needs of all students” (Darling-Hammond, 2016, p. 2).

A further perspective on equity comes from the OECD, which contends that educational equity has two di-

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mensions: fairness and inclusion (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2012). Fair-
ness means ensuring that personal and social circumstances—for instance, gender, socio-economic status,
language status—are not obstacles to educational achievement. Inclusion requires setting a basic minimum
standard for education that is shared by all students, regardless of background, or personal characteristics.
In the United States, the CCRS represent that basic minimum standards for all students.

We can understand from these perspectives that educational equity means that students have access to and
engagement with high-quality learning experiences, individual student’s needs are met, regardless of student
background, and each student has the opportunity to achieve the CCRS. So how can formative assessment
contribute to educational equity goals?

To address the needs of all students to achieve educational equity, classrooms must be places where oppor-
tunities to learn, progress, and succeed are offered to all learners equally. The idea of equity is often conflated
with equality of inputs (NCTM, 2014). However, offering equal opportunities to learn does not mean that all
students receive the same thing. A one-size-fits-all approach to learning does not accommodate the diversity
of learners found in classrooms in the United States. If equity among students is to be achieved, classrooms
need to be places which are not characterized by standardized learning, but rather are places where students
have the chance to move from where they are currently in learning to where they can go next on a trajecto-
ry to meeting the standards (Heritage & Wylie, 2018). This is where formative assessment comes in. When
teachers have information about students’ current learning status, they are well positioned to advance learn-
ing for every student. And if every student has the opportunity to move forward from where they are, then the
chances of securing progress and maintaining a forward momentum in learning for each one are increased.

Chapter 2 expands on the ideas presented in this chapter and considers how the three mediating fac-
tors—self-regulation, motivation, and self-efficacy—significantly impact student learning and achievement
and are supported by the feedback loop.

Summing Up

• Formative assessment is a powerful lever for improving learning.

• Formative assessment refers to a range of ongoing practices that encourage both teachers and stu-
dents to obtain and use evidence of student learning to close the gap between current learning and
desired goals.

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• Formative assessment opportunities are embedded in the tasks and interactions of the classroom.
• The principles of learning implemented in formative assessment are supported by cognitive research.
• Formative assessment supports educational equity goals.

Reflection Questions

1. Which formative assessment practices are you familiar with? How often do you incorporate them in-
to your classroom practice?
2. Has reading this chapter changed any of your ideas about formative assessment?
3. Which areas that you have read about in this chapter would you like to develop further in your work?
How might you do that?

Notes

1 https://www.teachingchannel.org/video/conjecturelesson-plan

2 https://www.mathematicsvisionproject.org/uploads/1/1/6/3/11636986/m1_mod1_te_52016f.pdf

• assessment
• students
• teaching

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071813706

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