Physical quantities and units 1

1. Physical quantities
1. Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured, like mass, length, time, weight,
electric current, force.
2. Every physical quantity is stated as numerical value multiplied by a unit, e.g. mass = 6 kg,
diameter of a ball = 6 cm, resistance of a wire = 10.5 Ω.

Estimation
1. You should be able to estimate the size or order of magnitude of a quantity. The order of
magnitude is the power of ten to which the number is raised.
2. This is useful when carrying out an experiment or a calculation, to check that an error has not
been made. You should have an awareness of some of the following quantities:

height of bench
length of room
width of pencil lead
thickness of aluminium foil 10-5 m
diameter of a hair 10-4 m
diameter of a carbon atom 1.3 x 10-10 m
diameter of a nucleus 10-14 m
wavelength of blue light 10-7 m

volume of room
volume of a small bean 0.5 m3
volume of water in a cup 300 cm3
volume of water in an Olympic
sized swimming pool
volume of water in a bath
volume of a human head 4 x 10-3 m3

mass of person 70 kg
mass of a nail
mass of a cruise liner
weight of an apple 1N

time between heartbeats

period of a pendulum
frequency of light 1015 Hz

density of water 1000 kg m-3

electric current in a cooker

element
energy converted by a 1kW 3.6 x 106 J
heater in 1 hour

force on a tennis ball when

served
acceleration of a jet plane
when taking off
walking speed 1 m s-1
speed of a car on a motorway 30 m s-1
kinetic energy of a cricket ball 10 J
 Physical quantities and units 2
2. SI Units
1. To compare the numerical values of physical quantities, a standard size of that quantity is
required. The standard size is known as the unit for a particular quantity.
2. The International System (S.I) of Units is used as the standard reference for the measurement
of quantities.
3. Physical quantities are classsified into two types:
 Base quantities
 Derived quantities

A base quantity (or unit) is a primary or fundamental quantity (or unit) not dependent of other
quantities (or units). All other quantities and units are derived from them.

Derived quantities (and units) are obtained from the base quantities (and units) by multiplication
and division using a defining equation.

SI Base Quantities and Units

Base quantity Base unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol

mass m kilogram kg
length l metre m
time t second s
temperature T,θ kelvin K
electric current i ampere A
amount of
substance n mole mol
luminous
intensity candela cd

Derived Quantities and Units

Derived Derived Definition Equivalent base

quantity Unit Unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol

area A m2
𝑚
density ρ 𝜌= kg m-3
𝑉
velocity v ∆𝑠 m s -1
𝑣 = ∆𝑡
acceleration a ∆𝑣 m s-2
𝑎= 𝑡
force F newton N 𝐹 =𝑚𝑎 kg m s-2
momentum p 𝑝=𝑚𝑣 kg m s -1
work, energy W or E joule J 𝑊=𝐹𝑥𝑑 Nm =
kg m s-2 m
= kg m2 s-2
power P watt W 𝑊 W = J s-1
𝑃= 𝑡
= kg m2 s-2 s-1
= kg m2 s-3
frequency f hertz Hz 1 Hz = s-1
𝑓= 𝑇
 Physical quantities and units 3

pressure P pascal Pa 𝐹 Pa = kg m s-2 m-2

𝑃=𝐴
= kg m-1 s-2
charge Q coulomb C 𝑄=𝑖𝑥𝑡 C=As
potential V volt V 𝑊 V = J C-1
𝑉=𝑄
difference = kg m2 s-2 A-1 s-1
= kg m2 s-3 A-1
resistance R ohm Ω 𝑉 Ω = J C-1 A-1
𝑅= 𝑖
= kg m2 s-2 A-1 s-1 A-1
= kg m2 s-3 A-2
Young modulus E pascal Pa 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Pa = kg m s-2 m-2
𝐸= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= kg m-1 s-2
activity A becquerel Bq Bq = s-1
decay constant λ s-1 s-1

4. Some physical quantities have no units. Examples of these quantities are: relative density,
refractive index and strain. All real numbers and some mathematical constants such as π also
have no units. They are referred to as dimensionless constants.

