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28 McIntyre, Robert. The Bulgarian Anomaly: Demographic Transition and Current Fertility.
– Southeastern Europe, 7, 1980, No 2, 147–170.

29
&

Hajnal,
John. European Marriage Patterns in Perspective. – In: Popul
tion in History. D. V. Glass, D. E.
Eversley (eds.). London. Arnold Press, 1964, 101–143.

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1 , . !1 %!0!…, 104–112. ! 0#! 0!%!&! 0!"3-
!+ 0!!3 !3 %- ! + !! #!1 %-
+ !+# (#$ +, ; 14, 1882).

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= 105

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. !, $%' % 0! ( 0 A-
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. 112. "01( % !+1 ! (.
106

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0 0!!1 +!5 ! + 30 !% # ! +!
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!3 !! #!1 !+ !+!1 0 1908 . -

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"+ !% 30 ! , 0!! 0! % 6-0 -
3, 0!+ !!; !% 1( 04, # , &
3 #%!, 0!1+! $! 0% + 0! 1+!+! %;
31 % % 0# !%. !3 !+!! 1( !&+!!
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0!%#$ !% " %3! #" +! 5, +!-

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0/ %/+ 0+! 0 1909 .
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% ! !%, +!1! #1 0 3"0 +B/, #-
' ! 34 #1' 0+! 0!% 0! "/;
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+! & +!0 „ % 0!3, %! % 0%1 1
1, +!1! % "$ "$+ 0!6 1“, !!#
& + &! !+!!; 0 ! 0!!$ %! %"+ !-
%, 0! 5 %5+/, & 0!-+! !0.6
!3 !! #!1 '+ !+!1 ! 1909 . !+!-
6+1 + !&1 +! % ! !3/ ' -
3' 0 % !%3 %, +!! 3 0!6 1 "$-
4
"4. !3 "+1…, ; 11–12, 727–738, /. . 733.
5

, . !! #!1 !+…, . 244. #'1 %"( #1-
! +%/ 0! $. , . !%!&%1! . – #
(, 1, 1907, ; 5, 169–176; , . 3 !3+6 !+#…,
; 2, 45–50, !!&. . 47; !%4 !3 1910 . +B%+1 !+#$ +, 21–21.
6 ! !0!% +!…, 381–384.

.
= 107
/, ! #' !% ! 30! !% #%!,

0 %(, %#3 0!%!, + +/ 00+
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1+! 0 1!! & 1 %!!+!, 3:
1 ! !% 0( % 1%+ 1, "1, +!1! 0! #-
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1911 . % + !&!&' !3 %" 0!!$! 0-
6 !% #1: 0 3 0!3! 3 (& !3-
) 0! %!#3! %!&!+3 !%, ! 6-
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3 %(.10
7
, . 3 !! #!1 '+…, . 83.
8 , . 3 !! #!1 !&3+…, . 89.
9 0!!$! &!% ! $. !%4 !3 1910 . "-
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0+-
!+ 6! 1909 . ., 1911, . 111. !# 00!#3 0 -
+ +%/ !3 #1.
10 3 !! #!1
0+!+…, 110–113.
108

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. 2.
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%! !% %!1 ! 34 # 0 !%!-
0!!% ( 0+ +B/):
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0! . #, +#%! !%3 &! %#$ (#-
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!&' %/ %- # >!3.14
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!, +! 0!3 ! ! %!, 1( – ! / 3
(%!+! 05 ! & "%!&). ! +1 1939 . +! 0!-
3 ! 0!! %! (57 ! 97 %) & 0#! !%!&%,
15 – 33!; ! 4289 ! 380 0#! 596 33! !%!-
&%1.15

J
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(#1 0! 0! 1( 1++ &!+"/, +B3! "0!
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11
, . !! &!"!6!…, . 11.
12
#$ +, ; 166, 1891.
13
, . 3 !3+6 !+#…, ; 2, . 47.
14 , . !&'!! +""!!…, 576–580.
15 , . !1 !$…, 72–73.

.
= 109
! !+ & ! 3 ! 06$ !! '.

!&! &!% !01. % %
01+! %! !! 3! %!+% „0! 3“ ! 1883 . 3
!/ 1$!!:
0#+ 3!, /"B' 4 !/ !51,

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(1882 .) -0+!# 0! %/+ 3 %- +!-
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!! #!1 !51 %! 1897 . (+!"-
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!&+; 01! 0!!6+, ! & 0 %; !&# +#%
% % #(" 1++ 5!; !!% 0!3 0!%
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0! "+ 0! 4!+ 1(, 31 ++, 0!'1 01 0!
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0! , #41! #&'! 0! „ $, +5,
+#3 "“; % &1 ( 0 %( $+!! !%-
); !%!0!!% !4+ !% ! !1, 3 ! +!6! %! 1898 . &
16
! 3. !+% %! !! !3!. – #$ +, ; 97, 1883,
. 897.
17
. &! !! %! 1$! #1. – #$ +, ; 140,
9 %+. 1882; , ! . !%4 !3 !! #!1 %+ !+#. – #-
$ +, ; 40, 20 0. 1882.
110

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„!&+! % +, 0!+ 0!3, $% +!!

+, 0"+ !! , !%! !% +
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0% !%!! #&; #' 0 %#$%!1 ! !6 3 „&#-
+ /1“.19
# %!+% %! %+1 !&'+ # ! 1904 . !&#-
' (& , &"!) !&(!%! ! $%-
+/1 %, 0!$ 0!6 !% 0$1 -
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%" &!.20
!!$! &! 0!-%!&! #0+ 0!-!&!6!! -
. %!+% ! 1891 . %+! $%+ %-
+/1 3 !&!+ + !+#:
% &!+"/ ! % % "3 %#$%!! !

+ 1 + "/ 0!(!%, +! 03 #/!,
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1 /1!! !, !%! &"( &!.21
3+1 !+#$ +, +!6! 3 0 0%#+

0! ', .. 0!+! 0 4!+ "/,
!0 1(!! #!1 0!1 " 6! 0 1910 . +:
! "/ %#$%!! ! 0!! #!-

& +, %! 0!3 #'!!, '!!
!! %+ +B31 "/ %! 0,
% % 4! 0!+ % % 3+#, +!6! #! 0!-
3! ! 0# %& ! +# 01#+, 3 %#$%!!
!&" !!& !6 ! +, +! 0!3 1%+, "( -
!% !&" #'! +# !6 0(, +!6! ! 1#
!&" ! / !&/.22
18
>! 0! ", . !%!! %…, 327–328.
19
" , . #+ %+ 1879–1884.
. 1. ., =. . !, 1930, . 21.
20 !+% ! + % %! +1 %+!-!&'+ # 0! &!"!6-
!! % (! . !). , 1904, 8–10.

21 !+% %! - # #4 % (! %+! $%+ -
%+/1 %- L3). – #$ +, ; 166, 1891, . 18.

22 !%4 !3 1910 . 3+1 !+#$ +, . 12.

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= 111
!1 03 # !3+ & %+ +-

/. !&# ( "+ % ! !%, +!! ! !-
! + $!, ++! ! $!+ !0%#/. % -
%!+% ! 1899 . & ++ $% !56+ +/,
0% % 0! 0!%!& ! M # ! %:
( %!0% % !% 4 % 0! 3!

1$+ + – 0!-%!" ! J1 !. ! 4 0!%
% , 0! 1+! /, +!6! !% &4 +#,
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1902 .):
3+!, 3 0!! %! . !"3, ! 0+ !$ % 0!%%#-

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0!'1.24
0! ! #% !&', !!&! +!! & -

% !&! +!0 0+!, +!! 0! #!$ %!#0
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23
, . !/1…, 10–11.
24
, . !%4 !3 & !-(3!! #!1 . 0
1902 . – !0 ++1 #B, 1, 1903, 402–421, /. . 410. 1911 . +-
/ 0!%#$ % &#% #'!! #!1, ++! $% ! !%4 !3
"+1 !+# 1910 . (%- "3). ", 1911, 53–54. 0! 7 #-
1' !! &( ( !&&!+ +!$) 1 , #'! ( %!-
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25 #. !3 "+1 !+#…. 46; , . 3 !!
#!1 !&3+…, . 87.

112

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1908 .) +"0 ! &B%1:

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> 0!3! ! 0!( 0% !6.

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"/1, %! ! – % #%% " ! 3"! +#
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= # +! 1&! % #+ -
26
3 !! #!1
0+!+…, . 34, 106–107. !-0/-
! "+ %! !, ! 1(!/ 1+!/ 0 1909 ., ! !&'
&#+ %!; , . 3 !! #!1 '+…, .
190; 3 !! #!1 '+… (! %- . !), 29–30; 3
#!1! +!! !+#$ +!!3+!, %3+!, 0!4! %"
!!41 0 1891 1892 !%. , 1892, . 8; #. !3 "-
+1…, 730–731; , . $+ 0! !! #!1 "-"+…, .
189; !%4 !3 1910 . %+1 !+#$ +, . 11. $. #'! $, .
!1 % .
. 3. ., 1929, 158–159; , . " !! %. ",
1929, . 55.
27 , . B%$ !3+ (A%/+1 &B%$), 860–861.

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= 113
!! %! !&'+!! !"0 % 01 03

0!-4!+ +# ! (!. ! + 6-3! ' #%6 !
41 ( # &
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% "3 0!-3 + 0! 3 ".
0#+ "36 !&!1, +! 0! !0! ! (! 0
1909–1910 ., !% %! %$ (
+, + !. !-#+ !6 !4 +!!3+
!/ "/1 !! %! %#! #(!. !-!
0! &1 0 30- !% == .

N
H
+ ( !&-

' (#!+ %") %" %1, %#$ !&-
'+ % 0. 3! (', +#3 !/
0! !!. #/, #!1 & 03
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%+ (! !/ 0!%! % !&!$%!
(0!-%!& ! ! !51, !% ):
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!&/: ! %#! 3##! % !1 %! 0!
%, 0# %!&3 . % 4!+ 3 1
%# #&! 0!% !+#$ %! 0!+6 0#1 +.
! 1 %% ; (! 1 „coram populo“,
3 0! #/ &+. 1 , +
#'! 0!%! 0! !&, 0 [!%#], !; ! !-
3 0%#+, '!! 3! 0 !!+ "&.
6! 01 0!+' 1+#% ! !&!
%!1 +. 1+! ! 1 (!, 3! !0, 0!3!
#/, #3( % &#% ""$ !!, %!&# 0!-
; %" 0#+ (! 0#+#, 0!% ! #!1
!'! #3 ! %, 6-!1! #0 !3+-
% #.28
28
" , . 1$! #1. !%, =. . !, 1899, . 273. (-
!! #!1 (! %, . 0! ! (!+!! !. – #-
(, 5, 1911, ; 10, 361–362; # &$+ #(" (3+!! 0!!$ #-
1. – A%/+ &%, 4, 1898, ; 4, 235–242.
114

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=+! !$!! +#3 &! 1! 6--

+1 3! ! # #%!; 0%"-
$' 0! #'! & !$ #1. +!6-
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%1 0 !&+!+ 0! 0 1910 .:
!% 1( % #% !% – ! +, B3 /+! +!-
5, – +!6! 0+ 34; % 0+ +# #% !% 0, 1-
+!1 0/ „“ 1+!+! # 03 &# ,
1( 0., %' % 0/53 . […] !! 1+!6 !
0! 0 +1 , +#31 34, 0+ 1
!0!1 #% 1 ("0 1(, !#/ ! ! -
0 !&'1 #%. […] 5! 0!!1 0!%1 0! #'1
3; 34+ 0+ % B3, !% +!6! 0 /1
% 0!1 +# 3 1 3 # +! +5. %
0+! 34+ &#4 % +#03+, +!1! 0%!&
/ +5!. […] % &#% + 0!-0#, 1& % #+-
!1 5+, 3 0 0!3 3+ + 06 %1
!% &++ !+, #%! 0!%! +#3.
+# #'1 +#3, +!6!, +! , ! +-
+"0"3, +#3 % 0 +5, % 0!%1 0!-
! %. 01.29
%+/ 5" (1& %" !&' ( %! !-

„%"“) %1, +!! 0!0% 0!% 0!%
. 0+/1 38 %++ %1 0 1911 . 0+-
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# 5&+ &!&! „L“ !%!, %! 01 0-

+, %!! (!% +6! # "$+, !%!
#! !3 0! 1 !! !%.
0+ +-
%# #'; "+#. %! 1!, &
! % 3 #!1; !%, + 0! 1, !1. A!3
&!1 &!, % /0 !&"' 3!0. "!! !%
!4 0!%! !!0!! & 0!! – !
29 , !. = 06 %1. – # (, 4, 1910, ; 7,
234–238, /. 235–236. $. % + +#3 !56+ !+!1 0 1898 . ,
. %+…, ; 5, 312–313. #'!! !1 +!/ , -
. 3 !3+6 !+#, ; 2, . 48. $. #'! & , '. 6-
%1 " . – &'! %, 3, 1920, ; 6, 169–174.

.
= 115
1. ! 0! #4, 0!3 3+ 3!0#.

[…] 1 &!/ !%!, %! "$+, 1& % &#-
% &"!! !, +! 1 + + % !0 0"&-
+ % 1% &!&! + 5+ ! "$+…
A!3 00 # ++ 0., 00 1 -
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0!+!6!…30
% %+ ! +!/ %- 3, 0%"$ 0+!

"3 % ! %+/:
&4!! 4 5+ ! 4+ !! &4! 3

34. !# &4 +6! 3. &+!! %1
#!4 ! # 1 6, 0 !$ & +!, #'-
4 ! !1. #'1, 0%!& 3 4!+!% /1, !-
0 # (, !6 %., #%1 +! 0. ' " !
% # +3!, % 3 #% 1+!+! . &1
0! +! (!%. #/ " %! + /0 # !
+ 3! #%!. >1!! " 1! & 3!, !+ 1-
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! 0!1%#3! 0! 1 #4+ %. "1 &!+
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30 # , (. 4 %+/ !&' (. – # (-

, 5, 1911, ; 2, 68–73, /. . 71. 0 % %" %+/.
31
+ , 70–71.
116

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% " ! % 1 + !01 -

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+!6! %", 0! #' „& 0+“ ! ! +#0,
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32 , . (&!0+/ " . – # (, 2, 1908, ; 10,
345–350. $. (&!0+/ #'! &, . 4 (&/ 0+/. –

# (, 5, 1911, ; 6, 211–217.
33 , . 4 &#/. – # (, 3, 1909, ; 3, 90–95; -
/ !1 (. – %, 5, 1906, ; 10, 609–614, !!&. . 612.

34 , ". !& 0( 0#3+ !. – # (, 4,
1910, ; 3–4, 100–110.

35 ) , . A+!&%1! %! # #+ ( 1+!!. .,
1930, 46–47.

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= 117
0 0/! ! % % 0!%!

% !&!$%! ! 0!%(!%1' % ! 3
/ /. +#$ "01, %+ #, &!/, -
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. +! !$ % !3+, &! 0!%!& "!1 ! !% %!
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&! ! #/ . . !&' (!/) (.36
! +!+ " 0%! 5&3 (.
"!1 "% ++ %"1 B' ! 3-
!! == . (1905 .) 0! !0! 1 H"! . -
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1
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! !(+. 1903 . %+ ++ 0% 39 0!!! -
!3 ! 5&+ +!, 3 ! 2 ! 1( %, !-
– +"5!G!, #%!&!, !+# 0.38 1901 %!
1904 . ! "&+"! " 25 &!3+, +!! %+
! &1 . %1 % 0! 0! 5&+
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36
, . %1 !%! !/ (. – !+3+ 0%, 4,
1906, ; 5, 505–511.
37 *#, "(. %"1 B' 6 "!1 "%. –
0 #+!! +!!3+! %"$!, 9, 1905, ; 7, 433–442, !!&. . 435. $.

