Syntax Module

MODULE
Language Description - Sintax
Distance Education
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso n˚ 135
Copyright
This Module cannot be printed for commercial purposes. In case of photocopying, reference should be
made to Universidade Pedagógica and to the Authors of the module.
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Telefone: 21-320860/2
Telefone: 21 – 306720
Fax: +258 21-322113

Acknowledgements
To COMMONWEALTH of LEARNING (COL) for providing the Template used for the productions
designing the modules
To Instituto Nadional de Educação a Distância (INED) for the support and guidance provided
To Magnificent Rector, Dean of Faculty, Heads of Department for support provided during whole
process.
Technical Assistance
Author: Eugénio Simbine
Instructional Designing: Andrea Serra
Language Review: Trindade Naharra
Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan
Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Contents
About this MODULE 1
How this MODULE is structured ..................................................................................... 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to Language Description - Syntax Module....................................................... 3
Language Description - Syntax Module—is this course for you?.................................... 3
Course outcomes............................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe......................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills........................................................................................................................ 5
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 6
Assignments...................................................................................................................... 6
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 7
Getting around this MODULE 8

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1 9
Sentence Structure: Constituents ...................................................................................... 9
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9
Lesson 1: Structure................................................................................................ 10
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 13
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 13
Summary......................................................................................................................... 13
Lesson 2: Establishing Constituents...................................................................... 14
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 15
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 16
Summary......................................................................................................................... 16
Lesson 3: Phrase - marker representation.............................................................. 17
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 18
Summary......................................................................................................................... 20
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 20
Unit 2 21
Sentence Structure: Functions ........................................................................................ 21
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 21
Lesson 1: Subject and Predicate............................................................................ 22
ii Contents
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 23
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 23
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 25
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 25
Summary......................................................................................................................... 26
Lesson 2: Dependency and Function.................................................................... 26
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 28
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 29
Summary......................................................................................................................... 30
Lesson 3: Head and Complement.......................................................................... 31
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 32
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 33
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 34
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 34
Summary......................................................................................................................... 35
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 35
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 36
Unit 3 37
Sentece Structure: Categories ......................................................................................... 37
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 37
Lesson 1: Nouns .................................................................................................... 38
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 40
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 40
Summary......................................................................................................................... 41
Lesson 2: Lexical and Phrasal Categories ............................................................. 42
Noun Phrase .......................................................................................................... 42
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 43
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 43
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 45
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 45
Summary......................................................................................................................... 45
Adjective and Adverbs .......................................................................................... 46
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 49
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 49
Summary......................................................................................................................... 49
Preposition and Prepositional Phrase .................................................................... 50
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 51
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 51
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 54
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 54
Summary......................................................................................................................... 55
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 55
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 56
Unit 4 57
The verb Phrase .............................................................................................................. 57
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 57
Lesson 1: A First look at the Verb Group ............................................................. 58
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 62
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 63
Summary......................................................................................................................... 64
Lesson 2: The complements of the Verb Group.................................................... 65
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 68
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 69
Summary......................................................................................................................... 73
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 73
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 73
Unit 5 75
Adverbials and Other Matters......................................................................................... 75
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 75
Lesson 1: A First look at the Verb Group ............................................................. 76
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 78
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 78
Summary......................................................................................................................... 79
Lesson 2: Levels of Verbs Phrase ......................................................................... 80
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 81
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 83
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 84
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 85
Summary......................................................................................................................... 85
Lesson 3: Phrasal Verbs ........................................................................................ 86
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 88
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 88
Summary......................................................................................................................... 89
Lesson 4: Sentence Adverbials.............................................................................. 90
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 92
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 92
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 94
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 94
About this MODULE
has been produced by Universidade Pedagógica. All MODULEs
produced by Universidade Pedagógica are structured in the same way, as
outlined below.
How this MODULE is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
If the course is suitable for you.
What you will already need to know.
What you can expect from the course.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
Study skills.
Where to get help.
Course assignments and assessments.
Activity icons.
Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
An introduction to the unit content.
Unit outcomes.
1
About this MODULE
New terminology.
Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
A unit summary.
Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this MODULE; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your
feedback might include comments on:
Course content and structure.
Course reading materials and resources.
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

course.
2
Course overview
Welcome to
Welcome to the Language Description - Syntax. We hope that you will
enjoy this module and develop your knowledge and skills on issues
related to Language Description via distance learning. Congratulations on
your choice and decision to commit yourself, over the next few months,
to serious study and putting into practice your newly learning experience,
skills and attitude towards English Language Teaching.
You may have, most likely, enrolled for this module because you are
already in some way involved in providing or facilitating education, and
probably, you want to know more and increase your repertoire or in
simple words you want to improve your performance and practice. We
hope that this module will help you to develop the professionalism that
your work requires you to have and also that Language Description will
increase your appetite for further study in the field of ELT.
—is this course for you?

This course is intended for people who have some experience in teaching
and who are pursuing studies or teaching in the field of ELT. It is also
intended for all others involved in some way in teaching or prospective
teachers or facilitators. For example, you may be tutor at a learning centre
and so on. In this course you will develop practical skills in teaching
English as a Foreign Language. The course is especially designed to meet
the needs of the teachers who:
Teach large classes without resources needed to accomplish their task.

Those teachers placed in the field without any training in the field of
English Language Teaching. Teachers, who want to enhance their
knowledge, improve their skills and be updated on the techniques and
methods and new insights into ELT.
3
Course overview
This course is modular structured and the sequence of each unit can be
used independently. The course is designed to be used actively by you
working in the field.
Course outcomes
This course is outcome based. The term “outcome based” means that
there are clear indications of what you can expect to know and do when
you have successfully completed each unit and each module. One of the
expected outcomes of the course as a whole is that you will have begun to
apply within your work and community the knowledge, skills and attitude
you have developed.
Upon completion of Language Description – Syntax you will be able to:
Identify and analyse sentence constituents
Identify the functions of the constituents and name their

categories
Outcomes
Name the sub-categories of verb groups and identify the
functions of their complements and adverbials
Describe the structure of the verb groups
Timeframe
Each unit will depend on your own speed and how well you are
organised.
You should spend at least 2 hours a day to read each lesson

How long?
You should take at least two hours on self-study.
4
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
5
Course overview
Need help?
In case of difficulties, please contact the following:
In Maputo:
Help
Universidade Pedagógica - Centro de Educação Aberta e à Distância
(CEAD)
Faculty of Languages: English Department
Rua: Comandante Augusto Cardoso no. 135 Maputo
Telephone: 21 420860-2 or 21 306720
Monday to Friday: 8:00 to 12:00
Email: f:linguas@yahoo.com.br
In the provinces:
In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

English Advisor to help you.
For any assistance related to academic issues the Provincial English

Advisor will be able to help you and do not hesitate to contact her or him.
Assignments
Throughout each unit, you will have to carry out a number of activities
that will help you consolidate the matters reviewed.
We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Assignments immediately resorting to the key answers/correction guide.
6
Assessments
In this subject, you will have to write two tests per semester. In order to
complete the module, you will have to write a final exam at the end of the
academic year. Nevertheless, all exercises you will undertake at the end
Assessments
of each lesson and unit will be checked by your tutor for purposes of
formative and continuous assessment.
7
Getting around this MODULE
Getting around this MODULE
Margin icons
While working through this MODULE you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this MODULE.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
8
Unit 1
Sentence Structure: Constituents
Introduction
In this unit you are going to learn the concept of structure in general
which is paramount to the understanding of the structure of a sentence.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
What a structure is;
How to establish constituents of a sentence;
The difference between phrase and constituent.

Outcomes
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Unit 1 Sentence Structure: Constituents
Lesson 1: Structure
By the end of this unit you will:
In this lesson you will learn what a structure is and what it is made up
of.
Lessons Outcomes
It is advisable to spend 90 minutes on this lesson.
How long?
The concept structure can be used to refer to any complex thing such a
bicycle, a commercial company, a molecule etc. When we say that
something is complex we do not mean that such a thing is necessarily
complicated (though it may be). We mean to say that:
a. such thing is divisable into parts called constituents;
b. there are different kinds of parts, i.e. different categories of

constituents;
c. the constituents are organised in a specifiable way;
d. each constituent has a specific function in the structure of the thing.
When anything can be analysed in this way we say that it has a structure.
It is important to note that the constituents of a complex thing are
themselves complex. That means that each part may consist of further
parts.
10
Let us now try to illustrate what we have said above using a bicycle as
our example. The items below are parts of a bicycle. In other words they
are constituents of a bicycle.
c) d)
a) f) b) e)
Fig. 1
Each constituent has a category, i.e a name. Thus we can label them as
follows:
a) spokes b) wheel c) handlebar d) frame e) saddle f) spoke
In order to form a bicycle these constituents must be assembled in a

specifiable way (see Fig. 2) because if they are not, the outcome will not
be a bicycle but an interesting sculpture maybe (see Fig 3).
Fig. 2
11
Fig. 3
Each constituent of a bicycle has a specific function. So, for example, the
function of the handlebar is to steer the bicycle whereas that of the saddle
is for the rider to seat .
We said earlier that each constituent may consist of further constituents.