Homogeneity of equations
1. Quantities cannot be added or subtracted unless they have the same units:
7 m – 5 kg = 2 m is not possible.
An equation is said to be homogeneous when each term in the equation has the same base
units.
2. For an equation to be correct, the base units of all the terms on both sides of the equation
must be the same. For example, one of the equations of motion is:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
Where s is the displacement, u is the initial velocity, t is the time taken and 𝑎 is the uniform
acceleration within the specific interval of time.

Base unit of s or [s] = m

[𝑢𝑡] = ms-1× s = m
1
[2 𝑎𝑡 2 ] = ms-2× s-2 = m
1
Since [𝑠] = [𝑢𝑡] = [ 𝑎𝑡 2 ] = m,
2
1
The equation 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 is homogenous.
3. Suppose that a student had written the following equation:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 2 + 2 𝑎𝑡
In terms of base units,
[𝑠] = m
[𝑢𝑡 2 ] = ms-1 × s2 = ms
1
[2 𝑎𝑡] = ms-2× s = ms-1
The base units for the 3 terms in the equation are not the same or homogeneous. It can be
1
concluded that the equation 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 2 + 2 𝑎𝑡 is wrong. An equation which is not homogeneous must
be wrong.
4. However, if the base units for the various terms in an equation are the same, it does not imply
that the equation is physically correct, as shown in the following cases:
 Physical quantities and units 4
(i) Incorrect coefficient (s)
In the equation
1
𝑠 = 2 𝑢𝑡 + 2𝑎𝑡 2
Each term has the same base units but the equation is wrong because the coefficient of the first
1 1
term on the right hand side is 2 instead of 1 and that of the last term is 2 instead of 2.
(ii) Missing term (s) or extra term (s) or incorrect sign
The relationship between 𝑠, 𝑢, 𝑡 and 𝑎 may just be written as:
1
𝑠 = 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1
Or 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1
Or 𝑠 = −𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
All three equations are homogeneous but physically wrong.
4. To prove that an equation is correct, an experiment needs to be done, and the results
analysed to deduce the appropriate terms and signs in the equation.

Example
Which of the following equations are homogenous with respect to units?
(a) 𝑝 = ℎ 𝜌 𝑔 ,
(b) 𝐸𝑘 = ½ 𝑚 𝑣 2 ,
(c) 𝑣 2 – 𝑢2 = 2 𝑎 𝑠 ,
(d) 𝑃 = 𝑉 2 𝑅

Answer
(a) Units of p = N m-2 = kg m s-2 m-2
= kg m-1 s-2

Units of hρg = m kg m-3 m s-2 = kg m-1 s-2 (homogenous)

(b) Units of Ek = J = kg m2 s-2

Units of ½ m v2 = kg x (m s-1)2 = kg m2 s-2
(½ is a pure number and has no unit.) (homogenous)

(c) Units of v2 and u2 = m2 s-2

Units of 2 a s = m s-2 x m = m2 s-2
(2 is a pure number and has no unit.) (homogenous)

(d) Units of P = W = kg m2 s-3

Units of V2 R = (kg m2 s-3 A-1 )2 kg m2 s-3 A-2 (not homogenous)
 Physical quantities and units 5
Establishing relationships
Suppose that the speed (v) of a transverse wave along a string depends on
 the length of the string (l),
 its mass (m), and
 the tension (T) in the string, i.e.
𝑣 ∝ 𝑙 𝑥 𝑚𝑦 𝑇 𝑧
Where x, y and z are the powers we want to find.