&, . %"1 B'. – !+3+ 0%, 1, 1902–1903,
; 19, 372–376.
38 %+ ! 0! 0B+ %+ ++ ! 0% 3 ": &,
. %"1…, . 375 (! 39 &!3+ – 2 %, 15 &!#%, 10 !-

+#, 3 +!5"G!, 3 +, 3 !3 &!, % &!, % # !4-
&!, % +!$ &!, % !&'! ! &).
118

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!$ '!$ !& ! 25 . !%1 0# 3 ! !-

3 +#' 0 !' 0!-(3 "!1 0 +# +-
#$1 (3 # !%, +!6! ! !& + %-
! 0!%#$ % 0!' 5&+.
3!4+ "!1 "% %#$ „+“ +# 1909 .
!0 +! ! %- 3. % %6 ! 1( "!-
1 + 0!'1 0!3+ 0 &!/ ( 0!
1+!+!! %"4): & +/1 !% 3!, &-
&!! (#1 "$/, &!/ – „0 #0+ +-
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!& 0%1 0! 1 "3 (%#!-
!%4 0+! "%) ( "!1 "% !1
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"% ! 1910 %! 1914 .40 !-#+ ' / 1+! #%#$'
!01 %.
1910 . "3 0! !&'! 137 %1 22
%, +!! +!, 3 „0 6-(!% !% +# 0-
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39
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( 03 !! . – # (, 3, 1909, ; 1, 17–22, !!&. . 20.
40 # , (. N!1 ' "% #1. 0+/ +.
(0!, 0% # #!1, 0!4! "% 0 1910–1915

!%). ., 1919. 0%!! !# +, 3 #0+ ! !11 ! % -
! !%4 0! & 0"&+" ! A!! #!1, 0!4!
"% ( 1+! %! & 3). 03! 0! %#$ "361
5+, 3 !6 %+! #$ 03/.
41 # , (. N!1 '…, 242–243.
42 + , . 239.

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= 119
! 0!(!%. !%!& "$/ '( !! , !

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+:
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0!31 &!3+ $'. ! & #6 "$! 0%-
! &#(, +! , %( 0. & #6 0#, 3
+"& +! ! "$ 0!% 6-! %1 & 0-
!, +! % %/ !0"+, % +#01, 31
%!6% & .43
0+ 0 1911 . !&'! 236 %1 6 % "3

(3 ! +! &! 0!'1 122; 103 0%-
1 0!-!1 0!-+ !0! %! &!/.
0! 0 1912 . !&'! 168 %" %1 6 %
"+ !+# ! 1 141 !+ „ 0!1%#3
3!, 0!# +, 0(, 01$, +"0' &!+"/, !+, #
!% 0.“. 0+/ 0 #' !% 133 %"
136+ %1 9 % !!+ !+# !% -
(3 !+ 49 ( ! 3! 8 „0!%$' !/+“ – "(-
/ 0 5&+), #0! (3 – 72, (3 – 12.44
1914 . "3 0+ 97 %1 7 (
"+, + J"+ !+#). 1( ! 26 %1 0!%-
%#$ 3, ! 71 & „!/! +"" !0!-
%1 &!+“. ! !!4 $' "!1 3 %!!:
43
+ , 240–241.
44 + , % #!! . 284, 339, 359.
45 + , % . 393, /. 393–394.
120

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"+ ( 5&+ 0!! ! ! &!3+

$', ! #$ +! 3 0%3 3!/.

+ 1( (+".
#, !+ + 0!!/, #+
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%+ !&!. […] L' 0 #++ 5&+ &%$
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0! # #!/ + +"6+-3+ !&-
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0/ . !% ! 0! 0!1 0#+ !
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0+/1 121 %1

#!+ !+# J" 0 1914 .
+!, 3 0!3 0!! (3 (! 1( 9 #0, !
0#+ 8 0!%$ 1). !# #$% &!3+ $-
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%+ !+!! # 1 %, #/! !! ! !

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#'", '!! , "$ 01 0 1 1(
#%& ' #!$ %#+, %#, +!, !&
0. "$/ – +! % 0! 3!+ % 0!. A-
1 0! /1 +!%! 1, +!1! %
$'.46
0+/ (190 %1) # %+ 3+ !+#

0 1914 . +!! %!!: 109 /1! (3, 81 (-
3 (42,6%), ! +!! 0!%$' 1 7. 0+ -
%1 & %&, 136+ 0 1( 1! 0/ &!3-
+ $':
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!, "$ 01, 1+#% 0!&# +"(1. 6-3!
33 01 0! %#+, ! 1, 0! . '
!&3 %# +. " 01 0/ , 0
46
+ , % . 411, /. . 414.
47
+ , % . 434, /. . 435.

.
= 121
%! 50–60 !3. 1(!! 34+ 03

1' +5, #% % ! # 0 .47
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L
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4! 0% 0.49 6-0 & . . " ( !-
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1(!+!, +!0!+! +!. !5# # A! 0!-
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% !' %"0+, +!! 3 , ! 1 0, 1 +#-
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%! !0 +#' !+ !+!1 ! !3 !+#$1

+ 1908 . #$% # #4 !&!+:
48
# , (. #+!! &!3!…,110–111.
49
$. 0 %!&!! 3! !0 /, /. !&!$%!
!+""!!…,129–156. !# $% #0 +1 80- 0 90- !-
% =I= . 0! %+ +#', 0 +!! 3 „%!&"$! +#'“ ( „-
!06+ (+"“), „%&!&"$!“ „!% %+ +#'“, „0!+
+#'“, +!+ $' ( % 0!% ); 0 + +#' 0 ! %!%-
+# %"% !!%.
50 , . %! ' +"" 0% #1. – &!+
!% "!!1, "+ +$, +. 18, 3 2, 1901, 1–201, !!&. 9–20, /. .
9. $. ! , ". A !51…, 43–45; # , # .
N +#' "+ #1. – !%4+ !56+1 ". !+!-5-
!!3+ 5+", . 30, 1934, 1–76, !!&. 12–14, 19–20. &!1! ! 1888 . %
122

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: , …
+!! $ % +#', „&!%“ (+#'

1). !%1 +!0 %"0+ 1, 0!+ !! # -
, +"+"" #& 1; !# % 2–3 !%1,
%!!, 3! „+#'“, %#$ 0!+#', &4!!, +/ #
0., "+ !'! 4!+ +! %, -
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!!01 $1 03+, 0!%# " 0#, $, #, !-
1 %! % + 0!!3, 0 + #+-
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! / +6! &% &#.51
! %!4 $! – 0/, , !/ &! – 3!

%#$ „+#'“, .. 0!'! !'!. + $!
0!%!& $' 0 ++ (, % 0% 1 # -
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3, !' #%"(, 0(, %, +! – !!&! &&!6
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/ – # +, +!1! 1 !' 0!-
3 +#'1 #%"(. +, „!&“, +!! 0!-
!! #! ++ 3!! !&, #%"(# &,
!!&! , %! #!$! ! 0 !%!-
!%, # +, %, !1' 0! ! !0/, "' . . -
#! !+ (3+! !!4 #% &!01!
1 %!.52
# !$/ ! !! 0-

!, 0!%!& $' &#! 1 !+!, +#%! '.53

03 6-0! + (0#+ %+) $' !
+1 =I= . 0#!! % == . 3 !!&!
0! 0 ! ".54 +# & 0 ! %# ,
213 ' " +#', !&'! 19 529 +#', +#%! $ 238 000 %"4. 3+ &-
"+ #1 – ! .
!+ %! '!. !%4 !3 1910 . %+1 !+-
#$ +, . 9.
51
, . !! #!1 !+…, . 242.
52 ! , ". A !51…, 43–44.
53 !1 " +#' 0% ! 20 346 0 1888 . 14 747 0 1893 . $. -
/, /. !&!$%! !+""!!…, . 139. ! " ! 0-

&!1 % 1 1" 1888 . ., 1890, . 330 .; " ! 0&!1
% 1 1" 1893 . ., 1898, . 283 .
54 01 $'! !&!+ ": ! , ". A -
!51…, 45–46, 57; & , &. 46 1. – "+, 1, 1881, ; 6, 447–455, !!&.

.
= 123
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& ! %#+, 0!+# 0!+ /3 #& ! (" 0!--
!$ – +%, 0 – 0!3). 3 $'
#' % (1%+! ) !%1 – „+#'“ !' +! ( & 0!-
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% + 0!!3 – #+ ! (1 # 0 03 #+-
! +0/. ! ! 0!' !$! "! % +! +-
3 %(. 01! 6-3! 1, #(" +!1 %"
3 ( 0!3) ! %# !%; !!01 $
03+ ! ! !'!, 6-%!&1 "36 0!%%#$-
' 0!-! 0" "( 03+, +! ! %#
0!3+ ! "4 ! – /. ! 0!"# "-
$ ! ', + + 0, +! 0!-%!&! – 0-
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&#% !%! 0!% % #' 0!+ – ! !&1 #%"(.
' %"$ +#', !!&! &++ , +! %!1
$ & %!&#+, !1 ( %! % !%1) $! -
6!!. !% !&! %# +# &++
+#' 3! & 0!-!% ! 0!+.
%+ +#' 0 0! #'1 3 ! #'1 , !
3 & "! 0!-!, 0!-3, , 0! % %! 0 ,
0!1+! % +, %!1 – $ !& $ 0
449–450; , . + $' 1(!! 0!%!&. – # (, 1,

1907, ; 3, 113–118; 3 !! #!1
0+!+…, 115–116; #-
. !3 "+1…, 731–732, 737; , . 3 !! #!1-
!&3+…, ; 2, 86–87; , . !$ !!…, 14–18; ,
. $+ 0! !! #!1 "-"+…, 287–288; , . -
3 !3+6 !+#, +. 2, 46–47; /, . # 1 !3 1901
. B+ !+!1. – 0 !56+!! %/+! %"$!, 2, 1901, ; 7–8,
348–369, !!&. 348–351;
, . !! #!1 !+…, 242–245;
!%4 !3 1910 . %+1 !+#$ +, . 9; !%4 !3 1910 . -
3+1 !+#$ +, 15–18, 35; !%4 !3 1910 . "+1 !+#$ +,
19–21; , . 3 !! #!1 '+…, . 82.
124

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%#& 1 +. B4 (0# %") !-

!+ 3. ' %! 0!-%!& +#' – 0!-
!, 0 +#+ 03 "(, 0!+ +%, %!6
#+ 0!!/. 0!%!& +#' ! %# %B4, 0!-%!&
03+, 01! !% %B4/ B (0"3-
) ! # +!1 3. 0#!! % == .
0 !!! %+ +#' 1++# 0, 0!-0/!
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= "!1 !!1 &!6 $' & !4. !%# &
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( 0"4+, ! +1 ! (+ !-
$% 0$1), ! !!0! !! 0!3 (/ ! "4
!), ! "(# , ! "4! /#", "', !0/, %(
0. (! 3! 0%!& anthracosis & %!&!). %/
(3 !&3 !4 !' 0!3 & %"! !4 "!1,
!!&! !&'!! ( ! % #%!, &1! % 0!1
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1 %(, 1%+!! +#0, #'! 0 !/1 &!-
.
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%! ! !0 3 $! 1 (0 1881 .) %-
0% (!% 0!/1, ! %#! & #'
0!1:
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!/ 03/; 1 #( !0 %(. 41
1 !% !' 0#!& 5 $!; !6 % %
3% +#', +!1! "$ %, "$ +!!
%. 1 0& !6 3–4 31%, !, %#', "/ %$
0"/. !1 #'! #6 +!!. % 0, (#1-
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+!6 +! /1, ! 0! 0!-!1 3 ! + 31%. -
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1. !!0 $'! 1 '! 0!!: !#1
!'!, 0!%%#$ 6% %#, , %! 0!% 0-
– /, ! %3+6 !3+ !0 $'!
6- !.55
55 & , &. 46 1, 449–450. !3! ": ! , ". A
!51…, . 57.

.
= 125
+1 =I= . % %! ++! !0 #-

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&! $+ "3 ( %"):
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1 0!1+! %! 30 0!3 %"4. 3 + # -
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4 $! (, /, 0/, $&3, +!+!4+ %.). 0-
+ +!3+, +!! 0! %!4 $!,
% +!3+ 01 %/, +!! 1+! +#' 0! 10–15
0!3, 0! 03, 3 !! $ &1 $1 %!. […] !
3+! ! 0!% , ' 0!1, 3 1+! + +#-
' !1 !+! $+, '!! 3!+, +! + % 1(, 0-
"% % 0 0% , % 0# #% #4 0!-
3 #%"(, 0! % # % & !!.56
%!! !+!! +#' #'! !&! 3! ! $!-

, 1+!6 ## "4 ! (+!6! 0!+ 0! !-
), %! (#1 # !% (0!1), 0 %#$% 3+!
0!%! 0!3 ' 0+!3, B& 0!1, 6+ !3-
+ #!$ .57
!3+ ! 1908 . %/+1 &B%$ (!! #!1

!&'! +!
!%!! !&!&' "/1 +:
+! %4 +#' 41 1 0!%(!$% 3 0!-1%+! -

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' +" 0!.
! 0"'! % , !& 0!-
!!, & 0, 3+, $, "36! ++.
"(1, 01, !&%, – 3+! . #%"(, %"4 ! 01-
!$! 3 %(, !# ! 5/1
0!%"+, +% . ++ #!$! !-
56
, . %+…, ; 12, 829–833, !!&. 829–831.
57
& , '. '. – &'! %, 5, 1922, ; 8, 234–238;
! , ". A !51…, 47–48; , . %+…,
; 12, 828–829; !%4 !3 1910 . 3+1 !+#$ +, . 19; !%4 !3
1910 . "+1 !+#$ +, . 21; !%4 !3 1910 . +B%+1 !+-
#$ +, 15–16.
126

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"+1 !+#$ +, . 20; !%4 !3 1910 . 0!%+1 !+#$ +,
. 15.
60
3 !! #!1
0+!+…, . 106, 116.

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+ "04 & +/1 '+ !+!1 0! #'!! -
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61
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62
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63
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A !51…, . 47.

64 , . "$%/ #1…, . 85; 1+. !%4 !3 !-
! #!1 % !! 0 1896 !%. – A%/+ &!+, 3, 1897, ; 5, 350–
355, !!&. 354–355; !%4 !3 1910 . 3+1 !+#$ +, 18–19.
65 , . "$%/…, . 87.
128

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3 ! 0!0. #'1 # , . !-
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67 , . !1 !$…, 72–73.

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130

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2, . !%4 !3 !! #!1 +/+ !+!1 0 1901 . – A%-
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73 , . 3 !! #!1 !&3+…, ; 3, 166–184, !!&.
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74
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+#0! "+! !+!! 1911 . $. !%4 !3 "+1 !+#…,
52–53.
132

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75 5, ". % &#+ =+"&%. (!&1+ 031). – #: "
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76 %#$! +#0. – # (, 5, 1911, ; 2, . 80.
77 !2, . !%4 !3 !!…, 15–16; #. !3 "-
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78 2 , . 0!, . 74; !2, . !%4 !3 !!…, .
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4 !3 1910 . 3+1 !+#$ +, . 34; /, . # 1 !3
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79 , . 3 !! #!1 !&3+…, . 89.

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% %!!&, ! & ( 5 !!&!6-
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80
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81
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(6+ !+!1, 431–432; , . 3 !3+6 !+#,
; 2, 45–46;
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82 ! , ". A !51…, 70–72.
134

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84
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85 , . 3 !! #!1 !&3+…, 168–169.
86 3 , ) . B%+! +'…, 97–100.
87 /, . Pellagra- (6+ !+!1, !!&. 430–431.