A wheel for example consists of spokes. Thus we can say that the wheel
is an immediate constituent of the bicycle whereas the spokes are not
because they have a function in respect to the wheel and not to the
bicycle.
The discussion we have just had applies to sentences. Like a bicycle a

sentence is made up of constituents (sing and John, for example) and such
constituents must be arranged in a specifiable way to form a grammatical
sentence, John sings, for example, and not Sings John. We also said that
each constituent has a category ( i.e. a name ) and a function. So for
example the category of John in our sentence is noun and the function is
subject.
12
Activity
1. Which of the following tree-diagrams best represents the structural
relationship between a bicycle and spokes just discussed?
Fig. 1 bicycle
Activity
wheel spoke wheel spoke
Fig.2
bicycle
wheel wheel
spoke spoke spoke spoke spoke spoke
Have you finished? Check the feedback. Have you been successful? Well
done! If not read the notes again and do the exercises without looking at
the key. If you still find it difficult make notes of your difficulties and
seek help first from your peers. If the problem persists get in touch with
your tutor. Good luck!
Feedback
The tree-diagram that best represents the relationship between a bicycle
and spokes is number [2] because it says that spokes are constituents of a
wheel which, in turn, is a constituent of bicycle. It describes such
relationship as being hierarchical.
Summary
In this lesson you learned the concept of structure and how it is formed.
Summary
13
Lesson 2: Establishing Constituents
By the end of the lesson you will learn:
what sentences are made up of and should be able to identify their

constituents. You will also learn how to represent them in a phrase-
marker.
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
We can establish constituents of a sentence in four ways.
1. If a word or sequence of words can be omitted from a sentence

leaving a string that has the structure of a sentence, that is an
indication that such word or sequence of words is a constituent,
therefore a phrase.
If we take our sentence John sings well as an example, we can see

that the word well is omissible. What result from the omission of
well is a string that forms a sentence that is grammatically correct –
John sings. Thus we can say that well is a constituent of our
sentence and it is therefore a phrase.
2. If you can replace a word or sequence of words in a sentence with

a single word without changing its structure, then that word or
sequence of words functions as a constituent of that sentence and
is therefore a phrase.
In the sentence John sings well we can replace the word John with
he without changing its structure. This is an indication that John
functions as constituents in the sentence and is therefore a
phrase.
14
3. Answers to ‘WH’ questions (i.e. questions that contain one of
the question words who, which, what, why, where, when, whose,
and how) are constituents therefore phrases.
We can form at least two ‘WH’ questions from the sentence

John sings well.
Who sings well? John
How does John sing? Well
John and well are constituents of the sentence and therefore

phrases because they answer ‘WH’ questions.
4. The movement of a word or sequence of words in forming a

sentence indicates that such word or sequence of words is a
constituent therefore a phrase.
Let us consider the sentence John sings well, honestly. The word
honestly can be fronted (i.e. moved to the beginning of the
sentence) in which case we get Honestly, John sings well. Thus
we can say that honestly is a constituent in the sentence and is
therefore a phrase.
Activity
1. Decide if the underlined strings are constituents in the sentences
below or not. Substantiate your answers.
a. Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.

Activity
b. Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
c. Maria retreated from the house she had just demolished.
d. Maria retreated from the house she had just demolished.
e. From the mountain the village could be seen.
f. From the mountain the village could be seen.
15
Feedback
In sentence (a) old Sam is a constituent because it can be replaced by the
single word he without changing its structure. Apart from that it can be
the answer to the question (Who sunbathed beside the stream?). In
sentence (b) beside a stream is also a constituent because it is
omissible. In other words, if we omit it, the string that is left (old Sam
sunbathed) is a grammatical sentence. Besides that, beside a stream can
be moved to the beginning of the sentence. E.g. Beside a stream, old
Sam sunbathed. In addition to that it can be the answer to the question
(Where did old Sam sunbathe?) The house she had just demolished in
sentence (c) is also a constituent because this string can be replaced by
the single word there. It can also be the answer to the question (Where
did Maria retreat from?). In sentence (d) the underlined string is not a
constituent because, for example, if we replace it with a single word we
get an ungrammatical sentence. E.g. Maria retreated there .Besides that,
if we omit it, for example, the outcome is an ungrammatical sentence
(Mary retreated). We need a constituent in order to have a meaningful
sentence. In sentence (e) From the mountain the village is not a
constituent because it not omissible and cannot be the answer to a WH-
question neither, for the reasons pointed out earlier. In sentence (f)
From the mountain is a constituent because it is omissible (The village
could be seen) and it can be moved to the end of the sentence (The
village could be seen from the mountain.
Summary
In this lesson you learned what sentences are made up of. You also learned how to
identify the constituents of a sentence using appropriate tests.

Summary
16
Lesson 3: Phrase - marker representation
By the end of this lesson, you will:
At the end of the lesson you should have learned how to represent a
constituent of a sentence in a phrase-marker.
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
Constituents of a sentence can be represented in a tree-diagram also

called phrase-marker. Before we can represent them in a phrase-
marker first we need to know whether the words of a constituent are
its immediate constituent or not.
Remember we said earlier that beside a stream in the sentence Old

Sam sunbathed beside a stream is a constituent because it answers
the question Where did Old Sam sunbath? Within this constituent
(beside a stream), there is another constituent which is a stream. It is
a constituent because it answers the question (Old Sam sunbathed
beside what?). Given this we can say that beside a stream is a
macro-constituent and within it we have a micro-constituent which is
the stream. In other words we have a macro-phrase and within it we
have a micro-phrase. Here is the phrase-markers representation of
beside a stream.
Phrase(a)
beside Phrase(b)
a stream
17
As you can see phrase (a) dominates (i.e. controls), through a line,
beside and phrase (b) a stream. We can picture our phrase-marker as
follows: phrase (a) is the mother that dominates her two daughters –
beside and phrase (b) a stream. Phrase (b) is also a mother and
dominates her two daughters which are a and stream.
1. Draw a phrase-marker for the underlined phrases showing that they

contain further phrases.
a) We listened to their rather dubious jokes.

Activity
b) She greeted men from the Ministry.
c) They want very beautiful women.
Have you finished? Check the feedback at the end of the lesson. Have
you been successful? Well done! If not read the notes again and do the
exercises without looking at the key. If you still find it difficult make
notes of your difficulties and seek help first from your peers. If the
problem persists get in touch with your tutor. Good luck!
Feedback
a) Phrase-marker
Phrase
their Phrase
phrase fokes
rather dubious
18
The macro phrase their rather dubious jokes contains in it the micro
phrase rather dubious. This is a phrase because it is omissable.
b) Phrase-marker
Phrase
men Phrase
from phrase
the Ministry
The macro phrase men from the Ministry contains in it two micro phrase:
the first is the Ministry because it can answer the question men from
where? The second is from the ministry because it can be omitted
without affecting the correctness of the sentence from a grammatical
ponit of view. In other words, when we omit it the remainder forms a
grammtical sentence.
c) Phrase-marker
Phrase
Phrase women
very beautiful
The macro phrase very beautiful women contains in it the micro phrase
very beautiful. This is a phrase because it is omissable.
19
Summary
In this lesson you learned how to represent constituents of sentences in
phrase-markers.
Summary
Unit summary
In this unit you learned what a structure is and how it is formed. You also
learned how to establish constituents of a sentence as well as represent
them in a phrase-marker.
Summary
20
Unit 2
Sentence Structure: Functions
Introduction
As it was pointed out in Unit 1, understanding the structure of a sentence
involves more than knowing what its constituents are. It also involves
knowing the category and the function of those constituents. This unit is
mainly about syntactic functions of the constituents and their categories.
Subject
Predicate
Head
Outcomes
Modifier
Complement
21
Unit 2 Sentence Structure: Functions
Lesson 1: Subject and Predicate
By the end of this lesson you will:
In this lesson you will learn how to identify the immediate

constituents of a sentence, subject and predicate, using an appropriate
test. You will also learn how to represent a sentence in a phrase-
Lessons Outcomes marker.
How long?
A sentence consists of two immediate constituents: subject and predicate.

In other words a string without a subject is not a sentence. The same goes
for predicate. Take, for example, the simplest possible sentence:
(1) John cries.
Without either of the constituents we cannot have a sentence. Now what

are the functions of the constituents of our sentence? As it was said in
unit 1 (lesson 1), John functions as subject and cries functions as
predicate.
Sentences can be a good deal more complicated than sentence (1). If you
are presented with a more complicated sentence when you are in doubt as
to which constituent is the subject or predicate a question test for
subject can be applied. According to this test you have to turn the
sentence into a yes/no question. The phrase functioning as subject is the
one that requires changing position. The other constituent is the predicate.
Let us take the sentence below as our example:
(2) The ducks are paddling away.
22
If we turn the sentence into a yes/no question we get:
Are the ducks paddling away?
As it can be seen the constituent that changes position is the ducks. Thus
the ducks function as subject and are paddling away as predicate.
Activity
Using the question test for subject, identify the subjects of the sentences
below.
1. Some nasty accident could have occurred.

Activity
2. The clown in the make-up room doesn’t want to perform.
3. None of her attempts to give up chocolate were really serious.
4. As a matter of fact, the man you paid to do it has been arrested.
Feedback
1. Could some nasty accident have occurred? Subject some nasty
accident
2. Doesn’t the clown in the make-up room want to perform?
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3. Were none of her attempts to give up chocolate really serious?