The base units of the quantities are:

𝑚 𝑠 −1 ∝ 𝑚 𝑥 𝑘𝑔 𝑦 (𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠 −2 ) 𝑧

Equating the powers of the indices (for consistency of units),

For m: 1=x+z
For s: -1 = -2z
For kg: 0=y+z

Solving, we get z = ½, y = -½, x = ½

𝑣 ∝ 𝑙 ½ 𝑚−½ 𝑇 ½
𝑙𝑇
And 𝑣 = 𝑘 √𝑚

Prefixes
1. It is better to use standard form (scientific notation) or prefixes to indicate the number of
significant figures in the quantity.
2. Standard form are numbers written in powers of ten, so that there is a number between
1 and 9 before the decimal point, not zero before the decimal point.
3. Prefixes can be used with base units for very large or very small numbers, e.g.
Energy in a chocolate bar = 1 000 000 J = 1 x 106 J = 1 MJ
Wavelength of an X ray = 0.000 000 001 m = 1 x 10-9 m = 1 nm
multiple prefix symbol
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli

10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p

103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T

Significant figures
1. This is the total number of digits, starting from the first non-zero digit, reading from left to right
and including zeros once the counting has started.
0.005 m (1sf) 5 x 10-3 m (1sf) 5 mm (1 s.f)
0.0050 m (2sf) 5.0 x 10-3 m (2sf) 5.0 mm (2 s.f)
 Non-zero digits are considered significant. For example, 91 has two significant figures (9
and 1), while 123.45 has five significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
 Zeros appearing between two non-zero digits are significant. Example: 101.1203 has seven
significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0 and 3.
 Physical quantities and units 6
 Leading zeros are not significant. For example, 0.00052 has two significant figures: 5 and
2.
2. Significant figures in the value of a quantity indicates how precise we think it is. For example
 5 mm tells us that the length is accurate to the nearest mm.
 5.0 mm tells us that the length is accurate to the nearest 0.1 mm,
3. When doing a calculation the answer should contain the same number of s.f. as the
measurements used in the calculation, e.g.
Area of a page = 15.5 cm x 3.5 cm = 54.25 cm2
= 54 cm2 (2 s.f because 3.5 cm is 2 s.f)

3. Graphs
Recording results
1. Column headings and axes on graphs should be labelled as follows:
name, symbol / prefix and unit
e.g. pressure p / kPa
log10 (V / cm3)

The slash represents division. A number in a table or on a graph equals the quantity/unit,
e.g. 110 = pressure p/KPa
pressure p = 110 kPa

4 = log10 (V / cm3)
V / cm3 = 104 = 10 000
V = 10 000 cm3
Note the use of brackets for a log.

2. When using a stopwatch to time oscillations readings to 0.01 s are acceptable although one
cannot measure to this degree of accuracy. The table can be laid as follows:

length l/m time for 20 oscillations/s period

t1 t2 t3 tavg T/s
0.250 8.32 8.44 8.06 8.27 0.413

0.350 10.49 10.36 10.50 10.45 0.523

0.750 33.02 33.10 33.08 33.06 1.65

Note:
(i) The length is recorded to the nearest mm, e.g. 25.0 cm or 0.250 m, i.e. 3 s.f

(ii) Values of T are all to 3 s.f although some values are to 2 d.p. and some are to 3 d.p.

(iii) Any “calculated data” must be given to the same number of s.f. as the measured quantity of
least accuracy.
For example, l2 for l = 25.0 cm = 625 cm2 or 0.0625 m2, (3 s.f since l is to 3 s.f).
Values for T2 should be given to 3 s.f, e.g. for T = 0.523 s, T2 = 0.274 s2.
 Physical quantities and units 7
Usefulness of graphs
(i) They give an immediate visual picture of how one variable quantity varies with another, e.g. to
find resistance R = V/i, a single set of readings does not indicate that 𝑖 ∝ 𝑉

i/A i/A i/A

0 v/V 0 v/V 0 v/V

(ii) They show up random errors and reduce them by drawing the line of best fit.
(iii) Systematic errors are shown, e.g. a zero error on an ammeter.
(iv) An anomalous or doubtful point is shown up which is difficult to detect in a table of results.
(v) The limitation of a relationship is shown up, e.g. when the elastic limit is reached in a Hooke’s
law graph.
(vi) The constants of the equation which relates two quantities can be found from the gradient or
intercept.
(vii) For the calibrating an instrument, e.g. the deflection of a galvanometer against temperature.