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88 # , &. %+!! 0!!%! %!0!. – %, 7, 1921–1922,
; 1, 8–12, /. . 11.
89
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136

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0+ 6! !&('' /1 . 0!%&! %!+
+ % &#% 0, !% % %
+! /1!. % ! !! 0!"3 0!+ (
(!% 1. !+ %! % 0!-$ !%: (!%-
( & 6-!1!! (!%! 0! 1+! %!+!, -
$'! 50 %! 60% ! !&' (!%.
+# !1 0!/ (!% (-
!3, 3 %!+ !3 5! #!$!,
%!+!+!! % %!!1 0!&!, +!1! 5!!3-
90
3 !! #!1
0+!+…, 117–119.
91
!%4 !3 1910 . 0!%+1 !+#$ + (%- . !). !%,
1911, 43–44; !%4 !3 1910 . +B%+1 !+#$ +, 26–27; !%4 !-
3 1910 . "+1 !+#$ +, 32–33.

.
= 137
%!! 3, ! 3 % %"

"$%, 0!3! ! +!! 1 (6-0% ! %"(!-
0!&!, 0! – +"! (, % ! !&+!!
0.). +!! %!+! #1 !&'! 0! "1
(+, 0!$ !+!! 80% ! !6! ( ( 03-
%/) % ! 0!%"+, 0!% !&!! !0!,
! 20% +"0" ! 0. (!% ( %! "%!
%!+! ( 0) &4!! ! 6-!1 %1 (34%),
!! 1! %! !! (13,30%), ! – 1+!! 3 0!-
%"+ (10%), 3#! – 0!%! (6,28%). %!! (1&#
11 0 1938–1939 . ( 0!%"+ &#+!! -
+! !%4 +!"/1 %! 286,8 + 3!+. " 0!-
%"+ &: ! – 16,7 + 3!+, 1+! – 45 8,84 + 3 0!-
%"+, 1,27 + , 120 16/, 6,57 + !!, 77 + 0 15 + +!-
3"/, 18,5 + 0!%!, 15 + +!5, 2,8 + ( %.
#!! +! &1 6-3 ! #(% (73%), -
(15%) &#3 (12%). %" %", ( &#+1 1
& &% , #(% 0!#0 ! 3 (1&.
" !% !+ , 3 %!+ 0!-!+ %!(!% !1
3 ! +! % ! !, 16/, , 1+! %" 0!-+#0
( 0!%"+.92
% 3+! +! & !# % 0! #0!#, ++! 0!-
! !& (, ++# & 0# 0!1. !!# -
&$! +B3 0/+, 1 ! ! +1. -
! 0%(!%!! #!1 ' 1! ' %% !03 0-
/+, %!+! ! 0!-0% 0% , 0!!!
' $% +!, 33! &!. !3! / ! 0/-
+ 0%3 + !/ 5!!, 0! $!-
0% 0 0!-!+ + !6 %, +!! !$ %
! 0!% +# ! #1. 0+ 0/-
+ #/ "' #, 3 0! 3-
0%#+ !-%! !!4, , %, %
1+!+! !6 3 %1. 1 &!"!6-
1 0%#+ 0!3 % "' 0!-3"! 0!% 0%!-
!% 0!, % #3!! 0!%!1 %!
"%! – !!!, !!&! 0 30- !% == .
92 , . = &#+1 1. ., 1946, 137–139. "
"+ +.

.
= 138
136 < . . 2. : , … .
137
!!"#$ %&#'.