Subject none of her attempts to give up chocolate
4. As a matter of fact, has the man you paid to do it been arrested?

Subject the man you paid to do it
Noun Phrase and verb Phrase
So far we have seen the functions (subject and predicate) of immediate

constituents of the sentence. The next question that we should try to
answer is: What kinds of phrases function as subjects and
predicates?
All the SUBJECTS that we have looked at have one thing in common;
they contain and are centred on (i.e. have as the main word) the same
CATEGORY of word a NOUN. They are all NOUN PHRASES (NP). The
single words that can replace them are PRONOUNS. The phrases
functioning as PREDICATES, on the other hand, all contain, and are
centred on, a VERB. They are all VERB PHRASES (VP).
Information about the immediate constituents of a sentence (i.e. the main

constituents of a sentence) can now be included in phrase-markers. A
point to bear in mind about phrase-markers: the specification of the
functions of the constituents, for example, SUBJECT or PREDICATE, is
not strictly part of the phrase-marker, and is not normally included in the
phrase-marker. In phrase-markers we only give information about the
category of the constituents. Below is the phrase-marker for Some nasty
accident could have occurred
NP VP
some nasty could have

accident occured
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Activity
1. Draw phrase-markers for sentences [2 and 3] in exercise [1] using the

triangle notation (see the example above) for the NPs and VPs.
Activity
Feedback
2.
NP VP
None of her attempts were really serious

to give up chocolate
3.
NP VP
The clown in the doesn´t want to perform

make-up room
25
Summary
In this lesson you learned how to identify the subject of a sentence using
a Yes/No question test. You also learned the categories given to a subject
and predicate of a sentence and how to represent them in a phrase-
Summary
marker.
Lesson 2: Dependency and Function
By the end of this lesson you will be able to:
In this lesson you will learn the concept of head and modifier. These
concepts are used to describe relationships between constituents. You
will also learn how such relationships are represented graphically.
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
We will now introduce terminology to describe relationship between

constituents. Consider the following graphic representation:
B C
Let us consider B and C as daughters of A. that means that B and C as

sisters and A is the mother. We can apply this terminology to a sentence
26
as well. The MOTHER is the sentence (S), and the DAUGHTERS are
subject (S), and predicate (P). Notice that subject and predicate are
dependent on each other (i.e. mutually dependent) in the sense that an NP
only functions as subject in the presence sister VP, and a VP only
functions as predicate in the presence of sister NP. Following this, we can
say that constituents have their function in respect of their sister
constituent.
Now let us take an initial look at the other main functions. We will
discuss three general concepts here. They are HEAD, and the functions
that other elements have in relation to it, namely MODIFIER (a word or
phrase that qualifies the sense of another word) and COMPLEMENT (a
word or phrase that completes the meaning of another word.) First we
will look at the relationship between modifier and head and then between
head and complement.
Modifier and head
In general, in a phrase containing a modifier, the element that is

modified forms the essential centre of the phrase and is said to be the
HEAD of the phrase. Consider the sentence Old Sam sunbathed beside a
stream. Let us take the phrase old Sam as our example. Between old and
Sam the word that is modified (i.e. qualified) is Sam and is therefore the
head. The word that modifies (i.e. qualifies) the head is old. Thus old is
the modifier of Sam. The relationship here is one-way dependency
because Sam can stand on its own in the sentence but not old. In other
words old requires the presence of Sam to form a grammatical sentence
but Sam doesn’t (see the examples below). What we have here is a
functional relation of MODIFICATION.
1. Sam sunbathed beside a stream - is a grammatical sentence.
2. Old sunbathed beside a stream – is an ungrammatically sentence.
We can show this relationship using a graphic representation as shown

below. The arrows indicate the directions of the dependencies, and M
(modifier) and H (head) which are functions.
27
M H
old Sam
Graphic representation
Activity
1. Make a list of all head-modifier relationships in the following phrase
a) their rather dubious jokes
Activity b) young car salesmen
2. Give a complete representation of all the dependencies using single

arrows, and M for modifier and H for head.
28
Feedback
1.
a) rather modifies the head dubious and the phrase rather dubious
modifies the head jokes. Their modifies the phrase rather dubious jokes.
M M H H
the ir rather dubious jo es
b) car modifies the head salesmen whereas young modifies car salesmen.
M M H
Young Car Salesmen
29
Summary
In this lesson you learned the terminology used to describe the
relationship between modifier and head. You also learned how to
represent graphically this relationship.
Summary
30
Lesson 3: Head and Complement
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
In this lesson you will learn the concept of head and complement.
These concepts are used to describe relationships between
constituents. You will also learn how such relationships are
Lessons Outcomes represented graphically.
How long?
Consider again the underlined phrase in the sentence below.
1. Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
Between beside and a stream there is a mutually dependency or two-way

dependency, because beside requires the presence of a stream and stream
also requires the presence of beside in the sentence. In other words, the
omission of either of them renders the sentence ungrammatical. Example
2. Old Sam sunbathed beside - ungrammatical
3. Old Sam sunbathed a stream - ungrammatical
Now the question we should try to answer is – Between beside and

stream, which is the head? The head is beside because the phrase beside
a stream conveys the sense of location and the word that conveys such
sense is beside. However, beside, which is the head, demands a further
expression which is a stream to complete its meaning. When a head
demands a further expression in this way, that other expression is
said to COMPLEMENT the head. A stream functions as the
complement of beside. What we have here is the functional relation of
COMPLEMENTATION. This relationship can be represented graphically
31
as in the example below. The double arrows indicate the directions of the
dependencies (mutual). The letter H stands for (head), C for
(complement) and M for (modifier).
H M H
beside a stream
Activity
1. Consider the underlined phrases in the sentences below. Give a
complete representation of all the dependencies using single and
double arrows, and M for modifier, H for head and C for
Activity complement.
1. He waved at the Chinese tourists.
2. He laughed at me.
3. She sent money to the poor man.
32
Feedback
1)
C H
H M M H
at the Chinise tourists
2)
H C
at me
3)
C H
H M M H
to the poor man
Now consider the sentence Phil dreads affectionate cats. We said earlier
that the immediate constituents of a sentence are subject (S) and predicate
(P). We also said that there is a mutual dependency between the two. To
show this we use double arrows. We ought to include these two
functions in a graphic representation since we are looking at a sentence,
together with the functions already introduced, as in the example below.
33
P
C
S H M H
Phil dreads affectionate cats
Activity
1. Give a complete representation of all the dependencies in the
sentences below, using single and double arrows, and M for modifier,
H for head, C for complement, S for subject and P for predicate.
Activity
2. The girl ate a big mango.
Feedback
1)
M
P C
S
M H H H M H
old Sam sunbathed beside a stream
34
2)
C
P
S H
M H H M M H
The girl ate a big mango
Summary
In this lesson you learned the terminology used to describe the
relationship between head and complement. You also learned how to
represent graphically this relationship.
Summary
Unit summary
In this unit we looked at the functions of the constituents of a sentence
namely subject, predicate, modifier and complement. We also saw how
such functions can be represented graphically using arrows.
Summary
35
Assignment
1. Using the appropriate test and giving actual examples of how it
functions, identify the subjects and predicates of the following
sentences.
Assignment a) Her memory for names and dates was a constant source of
amazement to him.
b) In the machine, the gremlin could be heard juggling with

ball-bearings.
2. Draw phrase-markers for the underlined phrases.
a) I spoke to young car salesman.
b) She saw second-hand car salesmen.
3. Say if the bracketed constituents function as modifier or complement.

To answer this properly you should not only state the function of the
constituent but also indicate in respect of what other constituent has
that function. Example: (Old) Sam sunbathed – old is a modifier of
the head Sam.
a) The (well-built) gentleman offered me a cigar.
b) People (in running kit) are warming up.
c) People in (running kit) are warming up.
4. Give a complete representation of all the dependencies in the

sentence below, using single and double arrows, and M for modifier,
H for head, C for complement, S for subject and P for predicate.
a) The girl glanced at those acrobats.
36
Unit 3
Sentece Structure: Categories
Introduction
Speakers of a language recognise several different kinds of words. In

other words, they assign the words of their language to several distinct
CATEGORIES. In doing so, they recognise that each word has a restricted
range of possible functions and that there are restrictions on how these
words can combine to phrases. So in these we will introduce lexical
categories by name and we will give tips on how to identify their
members. We shall also discuss the category of phrases. The notion of
head is important here.
Name the categories of phrases and represent them in phrase-markers
Outcomes
37
Unit 3 Sentece Structure: Categories
Lesson 1: Nouns
Upon completion of this unit you will:
In this lesson you will learn tips on how to identify nouns
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. Nouns, like other

category of words have a range of possible WORD FORM, i.e.
MORPHOLOGICAL possibilities.
A morphological identification feature of all nouns is that they have a

GENETIVE (or POSSESSIVE) form. For example: Bill’s (as in Bill’s
money), mud’s (as in mud’s consistency).
Other features are shared by some nouns and not by others (in other
words, there are several SUB-CATEGORIES of the noun category) as we
shall see next.
1. PROPER NOUNS
These are names (with an initial capital). Examples are: January, Jessica,
Manchester, Simon.
2. COMMON MOUNS
All common nouns can be preceded by the definite article (THE) to form
a Noun Phrase – as in the accident, the mud.
38
*COMMON NOUNS can be COUNTABLE or UNCOUNTABLE. What
are the features of each type?
COUNTABLE NOUNS refer to things that can be counted. Such nouns:
a. can be preceded by the definite article (THE) or the

indefinite article (A or AN) - as in a stream, an accident - to
form a Noun Phrase;
b. can be preceded by NUMERALS (one, two, three) to form a