What to plot
1. The independent variable (the cause) is plotted on the horizontal axis (x axis). It is the
variable which is not affected by the change of another variable. The dependent variable (the
effect) is plotted on the vertical axis (y axis). This variable changes when the other variable is
changed by the experimenter.
2. The equation of the straight line is
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Where x = the independent variable,
y = the dependent variable,
c = is the intercept on the y axis and
m = gradient.

3. It is useful to plot the results of an experiment in the form of a straight line because:
(i) The slope and intercept can be found. These can give the value of constants.
(ii) The relationship between two variables may be found.

4. The variables are identified first. The equation is then rearranged so that it is of the form:
𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐,
m and c are the constants to be found from the gradient and intercept.

Example
The equation that relates one quantity p to another quantity q is given by:
p+b
2 = k
q
What graph is plotted to find the constants k and b?

Answer
The variables are p and q.
𝑝 + 𝑏 = 𝑘 𝑞2
𝑝 = 𝑘 𝑞2 − 𝑏
The equation is now in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.
q2 is plotted on the x axis and p on the y axis.
 Physical quantities and units 8
The gradient = k and the intercept on the y axis = b

4. Scalar and vector quantities

1. Examples of scalar and vector quantities include:
Scalars Vectors
distance displacement
speed velocity
mass weight
pressure force
energy momentum
2. A scalar quantity has only magnitude (size). It is described by a number and a unit, e.g. 2 m,
5 kg.
3. A vector quantity has magnitude and direction. A vector is represented by a line with an
arrow on it.
 The length of the line represents the size of the quantity.
 The arrow represents the direction of the quantity.

1. Adding and subtracting vectors

1. Scalars are added using simple arithmetic, e.g. 5 kg + 2 kg = 7 kg.
2. When vectors are added their direction as well as size has to be considered. For example
when vectors of 5 N and 3 N are added, the resultant can be between 8 N and 2 N.
3. The resultant is the combined effect of two or more vectors, or the single vector that has the
same effect as all the vectors present, or the vector sum of all the vectors.
4. The resultant can be found by:
 scale drawing, or
 by calculation

+ =
3N 5N 8N

+ =
3N 5N 2N

3N
5N
Resultant is 5.8 N at 31° to the 5 N force

If the two vectors are at 90o use Pythagoras’ Theorem:

R2 = 52 + 32
R = …………..
3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 5
θ = ………
5. If the two vectors that are not at right angles, we can use the parallelogram law or the triangle
of vectors to find the resultant.
6. The parallelogram rule states that if two forces acting at a point are represented in size and
direction by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in
size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the same point.
 Physical quantities and units 9
7. The triangle of vectors rule states that if two vectors are represented in size and direction by
the consecutive sides (head to tail) of a triangle drawn to scale, then the third side represents
the resultant vector in size and direction.

3 N (c)

60 °

R (a)

5 N (b)

A
C = 21.8°

8. We can see that they make a vector triangle by moving the 5 N force.

3N

5N

3N

5N

The forces are added in turn- the tail of one vector is drawn starting from the head of the previous
vector. The resultant is the line drawn from the start of the first arrow to the finish of the second
arrow.
 Physical quantities and units 10
By scale drawing: The resultant is 7N at 22° to the 5N force.
By calculation, using the cosine and sine rule:

𝑅 2 = 52 + 32 − 2𝑥5𝑥3 cos 120

R= 7N
𝑐 𝑎
= sin 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
3 7
=
sin 𝐶 sin 120

2. Polygon of Forces
If more than three forces are acting at the same point, a polygon of forces can be drawn, with the
tail of one vector is drawn, starting from the head of the previous vector. A closed polygon is
formed if the forces are in equilibrium.