(%$%' '") *"-

'+, (/" 0/!"' '"1'" )' (/ 0/2 ("!'""
"#"'"'' #" #3&""'. $ #$' '%/0-
#$-+#'/ $2/ ' 1897 0. #"'"#' ) #'%(' #'(#$
"(/"# #%/)' # " 3"":
#',' 0 /)0"& /)'"' 0/#$' 2/"& (/*"#'"
+/3)* #" #3&""'. #" $' 0/+#'/>#' '"1- /"2" ' " 2; "# '+("' #'"'", 6+2%'
0%!$' " )"#" ' $%,'" " (/""#" % 3/$'"; 20
!"#$ #2#% (/", )#'/", 30+#'/>#' !#'#' -
6+2 "#" +* "# # 0+6", 20 30' /3' $%,
#3" $)*, '+$ ( +/3)* #" /)3/ (-6/$ "# # )(+#'". "0 #" !+ '+$-'2 #2 ("#" /3' ( $%,'",
/)'"' 0/#$ ! &': 3,"#'" #"'#$, /)"!", ') ("#" " )) ' #%,'" !+#', $$' (/"; #"0 #" ("",
#(/' (/., $$' )"' /) '"1!"#$ #' 2'. ) #" /)(% '%0' (/ (-"$ /3'', #"0 #" /3', )
$'/(+$' 0/ $' #'" ', '/' !#' ' 0' " #" +2/" ' 0, " ) 3#%$ '+/#$'" /. *', $'
/)0"& )#','" !#' #'/', 0"''" (/2 #", ," #/","'" ( +*' <"/, (', 0=/,", $$' -
2"1)2'" 2"/)/, (/2 ">' /)/+6'" #'/. $ 21 ", 3/ <)%$, ," ' %)2&#'
(/!"'"'" ( '"1'" +#%/ 3/%!$ !"/', ( '1' 6
3"$ ( '1' 0/"", !" /)!/"' " (% ' #"06-
&'. ""$ " 2&" " 2 #%!+#'+ #%3', " 2-
< K. &" " (/)", !" ' /" ",' " 2&"6" #" %/
3") ' &"/'.1
" #3&""' #'%(' #%,"#'" (/2" )!""' '-
"'" 0/". $ #" /)' )0', +"!>$ #" ( !#"- )("' <(/,* (6" #(2"'" # 1 &/,
#', /+0 )(' #" 3")='; %)$' 0/" (36 $>' 3# ' # '"!"#'' ' '%/0#$'" (%', !" 0/
#"). )0"' +(%$%' 0/"'" #" 2/ )#2#' ' /"- " #" )#' /+#$ >#$, $' /+0" #' )'!$ '%/0
* 3#''"#' >-"!" ': !"' ('!"#$ 2- 30'#'; #2'" $(/,"* #" )3+& )"#' /"2", !" $-
#'/'" *"'%/ (#'*') (/)'!,'" ''+$ )2"#'" ' #" (/ 3%/ (%' ' ) , &""' ' ?& $%2
/"'* 0'" L# #%3,"' +!/""' %/& ( ""/ %0/ ," #" (/""#" ( ' (/"".2 " #3&"-
#/"" #%# #'/' 2("/#$ 2/"&); )2' 2("/#$ 2,3 # "' +(%$ 31 <"/ ( (-2$ </). 03/>'
*"; (+#$"' 20 '+/*, $"' "& (/2" '%/- $"/#$ '"0"* # 2"/ #+&3 #" )#". >'&,
0#$' )!"" $ #",; +(%$ '/* (2%* 6!, 3& /+0 )'! #' $>#$ !*, (/#'-
'"1'" *"'/"; %'/"6' /)#"" $%2 (-(/ 2"#' , $'/C/ '='=" 3/$ (/.3 <0' (/ 3$$' # )
(/. #3" 1/$'"/ # $ (/2". #'/' $) E"/ #" '3 <"/ ( (/"(/%$ # #"$/"-
)$ )(' 3+'" $2!"#$ /)''" (/" 3$#$ '/ ! %(!",, /2 ''2, '> )/ '%/" /)! ">#'-
0/!"', (1/ *' %)/&" # ">* 2'"/ '"#' ' ) #(2"'" # #"$/"'/. +2'" 3/
#/"#'.
(%$%' 2 " #%/) #%# #"' '"1 )'!>#$ (- !", $>' +!" E"/ 3%0/#$:
2%$ /")+'' ' '" +# #%,"#'+": )0+3' 36/-
'+/#$ ()/ )#" )(" #, $$' (/2' $+#"- 1
$ ' 3=/' #$' '%/0#$-+#'/ $2/ ) $2!"#$'
'" '%/#""' #'/'. 1' (#$ /)(&"" '"!"- #%#'" /> #$' '%/0#$-+#'/ $2/ (/") 1895 1896 0-
#' ' & #'/'"0!"#$ (%',, $"' 3 (/"2#' (/"1- . , 1897, 98–99.
2 ,
. (2", 380–381.
' "(1, )() 0 ' (/"2, >#$ 0/3'"#$ 6>$, (/ - 3 +(%$ <"/ ( (-2$ </) #" #3&""' &. , -
'" +# #" (/"/%, #%,"#'" "#''%$. <%2 ' #" 3
. ) ?& %0/. – #%, 11, 1901, I 1, 41–47, I 2, 109–117; I 10, 635–645, #3.
(+#$"' 2 ' 02 !#' ' (-$''" 1/, $' #" (/"2"#' 637–641.
138 < . . 2. : , … .
139
#2 0/ $)%' " 3!6" 1. M/' 3" – !"#' (/'0' /%)$ #%# )('" ()/, $' #" (/#("/'"', ' /' "#-
/%$. /' " )")"6 /)1$ (/" ' #" (/'!' (/$" "/(">#$ $+#" *, #%, ' ', !" 3 *"-
/" 0 1/, '" #2+,' # (/#' #. (/#*'" 2/1 '%/ +#$ "' /"/2'/#$' ">#' 1' (6.
/+0 2"#' ) (/"#/"," '$) 30' $). $1 (
)/) /)' 0/#$ ! &' "/(">#$ " 3
(%',', ) ("', 0"' (/"(01, !" $)%' ," 2" '"
#" /)1&. ' +& '+/' ( #!$ '$) ()* #'/&-
*"'/'" +* #0/, 1'"'" $'", 3//'", /$"#'/'"
/, 0' '") (/#" '$) 1 '%$"/*.4 ""0''" >', 2'" 20) #'$'" '1, /"1'" 3#-
$'" 1/', 3,"#'' ' 3/) (, 0/#$' $/ (
' +(%$ 3 31' >-"!" ") *"'/" #3&"- / )0"), #",'" +/2 (/#+&* 30''" 2", -
#$' 0>'&>#' 3&>#', $' " #" /) 3/! '"$- !"' '2 "#$ 2"3" #$%( (/3/ '. . /%' 3!" 2
#' (/)#', $' 2$, <(/,*, /(, <"/ /.; (/3"2 # ' #" (" +#$ , /)# ' +$$--
)#'" ' $'' # #""", '" #" 0//)/. /", $%"' #$ # 3%! („#$“).6
#" (/"2 $%2 3/! (/)#' $' 3/ ", $- !' MM . "/(">#$' " 0/#$ &' #" +#",-
' #" /2 $' ()/ #/", ) $#'' ($' </), (/- % , $%"' &"" 30' '%/0* )"2""*, 20
%& #" /)' (/ '" +#. ' )2&'" ! 1" /)1$ " # #'/>#$ +-
%)2&#''" ) /)'" 0/"'" )#" >-02 #'"(" 0/#$ (/1.7
' (&""' 2 #(/2 )0/&,' #" &"")(%' 2/"&. #'- " #3&""' )(! +(%$, #', " '$ 3%/) /2-
' )/ #'/ ' (%',' 0/ '/(" )(. 3/', /)- '!", +#$'" 0/". 1' '%/0#$ )!"" 2,
(&" ( '" $2+$* #",, '0 #%#"2 )- #3" # (#'/"' (/#',' +/0# / (/"#!-
/ )3/", )"%& )(! #" /)', $' (/2"/ #"- "' '%/0#$ '/$ '2. (/) $ /'+ ) (/$/"
,' ( 6#"' 2–, ( &( ' /3/–" ('/#" /)$"" *"'/' &( ' , (2"#' 2-
„/"' "$#(/"#“), #",' ( #$%/#$ (/2 (#'2+/ ' *"- '), /"'/#("$* ' " , '/> (20".8
'/' &( ) /. $ #", 3 )#"0' ' '" %/& )0/&"' (/#', #" %& %)1%' $/>2/#$'"
0/*, $)>$ #" $/>0/! '$%#' ' '/* # /" 0/" +/0# /. " %/' #"' >, #%# #2"$!"'
– '$ N/$ %$ (/"#' 0/" / ()/ #/"," +(- /'" (/2""'" /)3/ ) (/!", )(! )()"'
!# ('", '$ #' C" (. ") "("/". (- 2 $' 2/#$ $+//'.9
#"#'" %)$ $ $+//' #",, $' $ 2$/ ) >-/)' 0/ #" #3&""' 3 , #' '-
#>#$ "' ( <&" ) (-$/'$ )"'), M#/ ) "' 2' )'! +2" $' " 2#'/'" *"'%/. /"!"$
, %&"" (. "0/) ) )/&$ ","/.5 #/ $/> "30(/' „"2$/'!'“ # „/#'$/-
#3&""' )/ #2 $$ 0/ # # )/)" 0/#$ '!“ , $' '3") (-#'/' (-#$' 0/#$ $+'+/
3$ – (#' )'! +2") +#$'" '%/0#$ 0/- (#", $$' (-)"'" $# /)! '2:
" +#", , . +#" ' !' MM ., $$' # 0 #(2-
%6#'' ' 0 0/ 3" 20 /)!. " 0"
2 <)#, ," (/"%)1& #''" 3%0/#$ 0/" ( 0/- 0/ ' #%%/6" '(, #/" '/+ (/#'%( ) #"' "'-
+#'/>#'" 3$ # 6/$'" (#' +* '/'/, ( %'/"6 "/"' (#$ 2"#'#'. 26' 3,"#' " -
+/"3 &,', ( &)" /," &'"'" &" 3,"#'- , #2/#, /0, # "2$/'!" $+#, $>' (/)/ '+'$-
" $+'+/" &'. /"2+,"#'' +#" ' '%/0#$'" # (/% (0" ' 2 "(/#'%('" " * ' 3%-
6 , . $06'" 6 0/". ., E, 1975, 76–96; (/"&,
4 1891–1944. ., E, 1969, 61–94.
, . (2" ) $&"#$' /"2". ., E, 1983, #. 59.
5 , . #3&""' "'$+'+/'…, 119–122; /"+#'/>#'' 7 , . $06'" 6 0/", 121–122.
8
, . 6'" &"")*. ., 1902, 36–40.
'/*' #", ##'"2 /")+'' ' #3&""'. – #'/!"#$ (/"0", 33,
9 , . $06'" 6 0/", 144–152.
1977, I 5–6, 111–126, #3. 112–115.
140 < . . 2. : , … .
141
0/#$' '"0"* &%' 6$ # !"/ $(*. %%/6" /+- ' (##' ' (&/ (#" %"&"' ("!$), '' 0/0 #''*-
0 ", " : #'/ 0/ # '6 $/" &'", # )'%- '" 3")2 $+!"', 3'#''" 2"#' 0', 2+1'" 6+2'" $*"/-
!" (#'/2+ 0/&, $>' (2 2$'" '#$ ' &3'" #2'" $%,, #+/'" )2, )'/+"'" #%3," #%#
0/%*$ 0/". "' &' /+2">#$' #'* " 3"6" ,
#"' ((/" (/$/"' &( ). > #(2" (/#'''
/+0, #" (/%&"" (-#'/' /)'", '%> $' 0/%' "
3 #$0 *"'%/ 02' 30' (/*. […] #$'
(#' +$# + &'"'", )/+& &' !"#''" 0#'+ (
'"0"* #" 3! ( >-' 2, 20 2 2%&" 0/' $%,'", #/",'" 0/ $/' 1)/' 0/ (( /+#$ /+2%-
( /"#$ 0>#$ (' */0/#$'" +!,), 3,"- #$ 2"/), „1/2"'" 0/*'"“ " '"!" $/', /)1$-
#'"'" '6" )(%$ (-02 )'%!"#' /'"; )'- '" % ' 0/ +0,"' !#' %)+1, (//'" 3", $-
!+& (%'*, $' " )"1 3%0/#$, (-3/" #" !+#'+1 ' 3 $" #'!' "', 3+/'" 0/+3 ('!"#$ 3/3, "#-
+2", '$$' <&"#'', $0' ""/0! 3%0/, ''%$ $+'+/" +1" &'.13
2$/ +!" ("*, $$ # "(/' 2+ 3"6" 2"&+ '") )"- 3 " ("!'""' /" / "'%/ ">$ (3%",
&", $$' 2 $)1 „)'>*“.10 (2'), $0' (/") 1893 0. :
)"#'' "'0/ (#$ $/> M/#' ($#'' #%, "'#$'" 2 ! " 3"6" 0/ (" ', $"' 31 #$-
)'%$ #(2"'" #, !" (! #' $+'+/-3/)'" /)3/2 ( 2"' 0/. /" 2 /" 0/ /, /
'6"" „(-0/" ' #*“, ("&" !' (/"#'- (/" ,, 2 (/"6" ("!'"" ", )/6,
„#3/,“, , 2$/ #%, 3 #%3/ 20 3%0/ ' /+- /)1%/, 1'!. '06'" +# / 3"6" 3/)*
0 $/,, )() '/*'" /' %)/&" (/#"'.11 0/; ,, (/ (# 0/#$ 3/), 26" (" 0/&, #$-
/"2"' $0' 3 „#'*“, '> 3 >-02 $+'+/" *"'%/ – # (- &"' ( 0/#$. " 3"6" 0/ ," 26" #'-
#$ 0/&.
3/ +!, +!'", $(, )'"#$ ">#' ("#'*, #(#,
$0), 3 #%)" 33'"$ 2+)">, 2 =3'"#$ '"'%/
$*"/', #!$ ' &" ' )3""&'" '""$'+* $+'+/- (-''%$, # #'/ +#"," ) /"0 /)!, '("!'%$
">*; '+$ #" $/%#'# /)3/) !+& $+'+/ .12 %/1+ 2''"' ! &':
" %"""' )0+3 $=!' # 2#'/' )-
'0 3"6" #"," (/*#', $' 6(""1,
!"" /)'"' 2+ #'%( )#'>. '> 3 (/", ) #- 6(, $' 0/&""1. '" #'! 31 ("'2 +!' $$
'%( %)1 – "!" $' /), #" +#'/" *"'%/. #" &"" ( 0/#$, 26" ' $0. " '/36" #2 #%# #3#'"-
2 )0" /)'" (/"'%/( )3/' #'*. #/"#' # /"2" #("!"' ('. $/>+*'" ( (/)1
#3&""' )/ # #""" ' 20 501 &'", $=!'"- – #,*, /+#"*, /1*, * (/. – ' 3" (-"#, )-
" 0/) ((/"3/" ' 1 +/ 1881 0.), ' $' /" ,' '" 21 )"#'" /)2"/ "#$' (#/"!"#' -
– " 6000. 0/ &"" 2&"#' !*, *"/, +!- #'/>#$'" (/1, $$' /%)$' /"$' #%# #%#"'" /+2%-
'", '%/0* (/"(/"2!. '! #'*' 2 3$ "- #$ 0/". ) #+/'" 3$& #'&%' 3" 20 (-%%0
/(">#$ 0/, (/! (-#$/ '+/#$ #". ' (%/'" 0 ($0 $/ &' # '" #'1 #'&'.14
#" #3&""' /"!"$ " )(2 6' +! #'$ ' /"!-
$2% 2$' (#' +*, (/1 $' (/ (/"''" M/$'"/ ) ') >-/" „""'&"“ ("/ #'*' 3:
"#"'" %&", $/'" (' $%,, #$%/*"' 3#$'" /$' „+#'!“ )#'/" # #$ $%, #/" 0/
#$'" $, , ' $'" #" ()/ / #+'/, (#'- 0"2 (/) (/#'/#' (" #" >'" #" #0%#' )-
(! /#'" #!); #$'" 3#$'" $, $/%#'#, "-
10
, . %'+ ( %0/. ., +$ )$+#', 1974, 211–212.
11 13
, . (2", (%'"(#, (#2. , M/#' . , &. ) '") /+0 =3(' #"" (#"' +: , .
1970, #. 238. %'+ ( %0/, 84–113, 199–200; <&"#' %0/, #. 352.
12 !" , #. <0' 3"6" #'*. ., E, 1973. 14 , . !"/ !"/. ., , 1981, *'. #%'"' #. 45–47.
142 < . . 2. : , … .
143
(/'" )" (#' #'! „3+"/“; 6('" # '"1'" &- 92 0/; 1934 0. 0/"'" #'' 97; 9 #"('"2/ 1944 0. /#''
(# #; +*'" 3") %/"' #$, (#' &"", #" 100.19 /' " '#'" 02 ) 2$' '"/'/, '" 3 (/"-
(/ '" /%," ' /3' !*'"; #$% (/#' 2"3"- 2 2$. %'6""' 0/#$–#"#$ #""" #" (/2"
/'" 2"; (#' /)$6; #+/' &' #"2">#''; 2- #3, 2": 19,0% 0/#$ #""" (/") 1880 0.; 19,9% (/") 1920 0.;
$' #'* 2"&+ $/' 3,"#'" $#; (/$/"' ( " 21,7% (/") 1935 0.; 23,0% (/") 1940 0.20
($)' "2#'//") 30'#'' ' 2$' 3/> 30' 1/ ("*" '"/"# (/"#' &""' ' #"' $%2 0/, '
(/.15 3 #%#"2 2$ (/#'/#'", /)(&" $- $"' 2&" #" #% ) (/*"#'" +/3)* 2"/)*. $-
$ $/' $2"'/ (7 (/") 1912 0.) $ *%/$' „. </“ (. )'" '+$ # '" ) 2"1! (//#' ('. ". '%) 0/#$' #"-
„. ""“) #'0 " (, „%)/&"“, % 2#' ('- "". ("/ 1901–1905 0. 06' 2"1!" (//#' 0/#$'
0 /! N/" 2#') /' #%3/".16 #""" 3 2,3 +6 1000; ) 1906–1910 0. '> #( 0,8 1000;
'%$2 ' $' #'* )(!' 30+#'/>#'"'" /3- (/") 1911–1920 0. " 13 1000; (/") 1921–1926 0. " 16,3 1000; (/")
': ""$'/!"#$ #"'"" ((%/' ""$'/!"#$ $/+6$ #"' '+$ 1 1927–1934 0. " 10,5 1000; (/") 1935–1946 0. " 12,6 1000.21 "
"2/ 1900 0.), '/2 ((%/' '/2> 2 1 +/ 1901 0.), '%/" #$ %'/"6 20/*, $"' " #" '/) #%,"#'"-
! $)*, #$ #'/'"#' (/.17 /%' '! # #%'6""' 0/#$–#"#$ #""". <' * 0/%' " +(-
#("!" 2" "(/)'"", ('/"3'"" *"'%/, 0/ !- /& (/'"0'" # #"""' # #' ( #"'.
* *"/ ( / – #%#"2 "#(/" – /"'"/ ("#"/)
#%# #'/"2"& $%2 +$# $%2 /)$6. #' '%/0#$ *"'%/ #3"-
#" $#$'" >, (-$%# – +#'/" *"'%/ # 02 <
P
/3'!"#$ #""".18 /3 #" '3""& +#'"' )
#/'" $/'$ /"2" # 2#'/' $+'+/ (/"3- /"'" (/" #3&""', #' #" ' 2 #("*!"
" #'*' #!$ #' 0/", %&, #" 3")#(/ /"'#$ 3$: 3") (/$ "*, /)""#' 21 (
%)(/"' /"#$ 2" # *"'/)/ %/&. "'!"#$ "/#$ (/)$, '%/0#$ +* (!/6) ()/ !#' $'
(/(22 3,'" (/2"'/ 0/#$' /)'" + #. /- / 0/, '"# $/ +*, "(#' (#' # $2%-
"'" #" %"""' 3 74; $%2 1912 0. '" # 80; (/") 1920 0. 2 , 2$ )'!*, (# $)* ($%" '"&" -
' ( 2, (/") #/"' +*'" '$/' $), #3 -
15 , . !"/ !"/, 44–49; (2". ., E, 1990, 117–118, 225. &. #%-
$$ +! #"'"", !#'"" ( !#'" /", ""'& +"'&-
, , . (2", 1864–1887. ., , 1939, 94–98, 113–115, 226–228. '/%' '- $%,, 0 (', 3%/' (/) #(/2 +*'" (/.
3") "3,'"#'' 3' (/#(#32#' 6( $%2 ! &' $%2 )! #" '( 0/": /" ()'!") (#$. /-
!+&'; #$%*' 22 ) &""" ) *"/'" !*'" , 20 ' $- "'" ' /" '( (( (/ #%# #2"#" #""") # (/%#'
' #" &" ) "2$, !"1$ 0%/$; )2#'' ' /+#$'" *"/ ("" $- 6/$ ) /'", $%,'" # /)(&" #/" /" 0/,
2/ "!"/. ""'& /"1 )#'/" ' !' MM . (6" 2 <)-
#, $>' #' /)!/ ' (%/' # #/", #%# #'! 0/: $ (/6 ($/> +*'" #" )0' #2 /'" #'". ' ') !' 3-
/)"3'" +*, "/"0+/ /"$ ", #$%* , +! (/!, , #%, <)%$ /. )(/#'/"' (#$ /> '(
/"'#$ )0" $+#". &. , .
*, 1/, #%3'. ( (/") (%/- #%# #'" (#'/" 0%#', )), #2' +* $%, (/!
'" 0 MM- "$). ., +$ )$+#', 1968, 34–37, 86–89, 99–106; $06'" -
19
, ,
$. /2"'" 2"' #''+'…, 6–9; % ,
6 0/", 153–178,192–195. &. ) ' / ("/ , . <("&%'.
<0 ) , 1878–1884. ., E, 1971. <0' " 1+&"#'" %)#'$ ( #(2" &. #"""' %0/, #. 197.
20 '" +: ', ( . "20/#$-#'/!"#$ !"/$, 147–150; #"""'
0/#$ /1.
16 )*, . $0 . ., %0/#$ (#'", 1970, #. 33. %0/…, 5–6; #3"#' "20/#$'…, #. 130.
17 &. &(#' (#" , . ""$'/!"#$ '/2>. – %: 21 ', ( . "20/#$-#'/!"#$ !"/$…, 177–179; #"""' %0-
. %3/ #%!" >#"' '2. . 8. ., %0/#$ (#'", 1956, 155–163; - /…, 26–32. )$ "20/ %0/ (!#'' '"), #3.
, . (2", 255–256. #. 218. ("/ 1926–1934 0. #/"06' 20/*" (//#' 3 9,8 +6 1000
18 , .
*, 1/, #%3'…, #. 151. +6 0/#$ #"""; ) ("/ 1935–1936 0. " 14,8 1000.
144 < . . 2. : , … .
145
)"2,'" '# (/#'/#' )("/(">#$ #/""$ 0/". )#'/' '"/", '$$' #" (/"+#'/>' #'/'" !#'. /3-
' ') '( # (/2"/ %/, 3/, #%, /)(&"'" '"# ,' #" (/"2"#'' )% !"/'' 0/. 0+#'/>#'' 0/-
$' <'" ( $) /*0 ( ('"). /",' #" 0/- "'" #" )/) (/" #'" +*'", (#'"
" # !#' ' ' '(, $' .22 +! 0) #"'"", (/$/" (/, #%)" #+&-
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97 , . <&"#' %0/. , 1899, 228–229; , .
Frenchmen. The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914. Stanford, Cal, Stanford University
Press, 1976. #3&""' "'$+'+/'…, 24–25.
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Crampton, Richard. Modernization: Conscious, Unconscious and Irrational. – In:
/+&#'' '+$ '/3 #" /)3/ " 3+$ $' „)/+0“, (-3- Industrialisierung und gesellschaftlicher Wandel in Südostreuropa. Ronald Schoenfeld (Hrsg.).
, – $' # #/#'' $"$')2 ! &'. München, Südosteuropa-Gesellschaft, 1989, 125–134.
109 Todorova, Maria. Myth-Making in European Family History: The Zadruga Reconsidered.
105 , . %'+ ( %0/, #. 257; , . #10
– East European Politics and Societies, 4, 1990, No 1, 30–76.
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/26' + # 2 ) (/"'"! 2'. ' " – '%> #" $&" /"2"? 3"$, 2, 23", ($%,, #, #'3, *" –
– #2+$' ('+23'), $' )#2+$ ' '"!"#'' #!$ #!$ #$2" _ la dernière mode de Paris; # 6' /"'#$ '-
&)" #$" ( '/%3', $' #" /! „'%/0 # /(“, )- ) " '12" &" (-"! ' "/(">*'" $ /3'. […]
# 6'" (/, 6"' 30#%#'" % ", /&, "/, ') ! " )12" (%' $//)3/' *)*,
.119
120 Janos, Andrew. The Politics of Backwardness in Continental Europe, 1780–1945. – World
Politics, 41, 1989, No 3 325–358, esp. 325–329, 355–356; The Politics of Backwardness in
Hungary 1825–1945. Princeton, New Jersey, 1982, 315–316.
121 Janos, Andrew. Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective: The Case of Romania.
118 – In: Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940. Kenneth Jowitt (ed.). Berkeley, University of Cali-
$2!"#$' "…, #. 18.
119 fornia Press, 1978, 72–116, esp. p. 74, 113–114. (/" 6 ') /0+2"' 2(*' #" #%-
, . ' /)/+6 3%0/#$'" )'. ., 1900, *'. #%'"'
4–5, 7. %/& + 2+" "/,>.
182 < . . 2. : , … .
183
),' (/"12" #"#'' W, 3") #" +2 ) *"'; 6"' /)- % 2#'! 3,"#', #" " $'" <'>,
'" (! ' %/1"'" $%2 $/", ' " 2.122 &'%' " 02 #'"(" 3!" '/*". +)2%'
3 3")$+/& (/ $/)'", $' "3$"' !"$ #%)-
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„'0/" +“, ' #6'" #/" $%2 #/"'" (-3"'" #"". (/"#'& 3,#'', $ $> "0 !" )")" ' $'/. […] -
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2 (/&.123
"/# )/ (# /0"* ", '%/" /)! – " #"-
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/$#$ $"& ), (#"#'" #" %/ ) $/'$ (/") 1945 0.
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(," ("!" !" #2 " ("' ' 2%&"'" #%#"2 2$ &" (/"-
122
, . 6' $/). – (#" %0/#$' $2!"#$ /+&"#', 4,
1900, I 4, 224–238, *'. #. 231.
123 , . ('2#'! '"/ ) 6 /. – %: . 124
Sanders, Irwin. Balkan Village. Lexington, The University of Kentuky Press, 1949, /. 144.
%!" '2, '. 1, #. 43. '/%' (/"( 2"/$#$ $"& (/") 1929–1932 0. (#" ' 1934–1937 0.
184 < . . 2. : , … .
185
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(/1, "$'/ ' '. /. /" +"/#'"'. / #","$%' #" -
(!' %/&" #+&'", $$' *%/$' #" )%/& '!#' '
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)/ 3,"#'"' 10" (#' 03 (/ ")(%"", /0-
)/ $#* #/",+ 6/$ ##'/ (/ /&'. 0 ' )-
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%/&'" !* #"'), 2$/ !" %6'" *' '$,
$' 2 #3#'" 2'"/" '"/"#, #" (/"2 "1' '
#"'".125
<0' "/# #" /%, ' #" 10 0 ((/") 1945 0.) (#"-
, /0"*, '> '3") #"'" (/2".126 >-(/" – >-
' "# '+$ 2 (/#("/'"' (20 $%,, ) /)$ ' /)/+-
6"' ) (/ #"'" (-*#'! (# 6 '
>' /)3/" ) 3, * #%3). (!'" (-/ (/-
2" #"2">#'' 3 (/" )!'", !#'#' (-02
#3 #"'" %,"/'" (/ (/""" 3/!" (/'C/, (-
# #* "3/"" (/ 3/$ * * # "#'%(
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(-02 /"#' 2"&+ #%(/+0 #%(/+0 () /)$ ' (/"6
('//1" 2"), )()" ' #"'" '"1'" ("!3 ) #"3" #
125
Ibidem, 161–182.
126
Ibidem, 183–195.
186

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: , …

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!& #(, 8 +' & #)+&' ! $ "&') 48.