Noun Phrase, and by expressions like several, many, etc;
c. regularly appear in a PLURAL FORM in addition to a

SINGULAR form e.g.
i. accident – accidents, ii. man – men, iii. foot – feet, iv. analysis – e.
analyses
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS or MASS NOUNS refer to things that

cannot be counted – e.g. butter, sugar, furniture, honesty, happiness).
They cannot normally be preceded by a/an nor can they normally appear
in a plural form. But they can be preceded by some – e.g. some butter,
some furniture, some honesty).
The above remarks have been qualified by ‘normally’ because it is often

possible to turn an uncountable noun into a countable noun – e.g. a beer,
two beers. This usually involves the change of meaning.
Many nouns are both count and non-count. For example theory can stand
alone or with some (cf. some theory) as a non- count noun, but it can also
be preceded by a/an, or a numeral, and/or giving it a plural form (a
theory, theories, three theories). Other examples that are both count and
non-count are suspicion, egg, cake, and charity.
Proper nouns, because they stand for single and identifiable individuals,
do not normally have any modifiers at all or appear in a plural form.
However in special circumstances, they can be modified by the or a, and
appear in the plural form: the Ewings (the Ewing family), The Borg of
Wimbledon fame, a pensive Holmes.
39
There is more that could be said about these various sub-categories of

nouns, but the above should suffice for the purpose of identification.
Activity
1. Now identify all the nouns in the following passage:
As Max and Adrian were talking, the daylight was fading, from the West
Clouds were gathering and there was a chill in the air. They decided to
Activity
end their conversation. Lights were shinning from a passing steamer.
Pessimistic thoughts filled the minds of both men, but Adrian pushed them
aside as being merely the result of his tiredness. Besides, he had sand in
his shoes.
Feedback
The nouns in the passage are: Max, Adrian, daylight, west, clouds, chill,
air, conversation, lights, steamer, thoughts, minds, men, Adrian, result,
tiredness, sand, shoes.
If you included they, them and he on the grounds that they stood for
persons and things, this is perfectly reasonable. They are pronouns.
PRONOUNS are used to stand in place of complete NOUN
PHRASES (NP). In the above passage, they stands for Max and Adrian,
them stands for pessimistic thoughts, and he stands for Adrian.
40
Here are some further examples of pronouns:
- DEFINITE PRONOUNS: she/he it, I/me, we/us, they/them
- INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: some, something, someone, anything,

anyone
- DEMOSNTRATIVE PRONOUNS: this, that, these, those
- INTERROGATIVE (QUESTION) PRONOUNS: who, which, what,

whose
- POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: mine, yours, his, hers, our, yours,

theirs, whose
Summary
In this lesson you learned tips on how to identify nouns.
Summary
41
Lesson 2: Lexical and Phrasal Categories
Noun Phrase
In this lesson you will learn how to assign category to phrases,

namely Noun Phrases, and see how this relates to the category of the
words they contain
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
We said in Unit 2 that all the SUBJECTS have one thing in common; they
contain and are centred on (i.e. have as the main word) the same
CATEGORY of word a NOUN. They are all NOUN PHRASES (NP). The
single words that can replace them are PRONOUNS. If we take Old Sam
which is the subject of the sentence - Old Sam sunbathed beside the
stream- we can see that main word is Sam as it cannot be omitted without
rendering the sentence ungrammatical. In other words, Sam is the head
of the phrase OLD SAM and old is a modifier because it is omissible, as
was discussed in Unit 2. Apart from that the whole phrase can be
replaced with the pronoun he. In a modifier-head relation it is the
category of the HEAD word that determines the category of the phrase as
a whole. Thus, OLD SAM is a Noun Phrase (NP) because the head - Sam
- is a noun. Here is a phrase-marker for Old Sam confuses me with the
information about the NP Old Sam filled in.
NP VP
Old Sam confuses me
42
Noun phrases may contain more than one noun. But (with the exception
to be discussed in a moment) only one Noun Phrase can function as its
head. However there is one exception to this as we shall see later.
Activity
1. In each of the following sentences, first identify the subject NP, and
then all the nouns contained in those subject NPs, indicating which
the head noun is.
Activity
1. The man devouring the plums is grinning broadly.
2. The comedy actress John met in the foyer seemed happy.
Feedback
In (1) the subject NP is the man devouring the plums. It contains two
nouns, man and plums and it is clear that man is the head noun. The
appropriate pronoun to replace the whole Noun Phrase would be he.
In (2) the subject NP is the comedy actress John met in the foyer. It
contains the nouns comedy, actress and foyer. The appropriate pronoun to
replace the whole Noun Phrase is she. Actress is therefore the head noun.
We have mentioned that constituents that modify the head noun are
optional – they can be omitted without affecting the well-formedness of
either the NP itself or the sentence in which it appears. For example, it is
43
possible to omit from the subject NP of sentence (a) below their,

extremely and subtle. The omission of the two constituent results in
sentence (b) as can be seen below. The idea that we want to make here is
that a Noun Phrase can consist simply of a head noun.
a. Their extremely subtle tactics confuse me.
b. Tactics confuse me.
The subject NP of sentence (b) will be represented as follows:
NP
tactics
Tactics in sentence (b) can be replaced by They. Example:
c. They confuse me.
As it can be seen they has assumed the position and function of a full NP.
So they is itself an example of a one-word NP. In terms of phrase-marker
it would be represented as shown below with ‘PRONOUN’ abbreviated to
PRO.
NP
PRO
they
From the example above we can say that when single words have the
function that full phrases have, it is standard practice to treat them
as full phrases of Noun Phrases and phrases of other categories as we
shall see next.
44
Activity
1. Draw phrase-markers for the following sentences. Represent the NPs
in detail (i.e. all the information about the NPs as given in the
examples above)
Activity
1. Dogs bark.
2. She cooks
Feedback
1) S 2) S
NP VP NP VP
N PRO
bark stood up
Dogs She
Summary
In this lesson you learned how to assign category to phrases, namely
Noun Phrases. You also learned how to draw phrase-markers for them.
Summary
45
Adjective and Adverbs

In this lesson you will learn how to identify adjectives and adverbs
assign category to phrases, namely Adjective Phrases, Adverb
Phrases and see how this relates to the category of the words they
Lessons Outcomes contain.
How long?
Dubious and subtle are adjectives. Many adjectives have characteristic

endings, such, such as –able, -al, -ate, -ful, - ic, -ing, -ish, -ive, -less, -ous,
-y. Examples are:
Capable, economical, *Italianate, beautiful, microscopic, surprising,

*priggish, inventive, hopeless, callous, fluffy.
There are other adjectival endings, and the endings given are only typical
of adjectives, not an infallible guide. The more common adjectives tend
not to have characteristic endings (e.g. old, hot, short, tight, full, long)
and this goes for the colour adjectives (blue, yellow, etc.).
Many adjectives have the morphological possibility of taking a

comparative (-er) and superlative (-est) inflection, as newer and newest.
Others do not but instead they are modified by the comparative and
superlative DEGREE ADVERBS more and most, less and least, e.g.
more beautiful, most beautiful. Yet others have irregular comparative and
superlative forms (good, better, best).
46
We have mentioned degree adverbs more, and most, less and least. Since
the main function of degree adverbs is to modify adjectives (specifying of
the degree of the attribute, i.e. quality, expressed by the adjective), this
seems to be the appropriate place to mention degree adverbs as a
category. They are words having the same function as rather and
extremely. Example:
Very, quite, so, too, slightly, hardly, highly, moderately, completely,

increasingly, incredibly, etc.
Adjectives that accept the –er /-est inflection or modification by degree

adverbs more, and most, less and least are called GRADABLE
ADJECTIVES and those that do not are called NON-GRADABLE
ADJECTIVES. Here are some examples of non-gradable adjectives:
Atomic, dead, potential, right, main, consummate, medical, fatal, final,

second, third, supreme.
Apart from degree adverbs, adjectives can be modified by GENERAL

ADVERBS. For example, the adjective recognisable can be modified by
immediately to yield immediately recognisable. Examples of general
adverbs are: frankly, potentially, oddly, enthusiastically, immediately,
suspiciously, awkwardly.
General adverbs differ from degree adverbs in specifying a wide range of

concepts than just degree. The reason for the categorical distinction
between general adverbs and degree adverbs is that general adverbs can
themselves be modified by degree adverbs to form ADVERB PHRASES
(Adv Ps) –for example, very oddly, quite frankly. Since modification of
general adverbs by degree adverb is optional, an Adv P (like an NP, and
AP) can consist of just a simple (general) adverb.
Adjective Phrases and Adverb Phrases
As with NP, it is the category of the HEAD word that determines

whether the category of the phrase as a whole is an Adjective Phrase
(AP) or Adverb Phrase (Adv P).
47
If we take the phrase rather dubious we can see that the word that can
stand on its own is dubious; rather cannot because alone it does not
means anything. It requires, in this case, the presence of dubious. Thus
dubious is the head. Now because dubious (the head) is an adjective,
rather dubious is an Adjective Phrase (AP). The same goes for more
obviously. The head of this phrase is an adverb. Thus the phrase as a
whole is an Adverb Phrase; more is a degree and functions as a
modifier. Here are the phrase-markers for (a) rather dubious and (b) more
obviously:
(a)
AP
DEG A
Rather dubious
(b)
AdvP
DEG Adv
more obviously
Below is the phrase-marker for more obviously artificial. This is an

adjective phrase because the head is artificial. It is modifies by more
obviously. This modifier is an Adv P because the head is the adverb
obviously which is modified by the degree adverb more.
AP
AdvP A
artificial
DEG Adv
more obviously
48
Activity
1. Now draw a phrase-marker for so highly regarded, including all
the categorical information
Activity
Feedback
AP
AdvP A
regarded
DEG Adv
so highly
Summary
In this lesson you learned how to assign category to phrases, namely
Adjective and Adverb Phrases. You also learned how to draw phrase-
markers for them.
Summary
49
Preposition and Prepositional Phrase