F1 F4
F2 F2

F3 F5
F4
F1

F5
F3

3. Vector subtraction
1. Vector subtraction is the same as the addition of a vector of the same size acting in the
opposite direction.
2. To subtract the 5 N force from the 3 N force, the direction of the 5 N force is reversed, then the
forces are added by the parallelogram rule.

-5 N

3N

5N
 Physical quantities and units 11
By scale drawing:
The resultant R is 4.4 N at 37° to the 5 N force

Example
A car changes its velocity from 12 m s-1 east to 12 m s-1 south, while rounding a corner.
Find the change in velocity.

-12 m s-1 +12 m s-1 east

12 m s-1 south

The initial velocity is subtracted from the final velocity. The direction of the initial velocity is
reversed and the resultant change in velocity is found using the parallelogram rule.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 – 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 16.9 m s-1 west of south (using Pythagoras’ theorem)
Answer The change in velocity is 17 m s-1 west of south

Example
A ball hits a wall with a horizontal velocity of 5 m s-1 and rebounds horizontally with a velocity of
4 m s-1. What is the ball’s change in velocity?

Taking the motion of the ball towards the wall as positive, then
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 – 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= -4 m s-1 – (+ 5 m s-1)
= - 9 m s-1
Answer The change in velocity is 9 m s-1 in a direction away from the wall.

4. Resolving vectors
1. This is the process of splitting a vector into two components or two parts at right angles to
each other. The resolved components are called the vertical and the horizontal components.
2. The components of a vector are two vectors perpendicular to each other which produce the
same effect as the original vector.

F sin θ
(Vertical component)
F

F cos θ
(Horizontal component)

𝑎𝑑𝑗
cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝
𝑜𝑝𝑝
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝
 Physical quantities and units 12
Example
A javelin is thrown at 20 m s-1 at an angle of 40° to the horizontal.
(a) What is the vertical component of this velocity?
(b) What is the horizontal component of this velocity? (APFY)

VV 20 m s-1

40°

VH

Horizontal component VH = 20 cos 40° = 15 m s-1 (2 s.f)

Vertical component VV = 20 sin 40° = 13 m s-1 (2 s.f)

Example
Four forces act on an object at O, as shown. Find the resultant force on the object:
(a) By scale drawing
(b) By resolving the forces horizontally and vertically.
(Answer, 41 N at 60° to the horizontal).

60 N 40 N

70°

30° 80 N

50 N

Example
A box of weight 15 N remains at rest on a surface inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
Calculate the friction F and the normal reaction force R.

R
F

30°

30°

15 N
 Physical quantities and units 13
The weight 15 N is resolved into components parallel to and perpendicular to the slope.
F = 15 sin 30 = 7.5 N
R = 15 cos 30 = 13 N
The resultant of R and F upwards equals the weight.

Example
An object O of weight 20 N is suspended from the middle of a string as shown.
Find the tension T in the string.

25° 25°
T T

20 N

The object is in equilibrium, so the total upward components must equal to the downward force on
the object.
T cos 65 + T cos 65 = 20 N
T = 24 N

Example
A 20 N weight is hanging by a string from the roof. A horizontal force H is applied to hold the
string in the position shown. By scale drawing or otherwise, find H and T.

30°
T

O H

20 N

The point O is in equilibrium.

By calculation
Resolving horizontally: H = T sin 30°
Resolving vertically: 20 N = T cos 30°

𝐻 𝑇 sin 30
= = tan 30
20 𝑇 cos 30

H = tan 30 x 20= 11.55N = 12 N (2 s.f)

12 = T sin 30
T = 24 N
By scale drawing:
A triangle of forces can be drawn.