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%(#&) &' – %#) „ # "%#"“.
2 , 360–361.
3 +('$#" '## * ! " %" '"") # : , . )!
H $'!. – (&: . (+# "() & !&8" .
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', 1956, 7–16.
4 '!&/ '* " %# "& , . "#) "#*
"(+/)…, 4–9, 85–126. A#" #%-& 4& "#' *#, '

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. 1878–1928 $. '& & *'%( %'. – #9& !(#*& *'
%#"/ & ('$#), 1928, J 1, 5–77; , . 4 *'. ., 1902.
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!#*"&, 16, 1912, J 2–3, 90–98, "+. 90–91; ' *'%( %'. –
#" %#$'!, 5, 1907, J 8, 796–811, "+. 798–799; , . 4
*'…, 23–24; , . "#) "#* "(+/)…, 87–90.
188

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'(# +' %-& % &" ' & %! 7#' &#%. *.
! "#& : , . '* %' & !(#*& *'. – (&: 1+'
"+# 50 $! *'. ., 1938, 115–157, "+. ". 148.

. @G7 189
&#, , ;$, %! ;$%! (;"!', %, ').

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# % !& $'& ## (N"). ! !& %!
7#' &#% ( –!%/–'$#!), & %# 5)
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#%–'&!&–#+8 (!. $#. %&#).8

* ! " "%# &(#9 " !# %!#+"
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1898 $.), "($'"
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5"& # #) AIA &.) %%#' "(/"&)& .
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*! %#, "&' "#* %#'' ') !#
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); "(/ "%# ( 1899 $.) ) !('*&' ! "# & %#-
!('* 25 $! "%#! '. #8 " ') +'
8
, . "#) "#* "(+/)…, 96–97.
190

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: , …
%# ('$#) "#! +)&)& &"" %# 1908 $. (

&%"'!"& % $') " 42 '. ' '&).9
"#)& *% #* * ! " #!' # %#!:
1885–1900 $. ($ %#! 5"& # " %#"&)& "#*(
*% '); 1904–1920 $.; 1921–1939 $. # 1885 $., % !('*
#'") !$&#, %' "#*( "%) "( 7#-
+#!–5)– #', *!&# *' (+#
A#4) !&(#4' "' #'8" %# #+8 (%-
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%# 1888 $. – „ # "%#"“ %# 5) 7#$#!. '&)
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(#$&/)–O.
#) %#! +('$#" *' %(/ ' !('* 1175
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/ " ! # 4 "' ! 9& ! %#&*-
!, $ "+'* " %#, " "%# %& # '
&, ' #" %#" !! &(*" !
%#!& %-"(%.10
9 %#% ' *', . . &/ %# ('$#) )9 ",
&*. , . *' & ('$#) %& !(#*& .
– %" ('$#" *#-#9 !#*"&, 11, 1906, J 3–4, 25–38; ,
. *' 7#"&. – %" ('$#" " !#*-
"&, 12, 1908, J 7–8, 421–448; , . (#4 %#$'!. (6'%( "#'
!8" !(#*&). – %" ('$#" " !#*"&, 10, 1906, J 9,
615–620; , . *'. – %" ('$#" " !#-
*"&, 12, 1908, J 1, 1–12; !, . # #$" %& *-
'. – %" ('$#" " !#*"&, 12, 1908, J 5–6, 277–286; -
, . (#9 "#8& 4 *'%( #*. – %" ('$#-
" " !#*"&, 13, 1909, J 6, 399–435, "+. 421–427.
10 , . 4 *', 30–33.

. @G7 191
A## "'+ "%" #&, ' '#") %#-

& " )&)&' #) *'. (#& # " !&)&
!('$ #! &# "(" " +&'" ', &(#&)/ "%#!
*' "– #, !& & %-&) %#& %# -
+#' ( $+ &#.11 + %!+ / "-
&' %-(", !# "'! &8, $ +!' "') %#&&'
(# 9# !#$ " %# %-" *' , &
''#' /, "& 9# "+ " !+(.12
& "(+/' &#( "& % & %-
#&') " #)&' "%" "+ &(#9 (#$&" -
$#!&.
& #) AIA &. ) &(#4 $#!& (
(#&, #%') $+' (#$&" " . & "(+/-

' "#!"& " #' % "(/) &(#9 %# %#! $!4-
%#, %!', %* " #& *% ( &!)) #-
"%# &" (#$& *' ! " !"& " +9!.
& "(!-
+ %"$ %## G!*&") %# ! A"&, %( %#( &
" *) (
(#$&/) %#!('*' ! "(/"&& $'& +'$!#
' #" "', %&' $ / %#, &"-
! $ %#&*! % !4 # 4, %', ( %#.,
+('$#.13 %! %#&/ "&!'"& @9'
@!*#&, 8 +)")& & " !'" Q (#$&"
%(/.14 (/ &* !#$ &/ %-# %!+'" -
)8" #& ( %! : #!%, '"#, %, #'&,
'5#, '(, '&). %! &/&, '& &* & (#-
$&) %#! "&+*! !+4 )' +'" +'",
"(/ * ! " +)" " "& %(/: %#%! !-
) *% ') &/&–5)–;"!'–% %##& -
' #' ') '& ( &, %#&(# &-
" &/& & „%#"/ 5)“. $'& "&
&(4 (#$&) )' & ( # # ( #).15
11 , . (&) % ('$#), ". 257.
12
"#, . 6'%( !&*. – (&: 1+' "+# 50 $! *'.
., 1938, 189–213, "+. ". 191.
13 "&!) &*. , . (&) % ('$#), 256–257. %-
# )9 %"% # &*. , . "&+*! '#-

…, ". 38.
14 $, %. %, 380–381.
15 , !.
(#$&" " &/& ! "&+*!
( #) AIA & ' AA &. ., 1928, 12–13, 26–29. %!( &/& &*.

,
. #"/ &/&. "#) #&. &/&, 1947, "+. 24–27.
&#( (& $'& %# %!( &/& %##& ') 5)–
# ( %-&#"% – *% ') '&–&). G+! !& "&(#&-
192

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. 2.
: , …
!#$ "#, %"#)& *' *' ! $#

#& !! )" ##). %'* % -
& ' "'/, !$& "(&" '# +#-
&, &!(* " "(*&', %## "'/ % 4" –-
5), % *% ') 7#+#!–'& (%() „ # "%#"“), "'/-
% "(#") %#' (% #' *% ')), ' %#!
"'/ &", &', # #)9& (% #' *% '))
%#.16 %# "' #"#& #$ (%# 1905 $.) %#-
#& ') +#–&), ) ! &# +$ * +#-
!*" +'", !$& " !"& !+4 ' (#8 %"
+#!*8" )"), #" (#$&) %# #.17 " #'#'
%#! !+) # "(%) "#* %#!'* "&(#&/
)8" $#! %!+'" ') 5)–#!%–'"#
–#'&–'(–'&–#$".18
#) "#' %#! #)' 1904 ! 1920 $.
$& +' %"-
# %#+'" '), "&(#&/ "&# ;* *% #*.
)
' %# $ "#( #"
(#&–
#)&–#/–(+-
&–# $#, &" %# %-") A+ %#9!.
& " !('-
*' " 5#") "# &($') +"8 &
#&") ', %!#% #"& $& %#!%#)-

%#* 5"& "#! "(" 100-' (%# 5% '9&)
('$#), %# "'& ') ! .19 %# %#!
– 1908 $. – %#&'"& %#' &/ %# ('$#) "
*' "'! "%# ) %'.
" #'
&(*" ! " !&(#4 ') '&!&–#%, " ) 5)–
'&!&–#$" &' & %#) "(+/.
( 1911 $. +' %'* 1945 *% ', %#& $("
#* 2 *% ') 100 &. . "#&, ('$#) $& +'
%-! % $(" #* () – 2,7 100 &. ,
#' *' "(" &/& +' , . 4 *', 36–38.
(/) &# %'!# !#$ #" #' *', %-+' ! '-
, %# &, &'&, +#&, & #& #&, &(%# %-#!) #.
16 , . "&+*! '#…, 120–122; #"#8"&
#! "'/…
17 &, '. *'%( ') &)–+#. +#, 1905.
18 , . 4 *'.
19 "#) ') !#$ ( 5# ' *% ' #
Logio, George. Bulgaria. Past and Present. Manchester, Sherratt and Hughes, 1936, 222–225. -
) +' $'"& % ")& "(#-%#!"!') (# &, &(%#
9" "(& &(%# %) "(# "(+/), 8 +' &#-
"#.
. & " +$' '), "(/ (% "&!) &#)
%#&' $& %#!4"&.

. @G7 193
(#) – 2,4 , %-%#! (#+) – 1,9 . &# '"

&8 ('$#) #%'$' " +/ 196 '& 4489 &# 296
%(" &$. %# 1887 $. +' %#& 90 %( 1000
!4 "', %# 1900 $. %( +' 200 1000 !4, %#
1911 $. – 798 !4 1000 *'. # 1894 $. +' %#& ' 383
000 &#, %# 1911 $. – ! 2 '. .20
'( " &#) "#' %#! +' 1115 #'"& %(
( )9 % 316 , "' 799 – &%"#).
%# 1921
$. +('$#" *% #* " "(")' 2290 #' *% '. -
#! "' %#& ##4) % &# &8 (1912– 1919)
*' %!' & * "(") !&* "' "$#-
+&. +9! +' #&#" &("&)& #%&
', '*' #*! "+"& $#" "%"&.
'! &8 " "(!& %-"")' %#&' *'-
. " ' +' &('* ' *% !' (
#) +/"& "$#! ( @"#"& 5".
# 1901 $., %# & "")' @"#"& +/"& "$#-
!, %(/ "(+/), " "(!' #) *'. #
1908 $., % +# *! *% #*, " +"+' '& !#)
*' %#"/ " # !' "'*+ ("(" "-
%') +('$#" !(#*& *' %#"/); "(-
/) #*!' &(%#" %!+#, +#&,
&"# "'*+) %#"'.21
%' #)+& ! " +'* 5(, !&# %!#-
) *! +'" !(#*& %#' "&(#& 9 *%
#*.
$+#8 %#$&# ('$#) "&(#& " -
!" *' !&' ! /. " "$' ! #' !# "
(), #"& %#) "(+/ *! #/
7#$#!, +' $#! " %# &. #( "(" (#+) (1$-
"'&)) "&' " %# 7#+#!, &(%# !('$ $#, "(/
+' %'* " (#). +/ *'%( &(%#" '
"&' )" %#%' " %'" &"#$" -
#", "(/ " #" ' "'.
6' ' &* &(& &(#4 %'. -
"( ! " "% #'), ) +(#) %#& &8" $#'
& %4& %&#8" &(" 1923 $.22 &
20
, . %" ('$#), 376–378, 381.
21 , . "#) "#* "(+/)…, ". 120.
22 ,
'. %&#8" &(", 1923. ., "&, 1973, "+.
207–274. %"& " %#!&*&) &8" " &'& & @98'&$#!" ($& $#. W#-
!!) +& #8 $#.
194

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. 2.
: , …
"#$" *' #' %#&')&/ ! ##

#+/ & )9 "%5 $#% "'*/. "", "'!'
%-#&& 9 "!' !8"&) ( %#& '& !),
+')$' &(#9 !"%' %#!&*!' & %#&' &(*"
& +').

#) %#! +9&/ 1921 $. ! &8 (1939 $.).
$& +'
%"# 760 & '. 8-&* ') – $#. &"–A"-
&–@'$#! – "&(#' !' # @# #!. #4-
"(" %# %#! "#'"& ' " "
#( +/ !' "+ #' %#! "'+ 5-
" (%"# +' " ') #&–"&$#!). +/ #*
! #) 1939 $. &(')' 3050 . !' #' *'
+' %"# )' "'8, %# 1939 $. &('' +-
/ 215 . #) 1939 $. ' 485 '& #' '
111 "'8, 11 244 &$ # &!& (8--
$ &#) #' ' 1145 &$ "'8.23
'*) & *% ' %' & #) 1939 $. &(')(' ' 413
'. ' '&, & %!&* #' – 111 '. '. '&, '
+/ 524 '. '. '&.
%' +' %# $'& " &(4
(289 '. '. '&), " " &(#4 (34 '. '. '&), " *'-
%( " (95 '. '. '&), !( (82 '. '. '&), #!& %-
&" (21 '. '. '&) !#$ (3 '. '. '&).24
" ") ! (#$&") +'" "%') *',
%# 50-$!4) %#! 6, 1888 ! 1937 $., %'+ ' "
%# 8 $! ("'! &8, & #' #& "%" "-
'&) & "#), "' 42 $! +' %#'; "(" $+.
$+ ') %#! &(')' 198 '. ' '&. ! "%-
'" "')&, &" *% ' & ('$#) +' !! -
") %# "'&) %## +# A#4 ' #" "-
%#!'* ("+#$ ')&), ('$#) /)' ! %' -
' %& (850 '. '& ' 8-' 700 '. ' '&).
&
%&, $+ 200 '. '& "%') *'
+' %", ' %-' '#& %'*.25
23
, . "#) "#* "(+/)…, 99–113. &#( %"-
& ' $ " % &(#4 & &(')' $#*! .
24 , 112–113.
25 , . W" "%') !(#*& *'. – (&: 1+'
"+# 50 $! *'. ., 1938, 265–334, "+. 322–324; , . "-
#) "#* "(+/)…, 125–126.