In this lesson you will learn what a preposition is, and how we assign
such a category to a phrase. You will also learn what co-ordinate
phrases are and how these are represented in phrase markers.
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
Prepositions are generally short words that express relations, often

locational relations in space or time. Some examples are: to, from, with,
towards, within, off, by, up, down, since, before, after, during, until.
Prepositions don’t always express locational concepts though, as the
following examples illustrate: (IN an accident, IN a blue coat, OFF work,
UNDER pressure, AT great speed, ON the make).
In a head – complement relation it is the category of the HEAD

word that determines the category of the phrase as a whole. We
can illustrate this with the phrase under the blanket. Under is the
head and the blanket the complement. Thus the category of the
phrase as a whole is a Prepositional Phrase (PP). Below is the
phrase-marker for this phrase.
PP
P NP
under
the blanket
50
Activity
1. Draw a phrase-marker for the phrase to Max
Activity
Feedback
PP
P NP
to
Max
Co-ordinate Phrases
We have now introduced four main lexical categories, NOUNS,

ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS (general and degree), and PREPOSITIONS,
and taken a brief look at the phrasal categories associated with them. We
conclude this chapter with a very general point about categories and
constituency.
When we looked at nouns and Noun Phrases, we mentioned that, in an

NP, only one noun can be head of the phrase. We pointed out that there
was an exception to this. The exception is illustrated in the following
examples.
1. Max and Adrian are being melodramatic.
51
2. The clowns and the acrobats declined to co-operate.
Each underlined constituent is a subject NP (see point for subject test

identification). Of the nouns in each NP, can you, in fact, decide which is
the head noun? It is in fact impossible to identify any single noun as
being the head. Of Max and Adrian neither seems more central than the
other. It is not just Max, nor just Adrian, who is being melodramatic, both
are. Both Max and Adrian are the noun heads of the NP Max and Adrian.
The same goes for the clowns and the acrobats. Such phrases are called
CO-ORDINATE NOUN PHRASES, with Max and Adrian co-ordinated by
and. Now the question is- how are we going to represent a co-ordinate
phrase in a phrase-marker? In order to answer this question we need to
know, for example, whether Max and Adrian are just nouns or full NPs?
Now look at the following sentences.
3. He and Adrian are being melodramatic.
4. Adrian and he are being melodramatic.
5. The clowns and they declined to co-operate.
6. They and the acrobats declined to co-operate.
The fact that we can replace Max or Adrian with (he) and clowns or
acrobats with them is an indication that both Max and Adrian in addition
to being simple nouns are full NPs in their own right. The underlined
subject NPs in sentence (1 & 2) can be represented as follows:
1)
NP
NP and NP
N N
Max Adrian
52
2)
NP
NP and NP
the clowns the acrobats
A point to bear in mind is that only constituents of the same category

can be coordinated. This principle holds for all categories, including
lexical categories and sentences themselves. Consider the underlined
phrases in the following sentences.
7. The room was stuffy and too hot.
8. The room was too hot and stuffy.
In sentence (7) we have a co-ordination of APs. Stuffy and hot are APs in
their on right because both can answer the question what. For example we
can ask the question: the room was what (1) and what (2)? The answer to
the first what is – stuffy. The answer to second is – too hot. This is an
indication that stuffy is an AP and too hot is also an AP. The latter AP
consists of the modifier too and the head hot.
As regards sentence (8) if we ask the question – The room was what? or
What was the room like? The answer that we get is – too hot and stuffy.
This means that we have here a co-ordination of adjectives and not APs.
Here too modifies the adjectives hot and stuffy which means the same as
too hot and too stuffy. Phrase-markers for the underlined phrases in (7&8)
are as follow:
7)
AP
and
AP AP
A
DEG A
stuf fy
too hot
53
8)
AP
DEG A
too and
A A
hot stuffy
Activity
1. Draw phrase-marker for the underlined phrase in the following
sentences. Use the triangle notation for NPs. Note that in one case the
co-ordination is between Prepositions and in the other is between
Activity Prepositional Phrases like in the example above.
1. She walked up and down the staircase.
2. He looked for evidence in the foundations and under the rafter.
Feedback
1)
PP
P NP
and
P P the staircase
up down
54
2)
PP
and
PP PP
P NP P NP
In under
the foundations the rafters
Summary
In this lesson you have learned what a preposition is, and how we assign
such a category to a phrase. You have also learned what co-ordinate
phrases are and how these are represented in phrase markers
Summary
Unit summary
In this unit we introduced some lexical categories by name and gave tips
on how to identify their members. We also discussed the categories of
phrases and how this relates to the category of the head words contained
Summary
in them.
55
Assignment
1. Identify the following lexical categories in the passage below: (a)
nouns, (b) adjectives, (c) degree adverbs, (d) general adverbs, and (e)
prepositions.
Assignment On the court, she openly displayed a perfectly outrageous cheek

towards the officials who recently been appointed by the club. At
home, she was an incredibly warm and loving human being, full of
sensitivity for people’s feelings.
2. Draw the phrase-markers for the underlined expressions. In some

cases, you will find that you do not have all the information necessary
to give a complete analysis. Where this is so (and only where this is
so!), follow the example of the preceding chapters – use the triangle
notation, as appropriate.
1. I sent some sweets for you and Pete.
2. She was rather nervous but very excited.
3. He drove slowly and very carefully.
56
Unit 4
The verb Phrase
Introduction
You now know that the basic sentence consists of a Noun Phrase that
functions as a subject) and a Verb Phrase (as a predicate), and you have
encountered several examples of VPs, though very little has been said
about them. This Unit is concerned with the general structure (the
immediate constituents) of the VP half of the basic sentence. Categories
introduced in the previous chapter may appear in the VP playing various
functions. It is with these functions that we are primarily concerned here.
identify the sub-category of the verbs in the verb phrase;
identify the different functions played by the complements of the

verbs within the verb phrase.
Outcomes
57
Unit 4 The verb Phrase
Lesson 1: A First look at the Verb Group
In this lesson you will learn what a verb group is and what it consists
of. You will also learn how to identify the sub-category of the verbs
namely Transitive, Intransitive and Ditransitive, in the Verb Phrase
Lessons Outcomes and the different functions played by their complements within the
Verb Phrase. You will also learn how to represent them in phrase-
markers.
How long?
The one constituent that a Verb Phrase (VP) must contain is the VERB
GROUP (Vgrp). The Verb Group consists of a (LEXICAL) VERB which
is optionally preceded by other (AUXILIARY) verbs. Lexical verbs are
easily identified by their morphological possibilities. They are those
words that can take some if not all of the following INFLECTIONS:
-s, -ing, -ed, -en. For example:
play: plays, playing, played
write: writes, writing, written
The Verbs Groups above are SIMPLE because they consist of only the
head verb. Those that the head verb has auxiliary modification are called
COMPLEX. Examples are:
is writing
may have written
58
could have been writing
The Verb Group itself, together with the morphology of the verb and the
lexical/auxiliary distinction will be treated in Unit 6. For the moment, all
that is required is that you are able to identify verbs, and the above should
suffice for that purpose. Since we are not concerned with the structure of
the Vgrp here, we shall use the triangle notation to represent it in phrase-
markers and say no more about it in this Unit.
The complements of the Verb Group
This Unit is concerned with the functional relations between the Verb
Group (Vgrp) and the other constituents that appear in the basic Verb
Phrase (VP). In Unit 2 we discussed the functions of affectionate cats in
the sentence Phil dreads affectionate cats.
The VP is dreads affectionate cats, and dreads is the single-word verb of

the Vgrp. We concluded that the relation between the Vgrp (dreads) and
the NP (affectionate cats) is one of complementation: there is a two way
dependency between the Vgrp (as head) and the NP (as complement).
The use of dreads without a following NP (as complement) is
ungrammatical, and so is the use of the NP without dreads. Examples:
1. Phil dreads.
2. Phil affectionate cats.
However not all Vgrp require a following NP. For example: died in the
sentence below.
3. Phil died.
Dread and died are examples of two very general SUB-CATEGORIES of