. @G7 195
(" #!+ %#&' 6 1929 $. " %#& (

& "%"& *' – 5"& &
!(#*& "%" %#!%#). !) #') ##-
, . . " %#9! "%') ! " %#& #9!, &';-
' ! " %'/ '9& ! " ## &'*) %' (-
%' *% ). $ '& !#) *' " ! %#!')
#5 " , ! %#& #"; %#&( 9# %#!
!(#*& #*!) & "&' %'. (%#"( , &-
) " %##&' !#8 " +' #4&.
(& ! *! +';!' (%# 1933 $.), #5( % +('-
$#" *' +' "#&' '( ("#& "(" %! &#%).
"(/ &# &'*) & ('$#) %' '(# ') +'
$ %-'(, %&')&' ! +(! "%'# %--
*' &" !#$ !(#*& , &';'-
+'". %' *'# & ('$#) &' "
53% #9! % "%'), "#& " 57,4% & 1$"'&),
68,60% & (#) 70,7% & #). 6'%( #5 & ('$#)
+' 8-& )' &#%. W"& #' "%'#-
+('$#" *' + +9 +' %-!+#, % )9
%(&' '& $ 9# " +%' ' % ' #5,
%# & %& – % 5&##. #"'( 6, &';'
#' %#&', "(/ +' %#' $') – 16 164 !4 %#
1927–1928 $. (%# 1912 $. +' " 4878 !4, " ' $& "
+' &'' " " )'" '#).26
' 30- $! AA &. " "'' #) &-
+' "(+/), ' %#& *'. #
& "#!' #5( %-"(% ", " 8 *' #&)-
&' $+ " %-& !# $+ %#&& & "-
& ", & ' #". 6'%() #5
% 6 #"&' &") $! ! 1929 $., "'! (! 1933 $.) %'
! ')&, "+ %("), & #' #)
&+'. ! " %"$ &" "($'"& " &+') #-
"%#, %# 1935 $. +' %# #!+- &+' "(+/),
) %#&#(/' &+' "'*+ & +/"& %#!%#)), %-
!+ *', "&)&' )9 ', #%") #5.
&")(!, %"#)& *' +' #&';) &
+(# #5 & %#& % "4. )9 "#! (#-
$&" +(# " 58 % %(#&'" 4" +' 8 & " (" +-
26 Logio, George. Bulgaria. Past and Present, 210–226.

196

.
. 2.
: , …
& ' – ' 5 & "). # 1909 $. „ # "%#"“ %(#&
%(" &'& !"$ "#! (#$&" +(# 35 & ".27
# 1912–1919 $. "#! (#$&" +(# %(" &'&
')' 37 ! 24 & " %#! #+& *' %
&# &8. -( (! 1939 $.) +(# #"&' !"-
$' 8-$ 35–44 & " % $'& '. @"' +(#-
(#&& !' "() +(# &'& %# 1938 $. +-
' 75 & " (% %(#&'" ') 5)– #). "(/ &#
& #) +(# &'& !"$' 160 & " "' +(#.
&# &'& " !&*' ' %-+&.

(#$&" +(#
!# &# &'& %# 1938 $. !"$' !& 20–25 & ".
" %"*) " (& "#& " %& &#%8" !(#*&)
" !('*' 8-& &) "#* *', 8 &!' ! %-
'4 9" %## – "#( ', "# #&, ' #'",
( #&#", #!& %!&)&, (( "'8 +'", "'+ "-
& "(#(*), '4 +&! $#, "& '&, #-
%, "$#' %#"%"+'), "$') %#.28
* &(%#"( " #5 % *', # & „ '-
#“ (& %#" &# '(# #'" $!), "&!'-
"&/ &" (#$&") +. @$ ! " %#&! "'!-
"#&' !: &#& *% #* " %# 1935 $.
+' 857 (%# 1937 $. – 1011 ); &
#) – 653 (1935–
1936 $.); (#) – 244 (1936–1937 $.); ) – 634 (1937–1938 $.); G$#)
– 2574 (1935–1936 $.); 1$"'&) – 3270 (1936 $.); ') – 11 155 (1936–
1937 $.); W#) – 31 316 (1936 $.); '+#) – 30 061 (1937 $.)
. .29 %#, %' &" $(" *% #* (&.
%'/ 1 *% ')).
%#% %"#)& +('$#" *' * ! " #-
$'*! "%9, / %& & "#& "(" "("! "#. ",
#5( %# %-$') " &# +' $ *&, "
!('*' +/ "%" "'&). %-+/ ""(' * ! " +-
27 '& %' (#$&" +(#, "' () " ") !
!' "().
28 , . "#) "#* "(+/)…,121–125. -%!#+ :
"#, . 6'%( !&*…, 191–193, 197, 202–205. %#! &# 6 ")'
% %"'! )" & &#% % "' #' "#! (#$&" +(#.
(#-
$&" +(# 8-+(# &'&, #'#/ % ') 5)– #, +' 41
& " %# 1911 $. 49 & " %# 1938 $. (%# "%! 22 & " %# 1919 $.). @-
"' +(# "(/) &' %( +' 62 & " %# 1911 $. 75 & " %# 1938 $.
(". 203).
29 "" $!4 7#"& ('$#), 31, 1939, ". 814.

. @G7 197
'* 5(, %"#)& *' " " %#&(#' &

%! #& "&(# " )9 !"# ('!+& #'" '
"# &$), #' &$) 4) %# ! ("-
!# #&#" +' &") *+. " %#!&!,
" "# &!$ "'! "&+*! %# ! %#& '-
, !& ' + $' ! " & !#$. @* ! " +'*
&" (" (%#! %-(" #& )') & %"#)&-
*% #*, ) &(#! "# +' '* #)
&+') %#&. %"#)& +('$#" *' *
! " ") , +/ &, "%4 !', " &(%#"( " %(/.

"&+*! &#' "# " ' 2100 %(/ – 1300 & )-
*"& ('$#) 800 & ').30 & )9 ' &-
"#$" ' "&(#&' %*! " 7#$#! $#!& "
#" $# #%') '&!&, 5), ", O, #,
'&, !. & +' %#& %# %#&' &!)
#" #5## %#&'
&' (&" +'") @!-
9 %4 # %#&' "' ( %( %&" ()
#-
) "&' W#)) " %/ "%'" $# – -
*# 9, "+ %'). (/ + +' &(#! -
# %'##4. %#! # %& 4" +' #-
+, & '4 &# / % )9 *' ! " %(&. "$-
' "&, $ &! +' &", " '$' %( !
% +#$&, ! "%!. # ' / $' 4" " *-
&)&' "(#) +&'" '. (&' " " !& &! ' –
58 " 8& (%#*) " % 3–4 ) '$ (#($(', + 8-
&, " %' "#)9), & %( ")!' &(#9 %# " #$
"; % %'" #/ " %#!&*&' " " . &#( " -
&& &(#! '"& %( 9& #(, "+
8-" $#).31
(! %( #* & )*"& ('$#) &
') " #&&' !'.
(#&" ") ) )
30
4": , . "#) "#* "(+/)…, 11–51.
31, . (&) % ('$#), 155–158. 4" 5)– #' "
%'& %(&') %# 1883 $. !% #!&! , . -
4 ! !%. ( +'* %# 1883 $. – (&: . %, %(-
%", %". '&!&, A#. . &, 1970, 203–422, "+. 208–209.
198

.
. 2.
: , …
"#!"& "#* %!!(#* %(/. )'

$! ")' #. # 1883 $. #) +/"&
"$#!, ( ) +' %(/, &')' & &+#& @"#-
"& +/"& "$#!, !' (#$&) ' " %)
#" *# @. A'&, 8 +' %(#&) #$# 9"-
"'*+ % %(/ "$#! & )*"&.
$& " "(!&
#! %#&' "#*, %%#& %!!#(*
%(/, #(&!' %( !' ! (!.
(&! ' #!+ %!!#(* %(/ &
') " '* & #$") "& & !' %#&'.

&" %#!&' %-%'#, / " ") ! !'"&-
"#8"& %( "'*+, ! #' $#*!
%!!#(* %(/; "(/ %#"'( *#, 9 -
# ! %( #* +' %-$'). %#&, %%#& %!-
!#(* 800- '# %(/ ! 1886 $. +' #9!& '
3,2 '. '&. (/"&&' %( #' %&".
# 1887 $. %( #* +! !(#*& !"$' 3367
, 1167 +' !+#, 670 "#!, 1531 '4 %(/.
' 5176 ", 2026 !(#&, 2973 177 *'.
G%#+)& ! & &# %( "' " "(")' " #4-
( ' # (' " !+' 20–25 ", %"% $# " %)"(;
%# $'" %& – "& '!#( " 15–20 " !+', #4-
"' " 15 " !+' $# %)"(. O# -
"' +' % 8-"# #. !(#*& %(/, "&(#&-
/ #(* $#!& %*! " $# ' " %#"/, ) +-
' 5 (%';" 1,5 +); #(* %(/ +' 4 (%';" 1,5
+); +/" %(/ – 3 (%';" 1 +). "#&,
"#$" %#" %(/ @!9 %4 +' 4# 10 (-
! " +), +' !"$ !# ! 1939 $., &(%# '-
$ # & %#&'.
&" &# "'! (! %(/ +' #8 #.
-!+# *# +' %#&' ( "#* *% '. "
%#&')&/ !# ")', " %#& *', %(/ /
$+) " ($& )' &+' #"%#) " "
& *" +;!*. (& !('$ &# " $'"&' /* "#!-
"& %#&, %%#& %!!#(* %(/, ' %-'
"(/ $' #! !$&. # 1886 $. +' %# #&'
%'/ %( %&", %(' !( +'
#8 ( "' $'!' $ # $#) (%-
' !+#( % $ !"$' 50%).

. @G7 199
# 1893 $. " #!)& @"#"& +/"& "$#!, %(-

/ "(+/), & %! ! 4% +' "(+# &!"&
4" "&, +/"& "$#!, *', "(/ '&
!#) %/ '$#5. # "(/ $! +' %#
%(/ & ('$#).
8 !' %(/ !(#*&, #(* *-
!"'", !(#*& – %(#&'" &#'"; %#!') " %(-
%&" & ## 5 #+ ! () * ! +(! " %-
# +/ 10 '&). / "'!&/ $! ) +' -
' !& #+ ! ' 4 '&, !# %# "#!"&
&' % %#!, %"(%&' +& %#9! & 9-
. # & %'* 9") %#"' #! "$&' ! " "%#-
& !# " 8-+& %!!(#* %(/. / " &'4&-
' ' !& $"%!# %(/ – !(#*& #(*-
"(&.
& %'* +' "& W#) " &,
%-+' ! #!, #(* "(& / " $#* %& -
#(* *!"'" %(/, " %#&!'.
(") " %(/ & #) AIA &. + %'&-
) # " – (#$&"-!"#' # ($#*
(#$&)), !'! #(* %#&', '8" '#. %#-
# & !'! '&!&" (#$&"-!"#' # / "
#"& (%# 1896 $.) :
&")(! #8 " 5#'# %'&): #&' ",

%&#! )' '# 4", !&(#4& +&-
" & #+& %## 4" . . " /
"%, #+# ", !& ! !" # # &(4 +-
"& (#$&). " " ! ' %(/, " -
# & / %-'4 %'*; !('$ %#&,
$ " " " !('+' &(& &! #%/, & !(*!&
&# " %(') " &!, #4&) " "& %#9!; -
$ " " %#("& ' $' &!, 9!, #&, &-
" !$) "#( "') . ., / " "&
%# $ /") " 9#, !+( ' " ! "
%*.32
!+ "(") %(/ "(!&' $# #!" %!-

&& * "' ! *'%( " " &#, „-
$ &"'!"& !(*!& %' %() " #4&), $ "-
" %() " ') &! " +(# $X'&, $ #-
32 '! +;# '&!&" (#$&"-!"#' #…, ". 184.

200

.
. 2.
: , …
#, $ %#", " %(') " &!“.33 & &#(-
/ ")/ " 30 *% ") "' #' !& ! &
"9 &# 4 ! & ', %-!' "' #"%## -
' !&8 %& &#. ! +$ '4 &#, "') +(#-
' ! %#!! * " %# "%&#, %-" .
#" (#$&"-!"#' #, "'! " %'&
'%" " *!"'" %(/, &#( *! $#!&
9', @"&#) (!. "+(#) %' " #(*) (# #$",
++/& / (%# 1896 $.) :
+ " # $') &(%#",

%(/. 7' 20 $! +#, !(, "%' !* %( %&-
" * "', " %(/ " # & 8-)
%'*. ')( #"& ! " !& & ) ! '(#
!' "' ", & '4 &# %" " !* %(/ *!
$#!&.34
+' "&!) "(") %(/ & %"'! !"'-

AIA ' AA &. " "(!(#* & !'! #(*
%#&'.35
%(/ (#(* *!"'") " 9###
"(" "'! #: '%"&/ ", " +, # %#-
%, %!' "&, $ " !* %#&' 4"
" %&'. "(/" *! "' %(/ " +/ '%"&' '
+' " „#"#“, . . +') (! ! . !(*!&
&# +' %#9! ', ("&' "' $#!&
! !#$. !' " %") +#+ " "(/"&&, -
%") " %#&' %"' " #)&'. & & %#!('*-
!"').
#)& 4" & #) AIA &. %#! #
%#5"' (*#) "#!.
! &# (&, „)
&'& "# ) & +$#*" ( 4"8 " "(+/-
), "“36; !#$ +')&, „&#*!+ 4“ ( 4-
" " !('*' %$#4 !), " "(! %#%!,
33
, ". 140.
34
'! &(#9 " "(") #8 #" (#$&"-!"-
#' # %# 1896 $. #, 1897, ". 148.
35 ! $ %##: '! +/ "(") #$" #($ %#
1890–1891 $. #$", 1891, 31–32.

36 "#8"& "'*+ % "& 4" ": %" ('$#"
*#-#9 !#*"&, 3, 1897–1898, J 8–10, 170–176, . ". 170.

. @G7 201
*', $ ( +# &)#.37 !('-

$$!4) %( *# A#" 4&:
@" "#!"& " #9!&9 & #(, % 4 %(/-

)4 / '. 4 #(, $! ! %( + -
&(#4. $ " 4 % #+, #, -
&(#4, "&, '. %#! ' #" "-
)/ ' #(* %") ", "&)9 " %-
! )" %(/, ! " 9& !#$ – , (! -
+# ') $', & # %#&'), + ! #(&!)-
/ %#$#. ""&, & #9&(#') #+ !& #-
' "'! # &# "& !# "'! #+
%(/.
&(#&) ! 1900 $!.38
# 1899 $. +' $'"& %#!) !(#*& +/"-

%(/, % "' 8 %(/ " !') !& &! – !(#*&
+/", %( $+ " &'& 4 ! (' 8 '&) "#*
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#(. # 5"# %(/, +;!*
#! "' /* ' (1 ! 1,5 '. '& $!4 & +;!*-
"'! 1887 $.), %#9! #(* "(& %"(%&' "
300 000 ! 380 000 '&, 8-&* %#& %!-
!#(* %(/ "' #' %( $+.
) + +'
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1903 $. (!%('&/ )/ !(#*& +/" %(/)
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' %# 1906 $. #! "(+# $'"&' 16 '. '&
37
, ( . 4 4". – %" ('$#" *#-#9
!#*"&, 2, 1895, J 1, 27–32, "+. ". 27.
38 , . "#) "#* "(+/)…, ". 29.
202

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" 9&' *& !8" %#& %(/ "&.
# %#! 1887 ! 1912 $., &(%# &" %#, %( #*
#"' 3367 6422 !(#*& %(/ 359 2454
+/" %(/, +/ 8876 . )9 3990 (%-' %'&)
" )& & !+# "("), 2824 – & "#!, 2062 – & '-
4 "("); ' 15 450 " 492 .39
& %9 & "#'"& %!!#(* %(/ "(%' "
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+/"& "$#!, %(/ +'$"#8"&.
$& „&“
+;!* " 1,5 '. '& %#&, %%#& %!!#(* %(-
/ +' !& +' %#! " !(#*& %(/,
" %!!#(*. # "(/ $! " %#'
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' #%'* "% "#"&, 2000 !(#*& %(-
/ " %#9&(#'' ( +/", +'' !(#*& %(
#*. # 1914 $. +' %" !& "&#(9" #! ( 10 '.
15 '. '&) !&(#4& % %(/ %#& &.
#) 1918 $. !(#*& %(/ &('' ' 6100 ; +-
/" %(/ "& 4050 (1196 !+#, 1426 "#! 1428
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/"& "$#!, %(/ +'$"#8"& ! " %$#* %-
!#& "' ) %-&* %(/. #) 1934 $. +' !!
( !&8"8) & %(/, 8 %"&' %-
!#& ' %( #* "(!' "$# !8"&'
%#9! )9.40
+)&)& &" %(/ !(#*&,
$ %!#!') $'&, %(#&'", &#'" #'". O#-
"' $'& %(/ %#!' 6 , )' %(-
%' (" +) 9 ; %(#&'" "(& 5 , " +-
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9! " ! : , . %" ('$#)…, 373–374. # 1911 $. -
' 6420 !(#*& %(/ 2525 +/", +/ 8945 ; )9 4024 – !+#,
2855 – "#! (%'$!), 2066 – '4.
40 +')& ( &##) #* " #4' " %!+#)&
%(/ – %#!' 5 *! &##( "#'"& $' "(#(-

*).

. @G7 203
– 8 .
!' &(*" ! " !"& %( 9,
( &# 1938 $. 4) %# %( %#&' ' "&
#%'* 346 %# # &'), 16 #4, 10 $#!#-
4 " $(" ##, 58 ", 102 %%, 24 " %-
'&, 11 # +#-%#"# 4 %#. # %#! -
%& "#*( *!#!) %( !–5)–7#$#!–$!! &
" %# ('$#) ($#–#$–5)–'&!&–&'-
$#!–$#).
( #) 1939 $. %( #* !"$' 19 553 $& %(-
/, 10 271 & !+# "("), 4872 & "#! 4410 &
'4 "("); ' 8299 " ( )9 732 )' !(#&, 2921 "
!(#& "#) &(#9 ' + "&, 1865 ,
2273 )' *'+, 393 *' &(#9 ' + "-
&, 110 "&!& +) 628 .41 (/ +' %# "-
& " #4 "' (19 143 ) $ ' – " %&*
(335 ), + (53 ), -(' (11 ), + (9 )
#-%&* (2 ).42 (" %( #*, # &
&!# '#, %!/ " 1 %(, " &'&' % "'!)
: 1879 $. – 46,7 &. ; 1887 $. – 28, 6 &. , 1918 $. – 10,5 &. ,
1939 $. – 5,2 &. . '*) "&+*! ! 1939 $. & %(/ -
%' &(')(' #($' 430 '. ' '&.
++/ * ! " *, %#& %!!#(* %(/-
( #' *'%() #"%#) +' "#! %##
!(#*& " !"#). # /* #!, %(-
#* & ('$#) " #' %& &# & #+ "(")-
, &%"'!"& "#'"& %!!#(* " &(#4&' &(#!
"".
& "(!&' %# "%" #& %-"%-
' #$#(/ ") %# $## "# &
41 %: , . "#) "#* "(+/)…, ". 43. #$
: 20 $! "#'"&, 1918–1938. ., 1938.

" "(!(#* ! %(/
( 1918 $. (8799 +/" !(#*&, &" & '4 "(") "'! &8) ( #)
1937 $. (+/ 18 489 , 2000 $'&, 2000 %(#&'", 5000 &#'", 9000
#'", %(/ 47% " & !+#, 28% – & "#!, 25% – & '4 "(")).
42 &" ) 9## "' !& , !. ( %#+'
& '# %#!' "# %(/ ". ., 1930, "+. 172–173, 180. "'
„'"")“ %( ! "& 15–20 " #4 ( " "(" !, . . ""
(, "&(# " %)"( &!; "' !#) %( " %', %& ' "5'
(&" "(% "') ' " %# %'" $!#, +, '" %#. # %-"'-
+ !&* ! 4" ! + %#) # 3–6 $!, ! " %#)
# ! 20 $!. (&( &# !& " "+ ".
204

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+/ &(#4 %#.43 '* " %!+#' !& %# &# %'-
& 30- $!, $ " #&' &+' #"%#.

@ P
(#& # ' &" & ('$#) %# 1897 $.44 &+'
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" &")' $'& !(#*& 8 "'*+, ' *! +'
&" "(&" ' '. '! &8 %-$' %#!%#)) "-
%"& "(/ %' ! &") ' "& *!. &+'( -
%' ! ## 58 &'" ', %-!('$ #"))
– *'.45
$' $#!& "+ & "' " %)&' 8-%#! "#
" ', *' ! " %#&. -( & 5)
+' +#& (#$&" !#*"&, !"&' 10–15 "(&"
& ' „#“ $ %#!"&)' $#*! %# -
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& +-
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%! "& ! "$#' !#*"& „'“ "
&'&4. " $ %#!%4 %#! $+#8 %#-
!"&. " %9 ! "&) 58.46
%'& &+' "(+/) +/"& *!$#!"

%#& %( " "(!& " &. ' )'
#!& %#&') #8"&, %#!' "#$ #%" '
%#!' #5. "#* %'+ # ' &' !&8-
43 ( ' " %(/ "%" #& W#)
%# &# %'& AIA ' AA &. &*. Weber, Eugen. Peasants into Frenchmen,
195–220.
44 *. , . "#) "#* "(+/)…, 147–151.
45 #) &+' %' ! " &"& %-" "'! 1924 $. "
+(# #& &+' "(+/). *. , )*. &+' "(+-

/), )9 #& *'. – %" "(', 2, 1930–1931, J 4, 3–46, "+.
4–5.
46 +, . 60 $!…, 382–383.

. @G7 205
#8 %& %( ' ". (#*& " "' &

&+' "(+/) "(" 21 8 1935 $., 8 #!' "%-
' "'*+, &/ " " #*! #' &+' '-
+/"&) %(" %#&. ' &(&! %#$'! #-
' !& %( & $!, $!4 %#&# 45X# &#
"&!'"& %#&%#&', % 45X#, #$"#)
%%-%#!*+ # ', #$') &#) %#&
!#. (/) "(!' +/ #* &+' "(+/) " 305
', )9: 199 %") %(", 68 " %(", 25 %"-
) &# 13 " &#.
#) 1935 $. %' !& & "%') ( (#$) %(-
" &+' ' ', +"+ & (#$&" 5#, -
% "' &+' %#&&. #-
" &(#4&' "# 5–6 $!. #& %(
" " %#!')' #' &+' ") & &""
$#&. )) &+' 5# %(')&' !-
$&# " !('*), ') Q " ' " +)&)&' &
(#$. # 1937 $. ' 137 &+' ' " +/ !('* 6395 ,
+"'*& 347 '.47
#) 45X# '" & ('$#) #"' 5402
%# 1935 $. 11 168 %# 1939 $., # &' (' ', &-
+", &# ' ') 3402 %# 1935 $. 10 013 %#
1939 $. # 1936 $. +' %#& 980 000 %(; %# 1938 $. –
2 650 000; %# 1939 $. – 5 255 000 !4. &' &+' "
+ $'*! %& "# 5 ! "#&, "%#!
& #) 1938 $. % &+' %# ('$#) ' %#!%"'! )"-
& &#%, " !&8 %-' &+' ( $'& "')
() 1$"'&). #) 1938 $. & ! &+' " %!'
4 !4, & & '!) – 6 !4, ! – 8 !4, &"#') –
9 !4, '+#) W#) – 18 !4, " – 1334 !4.
P
('$#) "'!' %#"/ "(#(*)

#), &(%#
# !&" %#"/ " &/& +' %'& %#!
& *!#! (#$&).48 (#&) %#9! (#& &"#8" %-
47
&! : 20 $! "#'"&…
48
&! "(+/): , . "#) "#* "(+/)…,
127–146.
206

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&' &# (") %#9! !#*"& &#) ;#+#$.
-
&# #&#& % & +' %-'" " &(#4&' %"-
#!"& %, ! " !'%&' #+, &#( " "(/"-
&)&' %"#!"& %!&* %'5#, %#9&(#' %'& &(#-
9 #+, %'& &(#9 %.
&# #&#& &(&
# #$" +' "+ #!. #+ "%#' %& -
'(# +#$& !(#& "'), !('+ %# ) +' 3–4 ,
" " %#")' "') ! %#9! +# .
&
" &#&' &" " "(" ' #9!, %#&' -
&# #&#& %", %# +#) – &(*.

& %'* " %#"/ %#!('*' &" &# "'! "-
&+*!. #*"& *' "(" "!'/ 7#-
$#! " "#)' ! %#&' +('$#") " (# 9# 1*
('$#) ( #" %#"/ !$, %# 9# " )&)-
&' * %# & %! &#% #"; %!+ +' %'-
* " +('$#" (# 9# &# ('$#), %#-
&' +('$#" !&" %#"/ ( ' " &!'
#(" % (#. *" %#"/ &" " +'
+('$#" %#&'"&. ' +' %#!&! #!
%#&, %# 1889 $. +' !! %#& %#&
# #$" ("(" "(/) " %'#' *% ') P+'–#$"
#' ') 5)–O).
#'"& %#"/ #$" +' !! (#$ %# 1894
$. &(#4 %# 1903 $. #"/ # +' !! (#$ %#
1895 $. # "%') %# 1906 $.49
' AA &.
+('$#" (# 9# %' ! " %)&)& & %! &#% -
+('$#" %. &" %#"/ *' ! " %'&,
!+"& " '$' ! " %"#) 8&. 8-&* !&" %#"-
/ "", !! (#$ %#!%# %# 1907 $. -
&(#4 %# 1912 $. %!+ +' %"# %#"/
! ($& %# 1908 $.), &/& (1913 $.) (1923 $.) ) %-
'. %"'!"& ##" !&" %#"/ +' #-
4#)&. 1932 $. ##" %#"/ "#&' ' 27,6 '.
' '&, &" – 7, 3 '. ' '&, ' +/ ' 35 '.
' '&.
49
#+& %# %#"/ &(& # #$" +' $*# -
$'8" *# A#' #, *. @. '& *. ##! – $'& !##
@#"'" %#"/, %# +' %(' *. '& $&) %-
/ *. . @#5&.

. @G7 207
#& #" %#"/ %& %#9&(#') (#$&-

") #5 & ( # #. ##" %#"/ +'
+"'*& )' *! % ! 1894 $., $ +' %" %
&! %(#& +('$#" %#9!, !&" – ! 1935 $., -
* ! " $') +)" %#%", " %#!&!,
# #+%'& %-'" "& %-"# %'. #
1892 $. +' "(!! ('$#" (#$&" %#9! !#*"&
# "!#* " 1/3 !(#*& %' ( %'&' *$!
"+&) !(#*&) +;!*). # 1894 $. !#*"& %"' !&
#+ ! +"'*& ##") +#)$ ! 7#$#!; %-(" ( /
! %#9!) %'&' %-( – ! ! "#!#"
%#"/. "& "(!' #!& & " +'
%#"/, " "(/"&& !#*"& !&' ! &"&'
' #+ " *! #+ +('$#" &#.
$& (#$&" +' $') – #+ %! +('$#-
" 5'$ "("&')&' " 6,4% * %"' +('$#" %#"-
/ (##" !&") #+ %# 1900 $. 8% %# 1911 $.
'* +' ' %-!+# %# 1939 $., $ "("&')-
&' 33,5% (1/3). ('$#" &# " %#&&' "& #+ %!
*! 5'$. ('$#") (#$&" 5' ' +*
(. . #8+#*) (#$&) *! +('$#" %#"/ % #-
#") +#)$.50
'! &8 ('$#" (#$&" %#9! !#*"& #%'$-
' " '( (#$&" 5' 8 #" ! " +/ 10 000 &-
#"%"+" %' #!& #" %'& % )' '.
"#& "(" "("! "#, +('$#") (#$&" 5' ' /-
* *: (#) ! 1940 $. ' 607 #+ " 1 800 000 +# #-
$"(# , 1$"'&) – 190 "(! " 415 000 ,
#) – 185 "(! " 224
000 , () – 40 "(! "(" 130 000 . &# # "&&-
&8 + & /*) +('$#" 5' +' )' /*.
&" # #+%'& % +('$#" #8+#* +' +-
"'*& *! – &"#8" $#" – #+ ! 1935 $. "#/
500 000 '& $!4 "+"!), #5( *! " ;#$& " -
&(#4&' #(" #+ "#/ 250 000 '& $!4 "+"!).
50 , . %" ('$#), 388–390; "" $!4 ('$#" #-
"&, 4, 1912, ". 328. # 1912 $. %! +('$#" ' #+ " +/ &"" !&
17 000 , %& " %'. (/: "" $!4 7#"& ('$#), 32,
1940, ". 487. * ! " "', %# 1911 $. " ' 8% %#"$' -
#+ % # # % & +' %! +('$#" 5'$. 1939 $. 5# 33,5%. *!
" /*" +('$#" %#"("& % & ! 1935 $., ! % # #
%-!+#.
208

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. 2.
: , …
" +' !"(, ! " %& % ! 4'% &") $!.
%) „('$#" # %'&“ " "(!& !& %# 1935 $., " 4 -
&# #+ &'. / %# %(#& $! "'! % #5-
+('$#" #+ 8 #"' 2 820 000 4 050 000
%#!('*' ! #" %# "'!&/ $!. #"' +#) %#&-
%(. 1935 $. *! #+ %#&&' $!4 "#! 12
648 %(, / %# 1935 $. +('$#" #+ %#&' 41 352
%(, %# 1936 $. – 139 443 !4.
& %& ' $ +'
%#%" & %#!9! !"').

W
/" "'*+ & "" %#) ' / AVII &., ) +'
&(#! !*!, *! !%' %!!(#*' "& ##-
" "'*+.51 #! "&+*! " ) %-$' +('$#" $#-
!& " %'&' %/" "'*+, +"'*&/ "& $' !-
"#&-& #&. /'X( " !(#*' " "-
', #)+&' ! !& +44 %# %'& %#/ %"-
(&( %/" #). %" & %/:
/ " %#")4 +& " ', ) !& ) 9
&(, % )8 %( – " . /!*) " ! +)' (#% $'-
& " " %)&)&4 %& ! %( & "! & $#!, "
#" #!&"! # %#"$ #($& %/ / !-
' " &9 ' &&: „/ $'#!“ „/ $!#!“;
&&, (8 ! " *, "'*9 !"& #5 !&*-
%/. # #!& %" "&9
', %#& %/" ', & %/" ") – 4#-
, ) & %& "' " %/&4 & )8 9.52
&") %(4"& $#5 W'" "&!'"&

#!& "(") %/ %# %(&) " +('$#"
%# 60- 70- $! AIA &.; & +#& %/!*) # -
51 "& ": , . "#) "#* "(+/)…,
152–169; 60 $! +('$#" %/, '$#5 '5, 1879–1939. ., 1939; , -
. %" ('$#), 391–396.
52 (, . "" +'* &(#9 +('$#" %/ "'! "&+*!. –
+# %/ '$#5, 3, 1897, J 3, 178–189, . ". 179. &#( %#&*!
# %" (# #4#& #!& %" #" %/-
!*) & $#. 9#! (%! "" &'"), %(' &(%#&*!' %'* "
%#! "&+*!.