the verb category. Verbs are SUB-CATEGORISED according to what
other elements must appear with them in the VP. In other words,
they are sub-categorised in terms of what complements they must
take. We shall deal with six main sub-category of Vgrp:
59
1. TRANSITIVE (sometimes called MONOTRANSITIVE),
2. INTRANSITIVE,
3. DITRANSITIVE,
4. INTENSIVE,
5. COMPLEX TRANSITIVE,
6. PREPOSITIONAL
Transitive Vgrps
A transitive Vgrp is one which requires a single Noun Phrase to

complement it. The NP that complements a transitive Vgrp is said to
function as its DIRECT OBJECT. So, for example, in Phil dreads
affectionate cats, the underlined NP, (affectionate cats) complements the
transitive verb dreads and functions as its DIRETC OBJECT. Since the
dependency between dreads and affectionate cats is mutual there is a
sister relationship between the two. Their mother will be the VP. Below
is the phrase-marker for Phil dreads affectionate cats, with a [transitive]
feature on the Vgrp.
NP VP
Vgrp NP
Phil [Trans]
V
dreads affectionate cats
To avoid confusion with another verb group sub-category, as we shall see

soon you should think of the direct object as the NP that is affected by
the action of the verb.
Intransitive Vgrps
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An intransitive Vgrp is one that does not require any further
constituent as a sister in the VP. Since an intransitive Vgrp does not
require any further element to form a complete predicate, a single-word
verb can count not only as a complete Vgrp but also a complete VP. The
sentence Phil died is represented as follows:
NP VP
Vgrp
[Intrans]
Phil
V
died
Ditransitive Vgrps
A ditransitive Vgrp is one which requires TWO NPs as its complements.

For example in the sentence William is giving Goneril the bleach the
Vgrp gives requires two NP complements: Goneril and the bleach. The
first NP (in bold) functions as the INDIRECT OBJECT and the
second as the DIRECT OBJECT (it has the same function as the NP that
complements a transitive Vgrp). Here is the phrase-marker for William
gave Goneril the bleach.
NP VP
NP
Vgrp NP
William [Ditrans]
the bleach
V
gave Goneril
An important characteristic of VPs consisting of a ditransitive Vgrp

complemented by two NPs is that the NP that functions as indirect
object – Goneril in the sentence above - corresponds to a
Prepositional Phrase (PP) as can be seen in this sentence: William
gave the bleach to Goneril. So the indirect object of a ditransitive Vgrp
can be specified either by an NP or by a PP containing to or for. The
phrase-marker for William gave the bleach to Goneril is as follows:
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NP VP
PP
Vgrp NP
William [Ditrans]
to Goneril
V
gave the bleach
Activity
1. Identify the major functions in the following sentences: subject (S),
direct object (dO), indirect object (iO). Identify the Vgrps and sub-
categorise them.
Activity
1. Peter ate a mango.
2. Mary is crying.
3. Peter brought Mary a handbag.
4. His father bought a Toyota for him.
2. Draw Phrase-markers for the sentences above. Use the triangle

notation for all the major constituents as represented in the examples
above.
62
Feedback
1)
1. Peter ate a mango.
S [Trans] dO
2. Mary is crying.
S [Intrans]
3. Marx brought Mary a handbag.
S [Ditrans] iO dO
4. His father bought a Toyota for him.
S [Ditrans] dO iO
2)
2.1.)
NP VP
Vgrp NP
Peter [Trans]
V
ate a mango
2.2)
NP VP
Vgrp
Mary [Intrans]
is crying
63
2.3)
NP VP
Vgrp NP NP
Peter [Ditrans]
V
brought Mary a handbag
2.4)
NP VP
Vgrp NP PP
His [Ditrans]
V
bought a Toyota for him
NP VP
Vgrp NP PP
His [Ditrans]
V
bought a Toyota for him
Summary
In this lesson you learned what a preposition is, and how we assign such a
category to a phrase. You also learned what co-ordinate phrases are and
how these are represented in phrase markers.
Summary
64
Lesson 2: The complements of the Verb Group
In this lesson you will learn how to identify the sub-category of the
verbs namely Intensive, Complex, and Prepositional, in the Verb
Phrase and the different functions played by their complements
Lessons Outcomes within the Verb Phrase. You will also learn how to represent them in
phrase-markers
How long?
Intensive Vgrps
Intensive Vgrps require a single complement, which can take the

form of an Adjective Phrase, or a Noun Phrase, or a Prepositional
Phrase. The complement of an intensive Vgrp functions as
SUBJECT-PREDICATIVE). Below are examples of intensive Vgrps.
1. Ed is rather extravagant. (AP)
2. Peter was an auctioneer. (NP)
3. Oscar should be in the engine room. (PP)
Here are the phrase-markers for sentences [1, 2, and 3] above.
1)
NP VP
Vgrp AP
Ed [ Intens]
V
is rather extravagant
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2)
NP VP
Vgrp NP
Peter [ Intens]
V
is an auct ioneer
3)
NP VP
Vgrp PP
Oscar [ Intens]
V
in the engine room
shoub be
Complements of intensive Vgrp are said to function as subject

predicative because they characterise or if you like say something
about the subject.
Complex Transitive Vgrps
Complex transitive Vgrps take two complements: a direct object

(NP) and an object-predicative. The object-predicative can take the
form of an AP, or an NP, or a PP. Here are some examples, with the
direct object in italics and the object predicative in bold.
1. Melvin found his own jokes extremely funny. (AP)
2. They are making Stella their spokesperson. (NP)
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Liza has been putting the liquor under the bed. (PP)
The object-predicative characterises or if you like says something

about the direct object. Hence the name object-predicative. Here are
the phrase-marker representations for sentences [1, 2, and 3] above.
1)
NP VP
Vgrp NP AP
Melvin [Complex]
V funny
found his own jokes
2)
NP VP
Vgrp NP AP
They [ Complex]
their spokesperson
Stella
are making
3)
NP VP
Vgrp NP PP
hiza [ Complex]
V under the bed

the liquor
` has been putt ing
67
Prepositional Vgrps
A Prepositional Vgrps requires a single PP to complement it. The PP

that complements a Prepositional Vgrp is said to function as a
Prepositional Complement. Below is an example of a PP that functions
as a Prepositional Complement.
1. Max glanced at the falling acrobat.
The phrase-marker representation for sentence [1] above is as follow:
NP VP
Vgrp PP
Max [Prep]
V
glanced at t he falling acrobat
Activity
1. Identify the major functions in the following sentences: subject (S),
direct object (dO), indirect object (iO), subject-predicative (sP),
object-predicative (oP) and (PC) prepositional complement. Identify
Activity the Vgrps and sub-categorise them.
2. Draw Phrase-markers for the following sentences. Use the triangle

above.
1. John will drive his wife mad.
2. Mary sat the child on the counter.
3. Peter placed the coin in the gaping hole.
4. Jill fell into the water.
5. Max felt cold.
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6. Max felt an idiot.
7. The lion turned into a leaf.
3. Draw Phrase-markers for the sentences above. Use the triangle

above.
Feedback
1)
1. John drove his wife mad.
S [compl] dO oP
2. Mary sat the child on the counter.
S [comp] dO oP
3. Peter placed the coin in the gaping hole.
S [comp] dO oP
4. Jill fell into the water.
S [Prep] PC
5. Max felt cold.
S [Intes] sP
6. Max felt an idiot.
69
S [Intes] sP
7. The lion turned into a leaf.
S [Intens] sP
2)
2.1)
NP VP
Vgrp NP AP
John [Complex]
V
drove his wife mad
2.2)
NP VP
Vgrp NP PP
Mary [ Complex]
V
sat the child on the counter
2.4)
NP VP
Vgrp PP
Jill [ Intens]
V
fell into t he water
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2.5)
NP VP
Vgrp AP
Max [Intens]
V
f elt cold
2.6)
NP VP
Vgrp NP
Max [ Int ens]
V
f elt an idiot
2.7)
NP VP
Vgrp PP
The lion [Intens]
V
turned int o a leaf
It is important at this point to make the following remark. Be carefully

not to assign the sub-category of verb groups just by looking at the
category of their complements because as you know a transitive Vgrp as
well as an intensive Vgrp can be complemented by an NP. Examples:
1. Max turned another card. (NP) – Transitive Vgrp
2. John felt a real idiot. (NP) – Intensive Vgrp
71
The function of the NP in each sentence is different. The NP that

complements a transitive Vgrp functions as a direct object whereas the
NP that complements the intensive Vgrp functions as a subject-
predicative.
The same can be said about a Prepositional Vgrp visa-a-vi an intensive

Vgrp. We know that an intensive Vgrp can be complemented by a PP. A
Prepositional Vgrp requires a PP as its complement. Examples:
1. John waved at Mary. PP – Prepositional Vgrp
2. Peter is in the office. PP – Intensive Vgrp
How can you find out the category of each Vgrp? What you need to do is
to look at the functions of each PP. You now know that a PP that
complements an intensive Vgrp functions as subject-predicative (.i.e. it
says something about the subject). The PP that complements a
Prepositional Vgrp functions as a prepositional complement (i.e. the verb
requires a PP to complete its meaning).
The sub-categorisation can be summarised as follows:
INTRANSITIVE ´[intrans]´:
subject Vgrp
(S)
MONOTRANSITIVE ´[trans]´:
subject Vgrp direct object
(S) (dO)
DITRANSITIVE ´[ditrans]´:
subject Vgrp indirect object direct object
(S) (iO) (dO)
or:
subject Vgrp direct object to/ for indirect object
(S) (dO) (iO)
INTENSIVE ´[intens]´:
subject Vgrp subject-predicative
(S) (sP)
72
COMPLEX TRANSITVE ´[complex]´:
subject Vgrp direct object object-predicative
(S) (dO) (oP)
PREPOSITIONAL ´[prep]´:
subject Vgrp prepositional complement
(S) (PC)
Summary
In this lesson you learned the six main sub-categories of Verb Groups.
You also learned how to represent them in phrase-markers.
Summary
Unit summary
In this unit we looked at a six way distinction among Verb Groups and
their associated sentence patterns.
Summary
Assignment
1. Identify the major functions in the following sentences: direct object
(dO), indirect object (iO), subject-predicative (sP), object-predicative
(oP) and (PC) prepositional complement. Identify the Vgrps and sub-
categorise them.
Assignment
1. The girl in the palace had dyed her hair purple.
73
2. The balloons are ascending.
3. Richard promised me his spaghetti machine.
4. This sedan-chair should prove useful.
5. Someone has stolen my contact lenses.
6. It doesn’t sound much fun.
7. The candidate’s antics did not amuse the board of examiners.
8. The committee nominated her Acrobat of the Year.
9. Egbert has been feeding the cat smoked salmon.
10. I would like my curry as hot as possible.
11. We don’t allude to his third ear.
12. The main witness for the prosecution has disappeared.
13. He has applied for a gun license.
4. Using the triangle notation for all major constituents (as used
in this chapter) draw phrase-marker for the following sentences.
1. Nicholas was feeling strangely euphoric.
2. The gallery wouldn’t lend them the triptych.
3. The condition of the cakes left out overnight had deteriorated.
4. They voted the Grand Master out of office.
5. A bucket of cold water will revive this particular patient.
74
Unit 5
Adverbials and Other Matters
Introduction
In this unit we look more closely at the distinction between verb

complements and modifiers in the Verb Phrase.
to distinguish between verb complements and modifiers in the VP.
to represent modifiers in the Phrase-markers.
Outcomes
75
Unit 5 Adverbials and Other Matters
Lesson 1: A First look at the Verb Group
At the end of the lesson you should be able to distinguish Verb

Complements from Adjunct Adverbials.
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
We saw in the previous unit that some verbs require a further constituent
or constituents, in the Verb Phrase, to complete their meaning. We said
that such constituents are obligatory. Now the point we want to make
here is that apart from the obligatory constituents in the VP we can also
find optional constituents functioning as modifiers. Examples are:
2. Max spotted those wildcats in the Spring.
The italicised strings in the sentences above function as the predicate of

the sentences and are therefore Verb Phrases. Within each VP we have an
underlined optional PP functioning as modifier. The PPs are optional,
therefore omissible, because they are not functioning as complements.
They give additional, though not essential, information. When a
constituent functions as the PPs in [1] and [2] are functioning, it is said to
function as an ADJUNCT ADVERBIAL.
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[1] and [2] are examples of Intransitive and Transitive Vgrp with adjunct
adverbials. Here are further examples of PPs functioning as adjunct
adverbials in intensive, ditransitive and complex Vgrps.
3. Ed was rather extravagant in the bazaar. (intensive)
4. Peter was an auctioneer for three years. (intensive)
5. Oscar was in the engine-room in a gown. (intensive)
6. William gave Ann the bleach on her birthday. (ditransitive)
7. Liza put the liquor under the bed in Paul’s room. (complex)
As it can be seen from the examples above, adjunct adverbials can

express a wide range of ideas, such as manner, means, purpose, reason,
place, and time (including duration and frequency). They tend to ask
questions like Where? Why? When? How? What for? How long? How
often? How many Times?
In addition to PPs, Adverb Phrases (AdvP) can also function as

adjunct adverbials. However, take care not to confuse the term
ADVERBIAL (which refer to a function) and the labels ADVERB
PHRASE (which are category labels that appear in phrase-markers). Here
are AdvP functioning as adjunct adverbials:
8. Sam sunbathed frequently.
9. He spotted the wildcats quite accidentally.
10. He slept there.
Many adverbs are not easily identified as such by their –ly morphology,
in particular the interrogative adverbs, how, where, why, when, and
adverbs relating to time: here, there, now, then, again, yet, still, already,
seldom, often, ever, never.
In addition to AdvPs and PPs, certain NPs can function as adjunct

adverbials: home, last year, yesterday, tonight, tomorrow, the day before
yesterday, the day after tomorrow, this afternoon …
77
Activity
1. Identify the sub-category of the Vgrp and the function of the major
constituents in the following sentences (i.e. dO, iO, sP, oP, PC, aA
[for adjunct adverbial]).
Activity
1. John washed his shirts.
2. John washed his shirts in the morning.
3. Peter waved at Mary.
4. Peter looked at Mary with binoculars.
5. Tom put the pen in the bag.
6. Peter put the pen in the bag hurriedly.
7. The plane will land.
8. The plane will land in twenty minutes.
Feedback
1. John washed his shirts.
[Trans] dO
2. John washed his shirts in the bathroom.
[Trans] dO aA
3. Peter waved at Mary.
78
[Prep] PC
4. Peter looked at Mary with binoculars.
[Prep] PC aA
5. Tom put the pen in the bag.
[Compl] dO oP
6. Peter put the pen in the bag hurriedly.
[Compl] dO oP aA
7. The plane will land.
[Intrans]
8. The plane will land in twenty minutes.
[Intrans] aA
Summary
In this lesson you learned how to distinguish Verb complements from
Adjunct Adverbials.
Summary
79
Lesson 2: Levels of Verbs Phrase
In this lesson you will learn how to represent Adjunct Adverbials in

Sentences with phrase-markers.
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
How do adjunct adverbials fit into the structure of sentences? Adjunct

adverbials are part of the predicate and therefore fit in the structure of the
VP in sentences. For example, if we turn the sentence John washed his
shirts in the morning into a Yes/No question (see Unit 2 for question test
for subject) we get Did John wash his shirts in the morning? According
to this test washed his shirts in the morning is the predicate of the
sentence.
We said earlier that adjunct adverbials are modifiers in the VP. The
question now is: what do they exactly modify? An adjunct adverbial
modifies the VP that consists of the Vgrp plus the complement(s), or just
the Vgrp if this is intransitive. Now you must be wondering how an
adjunct adverbial fits in phrase-markers. Because it is not obligatory it
will not be placed at the same level as the Vgrp and the complements.
Rather we need to create another VP level node for it as the phrase-
marker below shows.
80
Below we contrast sentence (1) John washed his shirt which is not
modified with sentence (2) John washed his shirt in the bathroom which
is modified by the PP in the bathroom.
1)
NP VP
NP
John
Vgrp
[Trans]
his shirt
V
washed
2)
VP
NP
VP PP
John
Vgrp NP in the bathroom
[Trans]
V
washed his shirt
Because sentence [1] consists of the Vgrp plus the complement the
phrase-marker will consist of a single VP node whereas in sentence [2]
the sentence will consist of two VP nodes. At the lower level VP or VP1
we have placed the Vgrp and the complements while at the higher VP or
VP 2 we have placed the phrase that functions as adjunct adverbial.
Activity
1. Draw phrase-markers for sentences [5, 6, 7, and 8] in exercise 1
(Lesson 1 above). The discussion is given at the end of the chapter.
Activity
81
5)
VP
NP
Vgrp NP PP
[Complex]
Peter
V
put the pen in the bag
6)
VP
NP
VP AdvP
Peter
Vgrp NP PP hurriedly
[Complex]
V
6)
VP
NP
VP AdvP
Peter
Vgrp NP PP hurriedly
[Complex]
V
7)
NP VP
Vgrp
[Intrans]
The plane
V
will land
82
8)
NP VP
VP PP
The plane
Vgrp
[I ntrans] in t wenty minutes
V
will land
Have you finished? Have you succeeded? Good. If not read the notes and
do the exercises again without looking at the key. If you still find it
difficult make notes of your difficulties and seek help first from your
peers. If the problem persists get in touch with your tutor. Good luck!
Feedback
Notice that, since the occurrence of adjuncts is not determined by the

verb and its sub-category, there is no reason why we cannot have as many
adjunct adverbials as we wish as in the sentence below.
He guzzled cream cakes noisily under the blankets in the hat.
[trans] dO aA aA aA
The phrase-marker for this sentence is as follows:
83
NP
VP
He
VP PP
VP PP in the hut
VP
AdvP under t he blanket
Vgrp NP noisily
[ Trans]
V
cream cakes
guzzled
Activity
1. Now draw phrase-markers for the sentences below.
1. He drove his car on the left in France.
Activity 2. Max spotted those wildcats in summer in France.
84
Feedback
1)
NP VP
He VP PP
VP PP in France
Vgrp NP on the left

[Trans]
V
his car
drove
2)
S
NP VP
Max VP PP
VP in France
PP
Vgrp NP in Summer
[Trans]
V
those wildcat s
spotted
Summary
In this lesson you learned how to represent Adjunct Adverbials in phrase-
markers.
Summary
85
Lesson 3: Phrasal Verbs
At the end of the lesson you should be able to distinguish particles of

phrasal verbs from Prepositional Phrases functioning as adjunct
adverbial in the verb phrase and represent them in phrase markers
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
A Phrasal Verb consists of a verb plus a particle. There are many phrasal
verb groups in English –some more idiomatic than others, some
intransitive, some intransitive, e.g.
TRANS: call off, look up, put down, hand down, hand over.
TRANS and INTRANS: give up, give in, drink up.
The phase-marker for He called up the boss can be represented as

follows:
NP VP
He Vgrp NP
[ Trans]
[Phrasal]
V the boss
called up
A characteristic of particles is that they can appear in a position after

the direct object. Thus He called up the boss is acceptably paraphrased
by He called the boss up. The phrase-marker for the latter sentence can
be represented as below with ‘particle’ abbreviated to ‘Prt’.
86
PPs functioning as adjunct adverbials or complements within the VP
must be distinguished from particles. Consider the difference between the
following sentences.
1. He called up the street.
2. He called up the boss.
In sentence [1] up the street is a PP functioning as an adjunct adverbial

modifying VP that consists of the intransitive Vgrp called. In sentence [2]
up belongs more with call, to form the PHRASAL VERB call up. The
boss functions as the direct object.
The question now is: How can we distinguish a particle of a phrasal verb
from a preposition? Remember we said earlier that only particles of a
phrasal verb can appear in a position after the direct object. So particle
movement provides a very reliable test for distinguishing between
[phrasal verb + (direct object) NP] and [verb + PP]. Thus it is
incorrect to say He called the street up because up is a preposition not a
particle. However there is nothing wrong with the sentence He called the
boss up because up is a particle and can appear after the direct object.
NP VP
He Vgrp NP Prt
[ Trans]
[Phrasal]
up
V the boss
called
87
Activity
1. Decide, for each of the following, whether it is a phrasal verb +
(direct object) NP or a verb + PP.
1. shouted out the answers 2. looked out the window

Activity
3. hangs about the office 4. handed over the money
5. viciously turned on John 6. saw through the term
7. gave in my essay 8. saw through her disguise
2. Draw phrase-markers for (1) He shouted out the answer and (2) I
gave my essay in.
Feedback
1)
1. Transitive Phrasal verb + NP 2. Prepositional verb + PP
3. Prepositional verb + PP 4. Transitive Phrasal verb +NP
5. Prepositional verb + PP 6. Transitive Phrasal Verb + NP
7. Transitive Phrasal verb + NP 8. Prepositional verb + PP
88
2)
2.1)
NP VP
Vgrp NP
He
[ Trans]
[Phrasal]
t he answer
V
shout ed out
2.2)
NP VP
Vgrp NP Prt
I [ Trans]
[Phrasal]
in
V my essay
gave
Summary
In this lesson you learned how to represent Adjunct Adverbials in phrase-
markers.
Summary
89
Lesson 4: Sentence Adverbials
At the end of the lesson you should be able to distinguish adjunct

adverbials from sentence adverbials and represent the latter in phrase
markers.
Lessons Outcomes
How long?
All adverbials looked at so far are adjunct adverbials. We have seen that
they are modifiers of a VP within a higher VP. Adjunct adverbials
might then be called ‘VP-adverbials’. In this section we contrast them
with other kinds of adverbial, which we shall group together as ‘sentence
adverbials’ (S-adverbials).
Compare the following sentences:
1. Buster admitted everything frankly.
2. Buster admitted everything, frankly.
In sentence [1] the italicised constituent functions as an adjunct adverbial,

a VP modifier. In [1] frankly tells us the manner of Buster’s admission
(Buster was frank). But this is not how you understand sentence [2] with
the comma. Here frankly describes how the speaker/writer of [2] feels she
herself is expressing what she has to say. Here it is the speaker writer
who is being frank in saying that Buster admitted everything.
Frankly in sentence [2] functions as a SENTENCE ADVERBIAL. Notice

the use of the comma. Generally, S – adverbial provide some comment
by the speaker/writer about the fact she is reporting or about how she
feels about what she is saying. They are called ‘S-adverbials’ because, in
90
contrast to the VP-adverbials of the last section and the adjunct adverbial
in sentence [1] above, a ‘S – adverbial’ does not modify anything within
the sentence. They are, in fact, only loosely associated with the sentence.
In contrast to ‘VP-adverbial’ which functions as a modifier of VP within
a higher VP, the ‘S-adverbial’ modifies the sentence within a higher
sentence .Here are the phrase-markers for [1 and 2].
1)
VP
NP
VP AdvP
Buster
Vgrp NP
[Trans] frankly
V
admitted everything
2)
S
AdvP
VP
NP
Vgrp NP frankly
[ Trans]
Buster
V
admitted everything
Notice that the S-adverbial interpretation is the more natural when the
adverbial occurs at the beginning of the sentence:
3. Frankly, Buster admitted everything.
The phrase-marker representation of sentences [3] is as follows.
S
AdvP
VP
NP
Frankly
Vgrp NP
Buster [Trans]
V
admitted everything
91
Activity
1. Draw phrase-markers for the following sentences.
1. Mildred will see him, surely. .
Activity 2. Max can do the tango awkwardly.
Feedback
1)
S AdvP
NP VP
Surely
Mildred Vgrp NP
[Trans]
V
will see him
2)
S
VP
NP
VP AdvP
Max
Vgrp NP
[Trans] awkwardly
V
can do the tango
92
We have only looked at constituents that can function as both VP –
(adjunct) adverbials and as S-adverbials. Some AdvPs and PPs can only
be interpreted as VP – (adjunct) adverbials. Examples are: noisily,
sideways, with grace and speed. Conversely, other AdvPs and PPs can
only function as S-adverbials. Examples are: unfortunately, certainly, of
course, possibly, perhaps.
In particular, there is a group of AdvPs and PPs that have a quite specific
interpretation and can only have an S-adverbial function. Examples are:
(AdvPs) nevertheless, therefore, furthermore, thus, however, incidentally,
and (PPs) on the contrary, by contrast, in other words, for a start, in
conclusion, on the other hand. These S-adverbials are also known as
conjunctions. They indicate what kind of relation holds between the
sentence they modify and the surrounding discourse. They serve to link
distinct and grammatically unconnected sentences into a coherent and
structural discourse. As a result, notice that when a conjunction,
functioning as a S-adverbial, is present, the sentence sounds odd in
isolation, as if it has been ripped out of context. Examples:
4. In short, you are fired.
5. You have got no clothes on, for a start.
Here is the phrase-marker for sentence [4].
PP VP
NP Vgrp AP
[Intrans]
V
in short You are fired
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Unit summary
In this unit you learned what adjunct and sentence adverbials are and how
to represent these in phrase-markers. You also learned how to distinguish
particles of phrasal verbs from prepositions as well as how phrasal verbs
Summary
are represented in phrase-markers.
Assignment
A. Identify the sub-category of the Vgrp and the function of the major
constituents in the following sentences (i.e. dO, iO, sP, oP, PC, aA
[for adjunct adverbial])
Assignment 1. This so-called music will drive me mad, for a start.
2. I will be with you in two shakes.
3. We can celebrate this with an Indian take-away.
4. The Academy has turned out some brilliant tricksters in its time.
6. Incidentally, I have sold your vests to the museum.
7. Luckily enough, they gave in in seconds.
8. Phil brought the child up too strictly, in my opinion.
B. Draw phrase-marker for sentences [1, 2 and 6 above]
94

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MODULE

Language Description - Sintax

Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Fax: +258 21-322113

Author: Eugénio Simbine

Instructional Designing: Andrea Serra

Language Review: Trindade Naharra

Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Getting around this MODULE 8

How this MODULE is structured

 If the course is suitable for you.

 What you will already need to know.

 What you can expect from the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Where to get help.

 Course assignments and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

 Course content and structure.

 Course reading materials and resources.

 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

—is this course for you?

Teach large classes without resources needed to accomplish their task.

Upon completion of Language Description – Syntax you will be able to:

 Identify and analyse sentence constituents

 Identify the functions of the constituents and name their

 Describe the structure of the verb groups

You should spend at least 2 hours a day to read each lesson

You should take at least two hours on self-study.

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

Faculty of Languages: English Department

Rua: Comandante Augusto Cardoso no. 135 Maputo

Telephone: 21 420860-2 or 21 306720

Monday to Friday: 8:00 to 12:00

In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

For any assistance related to academic issues the Provincial English

We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Getting around this MODULE

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Sentence Structure: Constituents

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 What a structure is;

 How to establish constituents of a sentence;

 The difference between phrase and constituent.

By the end of this unit you will:

It is advisable to spend 90 minutes on this lesson.

a. such thing is divisable into parts called constituents;

b. there are different kinds of parts, i.e. different categories of

c. the constituents are organised in a specifiable way;

d. each constituent has a specific function in the structure of the thing.

a) spokes b) wheel c) handlebar d) frame e) saddle f) spoke

In order to form a bicycle these constituents must be assembled in a

We said earlier that each constituent may consist of further constituents.

If the course is suitable for you.

What you will already need to know.

What you can expect from the course.

Where to get help.

Course assignments and assessments.

An introduction to the unit content.

Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Course content and structure.

Course reading materials and resources.

Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Identify and analyse sentence constituents

Identify the functions of the constituents and name their

Describe the structure of the verb groups

What a structure is;

How to establish constituents of a sentence;

The difference between phrase and constituent.

what sentences are made up of and should be able to identify their

In this lesson you will learn how to identify the immediate