. @G7 209
*' ! +(! # % &# & '#) , " & 5;
& '& '$#5"( "%)' %#! +)!, &(& &#, $ " %#"-
$' !%4, „% ) " (#')9 %", %, " ,
5#“.53 ) %-#& $#!&, '5#, $ $#*!
8 *&' & *+ "+ & 7#$#!, " " $#*' %#-
") %/ (& "') ! "+#) % '().54
' '$#5-%/" "'*+ "'! "&+*! "
"'$ %# &# #" %#&' " %# %# 1879 $. „ #-
%#&' % %/& " & ('$#)“. )9 ')$ %'*) -
$## 8 %#"&" #"%!), !-
& " %" &" & "# & *+ +%' %#-
%#&'"& #"%!). G"#) #" &'"
'$#5 %' ! #+ 1 8 1879 $. ' + +('$#"
'!* '$#5 %/. # & " #" "&-
' &# %#, ', "# %#. %!!#(* %-
!'. # 1879 $. ('$#) +' %# ' &&) %-
/" "(;, %# 1883 $. – ' @*!#!) '$#5 "(;.
/" "'*+ %& " %#!! #" &'" +('-
$#" & 39 ('$#5) %/" " – 27 & )*"&
('$#) 12 & '). #") %/ *! $#!&-
"&' % 15 %/" # (. . %#&')), +"'*& 62
# " 412 ).
#& +' (#$
%/' +"'*& %/'X, "(+#' %"
%/" %# %/" " ' ((! )'
") %'8" %#&'), "(/ %# $# %#"/. -
## " ")' "; %)$ &' %(.
" %#"$' 5) ! " 8-+(# 4 !. ! "&!-
'"& # & ' &#:
$'& ', $'& 5) ! 5) %# '&

(#& ! ", %(& %/, "# % #" , " &#-
' " !& %(. (&) " #!&, &" %(-
" ' "+ " ' & 8 " 8 %#!',
)) %! „extra-post“; "%#! & $ &".
G*" +(#, " ) &(#&) %/" ' (% #& – 12
'# & "), + %"". ! 8 %#)' / " (#-
53 +, /. &" ('$#) '.

. 1. ., #, 1995, 256–257; . 3,
". 42.
%/ & '& %# 1872 $.
54 *. '# %" %# %#&) %/ & '5# : !-
, !. '5# & '. . 1. ., !, 1990, 395–399. / ! 7#$#!
&' 6–7 !, $&#( " %'&' "'! !& "!.
210

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. 2.
: , …
"' ' "'! & " $(#* #&'&# +(#' &

%/!*), $+' %(. !(* %/ $+ & #&-
%# '& ") "(# &(#4 #+ %/, $.
.; ") #($' ! ! $ (#") #' $ +)$ %-
4 %# ' "&' % 9 "%. /") %#& &' $
%! !(#*& ! !#*"& +('$#" (#$&;
" ") % $+#8 ".55
*% ') #–" 1881 $. %' ! " !&* %(#&

%!&* %/" %"'/. #& +('$#") #)( (7-
#+#!–5)– #') *!#! %/" ##) !
%# #* 7#$#! ! $!! %# 1888 $. " "(!& +('$#" %!-
&* %/" "'*+. (+/' &#( " *+ " "$#)&-
' # !$&# " &"#8" %#9! !#*"& %#") %-
/ % &, " '$#5 %/" !$&# "(" "("!
!(#*&. #"%!) ') " #)' %# 9-
+#&. ' %#!('*' ! 5# )' *!
%/, # %#! "$# #" %/, " #%& +('-
$#" %/ +' # (%"'! &"#8").

'$#5( &
#) &(&! "'! #" &8 %# 1856 $.
)*"& ('$#) '$#5 "'*+ %& " "'! #"
26 '$#5 " " 64 #& %# 1630 '$#5 '.
;+% "&! % %&! '$#5 %"#!"& "'! "&+*!-
"&' & "% " $&4) %#&' # $#,
: # " !&' +('$#" '$#5" $'!'
& "%"+" ! " %#&')& !(#*&.56 ') %'-
" & "(+/' "#!"& %#! '5 " &*! %
$& !# #') %# %#&# #%#&# ' !#-
# ) +#$; 5# !## # -
#%#&# &!' "" „'$#5 &8“ "%'& "-
' $#.57 $# +' '$#5 % &#
#(+"-+('$#" &8 "+ %# '" &8 (#&
"&& &8.
)' ! % !' " #*! %-
/ '$#5. /" '$#5 "'*+ & ' +'
55
, . (&) % ('$#), 156–157.
56
, 0 . %. ., 1926, ". 229.
57 *. %" "(+) : 1,
. #' "(&# ('$#).
. 2. ., ('$#" %"', 1990 (%(#& ! 1911), 22–200. )/ " !%4
!## 9 %#& #)+&' ! " #%& % # , &" "
)9, %## „+/ %#)'“, „% " !& 9(“.

. @G7 211
!' (% #") +#), " ' ! %# '%"
%!$& &. !!) %# 1882 $. & #&# "&
%/ '$#5 $ +!' & ! &!"&. $ " &(#*!-
&' !(#*& ' %'( & &!"&; !%"' " -
& #"%!) "(!+ &'"; !(#*& #*!-
) #)+&' ! %'/ #"%!) ". # 1889 $. +' $'"&
%/ '$#5 & ('$#) () !%('& $-
#). # 1895 $. 8 +' !%(' "(" "'" %/. -
$& $#* ) " &('$' '8" %#&') ) +' %#-
") ! +/ "#*# "&) %# +/" "'-
*/.
& &!' ! +&)) $+&) %/, "(/ ! 8-
&#). # #"& %# "'" %/ -
"(# " '& %"& & !'! " ! #! "(+# %-
'* :
! %", %!! & "' ' %' & "', $' ! -
! ! " %(. %'') ' %!&')
+' &" +' &! %#, (#$& ' &')-
' &, &(& &" "'8 %#!'*/ ( %), $&-
%" $ " " %'&' &# ' & !#& "(").

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163, . ". 144.

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63
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21 255 .
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66
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71
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– +# %/ '$#5, 2, 1896, J 8–9, 475–478; %# ! $- '&) !#-
# %/ '$#5. – +# %/ '$#5, 4, 1898, J 5–6, 1083–1085;
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, 2, 1896, J 3, 145–150. #& &%', #%# #' #& "
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$ +#'+'.
218

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73
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#5 1908 $. – +# %/ '$#5, 13, 1907, J 11–12, 565–573, .
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) '$#5-%/" ". – +# %/ '$#5, 13, 1907,
J 11–12, 573–579.
74 +# %/ '$#5, 4, 1898, J 4–6, 1115–1116.
75 , 1, 1895, J 1–2, 19–20.

. @G7 219
5-%/ "&) "8"& " + %#9# !# " "

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79 23, '. /, '$#5 '5 ". – %" "(', 1, 1929,
J 1, 73–102, "+. 84–102.

. @G7 221
4' & *+ +('$#.80 G#! %# 1881 $. %# @"#"&

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9.
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! 1911 $. – 396 9 " &"4 +#&, 8-& "#' *-
#, #9, 4 '#*#, & *#.
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1975, 242–250.
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. Weber, Max. Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft…, 178–179.
10 Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Empire, 1875–1914. New York, Pantheon Books, 1987,
170–183.
11 "-3" $ ) 4 $): Seton-Watson, Hugh. Eastern Europe
between the Wars, 1918–1941. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1945, 123–138; Neither
War nor Peace. New York, 1960, 131–136, 147–155, 161, 185. . $
$ G 4 $) : Berend, Ivan, Gyorgy Ranki. East Central Europe in
the 19-th and 20-th Centuries. Budapest, 1977, 29–40.
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29 Moore, Barrington. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Lord and Peasant in the
Making of the Modern World. Boston, 1966.

30 Stokes, Gale. The Social Origins of East European Politics. – In: The Origins of
Backwardness in Eastern Europe. Daniel Chirot (ed.). Berkeley – Los Angeles – London, Univer-
sity of California Press, 1989, 210–251.
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35 Seton-Watson, Hugh. Eastern Europe…, . 133; Neither War nor Peace…, . 155, 161, 185;
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35 Warriner, Doreen. General Introduction: Contrasts and Comparisons. – In: Contrasts in
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!$, - !!$ -4! 4, & '+ ) -+- '$. &%
& %! & -!% "!4%! -& %$ #!% $, & '$
&!4'! "-& ! ! - &%! - 7 - & *7--
% % !"'!. […] @ *7-% & -& & %
% & % )!%' '. -!;% !/- "!4%!
-& )!% ! ' 6000 &, + 4 "!4%! -& !-
%$ - *$ !/- % *-; " $& - %! '-
*7-% % 1 &, ) % -% !"', '' *
%-%, - - ) % )!% 31 & 4%, %4!
&$' !"' ! )!% ! -7$. […]
) !"#!$ " % !& -%%! %-! &!4-
'! *-& ! % ) - , ' 7-%' %!% -!'#!$ !-
--; )! 7%!$ !"#!$ & *-&.14
5$'! '! 4 && '!!4% -7% '!%

% "!4%! -& (-L'$%-7!!, 4!%&%!#!), ' 4& %,
4 „! '""*! !! #!&!!! ) % ! !(!!! % %-
%!“.15 - ' -& &-%!$ !"#!$ &
%&
1912 *., *-'!$ ' &;& -'- ! #!%! (!,
'! - „'"&“ -& *! #!%! ! – "'" ! -
!"#!$.16
#!*!4'! !% -&$& -% % -- *! -
% ( 1910 *.), & '$ *7- %!% % !"'! ! 7-
14
, . -!;% 4 ! ! %!%-/!*!%!4% $%! % *. !&%
1902 *. – !! % ''!$ L, 1, 1903, 402–421, . 410–411.
15 &. %!% 4 "%'!$ '* 1895–1899 *. – 8-!#!%'! %-',
2, 1901, K 2, 91–96, #!. % . 93.

16 ', . % % "'" &
%&. – &%% /!*!%, 6, 1912,
K 1, 10–21, . . 21.

= 5 8 335
% ! '#!$ &-%!#! ! -7! % "!4%!

-&. -&!7-%!$ *%#!$ !#+'--!#!%'! %--
$* ' 4 !"#!$, &$+'! -&) +-
% !"#!$ !&% '%; !$ %- ! 4! (!'!&% & &-
%%! '""% %-%! %! -! %&% % %-!,
%-*&% %!%-!#+'! % ! .; 4 %";&
!%!% & (18 *-!%!); '' *7-% !&;&
%%"4% ( !''' !-&% ! & ; %&') ! (%;
%- % !#+'! *%! ! 4% %$'- -+&!,
-"*- – '% "-!. 5+-% % % „-7%!$ -
&“ -&$& *&!$ 7%! – „! !%!“:
& %!!% *&!$ !. -& %* %$-' -

& 7%! %&, !'%&% -&7- & -& *%!
% -%!. *%! ;"& 7-" %%! ! )%!$,
7!, 4 ! ! !&!4 & - %)%!#!. *%! %
-& & "%! 7-" !, ) ! -%! % !
& -%! %!, % !$ !$, "%!$ !
"#!$, !
! %4!% % -&$ !'! % -&, % ! !&;&
)!%'! ' ! ! % 7!& '.
+ ' & -& 7%!-
' & %%! -%%4% #, ) $&
! $&, -7! % -& !%"-%! -
!$*& $%% - ""* % *%!, - ! -&$ -
$%% %& '. @ $ ! ""* *%! !& - &%*7-&-
%!, "$& , '& -)-, '' -- '4& %
„'“.17
- %' % '$ 7%! !! -&%! % " %$''

-'! & – - 3500 &, -% ' 650 &. ! & -7-
! % -& % '!, %7 &!&! " & -* % !-
"', '+ $& - !!:
@% '"' % !"' " !& ' %!%

-* ! -*- + % !!, %)%!# % 7 - &
'! !, -7$ % - -4% (!%!%,
4 '! '"'! % -/! ! 4!, - % -") -* -
' %$& ! -&% - -7! !%$ ! &7%
--* &. ' %$'! !4!%! !! -%&$&% %
' '"% !%$ -& & -"* -, & -%!$ -
!& % ' M %%& % " […] '%!$, '!-
17
$, $ . !"#!$ & *!$…, . 137.
336

.
. 2.

.

*% %' "4!/, !'&, 4 ! %)%!#!,

'! "& 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 15 ! -7 17 *-!%! ! ) % * -
!$.18
- !4!%!, ')! ' !"#!$, 4& ' ;&)

(' #!%-!'%!4'!$ – 4! &!4'! !"'! %'
!! -%! +&. % % --&! ! ! !
!4 ! 7%!, %! -' ! -& ! !&%! -
'!& - !&. -"*! &! %$* &/" #!%!
!4!%! !"#!$ ! !!4%!$ ' %$ ('%!$ %4!% %
7!&, '/! ! .); !"'! &! %+-&4 !%-"!%!
%!4'!, "*!%!, '%'!, *&4'! ! -.19
- %4%! -!!$ % ! ' !"#!$ (! *-
%#!$) ! " % 4"& *& %+% % (L#!%!).
-!# '! ! #!%! (! !! !'% - '!$
"!4%! -&, ) !#!$ ! *'!$ 7%'! L.20
- -&-! % L#!%!, 4 *%#!$ -7& "%!-
7& ! -!! 7%!; -&%! /!*!%%! #! (&
&%!4'! !) ' % %('!&%!, % ! ('!4'! -
*!! !"#!$ ! &-%!4& ' &7%! %$!. !
!!4% ! !'& %! !%' "- ! "-%
L#!%! . "!%4&:
' *% *-%, '& L#!%! !-%.

%; - %, '$ & &$ *%!#!$ &&! $ %
-%!$ +, - *% - % *% %!. […]
= 4! !"#!$ %/-! ! - *-! '& -
(! – -% & %+-' "-, ' % ! %. […] &%
18
' , . 138.
19
, . !"#!$ – #!% , 45–46, 50–61.
20 @ ! *"%! % -% ! -"* % &7. , . -
!"#!$ " %. – &%% /!*!%, 4, 1910, K 5–6, 141–146; !"#!$ –

#!% , 120–125; $, $ . !"#!$ & *!$, 133–134; , ".
& !"#!$ ! "!4%! -&. – 8-!#!%' -, 14, 1910, K 4, 195–
204; , . 5-#! & &%%!$ !#+'! %- %- )&% %&&-
%. – !%! % A!-!4' -"7& & (!$, 5, 1905–1906, K 1–2, 25–55, .
53–55;
, . )&% (!'!$. – !%! % A!-!4' -"7& &
(!$, 3, 1903–1904, K 5, 216–229; !& *%#!$. – !-!%'! )!%'! &%!',
K 6, 42–45; K 7, 50–53. @ L#!%! "&
. !%&, . "!%4&, . 5-&, =.
8!%'& % !4 *%#!$, % %$& & %$. ;!% '!&%
% "!4%! -& ! ! *'!$ 7%'! L – &7. *'! 7%'! L, 1901–
1931, 37–38.
= 5 8 337
!"#!$ ! *&!$ 7!& – '%!!, ' %/-

%!)! &%% '""% &!! % 4&4&, $-
& - %$ ! -& #!% '%. "!4%! --
& ! &!4'! %!$ &-%!$, '! "7 *%- % ! ;'-
% % '&, $& - '!$ "&%. &
& $& - & &!4'! #!%! '! -$&% !'%-
!4'! "&!$ % 7!& – $-' % &$' )&% .21
)!$ ! -"*! %$& "!&% % '%&! %'#!!

!& &-%!4& ! !& *&!$ 7%!, . . -&%
! -!% "!4% - % -"* !! % *%! % 4"7-%%! "!4%!
-& ( ' *'!$ '% % -&!7- %'%!, ' %
&% ;&% !! !, !&;& 4 !&% -
! !! "&)%!). 4& #!%! '! '-!% %
4"7-%%! &-%!#!; - %! !"!% - 21-*-!;%
&; - ! *&% % 7 -!#! !&%+-
%! &! %;%!$ (' ;! !-!&% % ) % -#, -
-%! &' „!&% '%“); %+-%, - &&- %'" -
$&% &%!4'! !.22
5-&& )" *%!% ! ('!4' *!!%
% !"#!$ -& - $% % ! ! 1908 *. &-
% & "!4%! -& -7!! - )&"& - ' %
)!%!.
!& '!! 1912 *. ! ' (!#!% %* !-!-
% L#!%!. !"!% & %%'", %
%'"! -+%!, &%! %*& *%!#!$.
@'%& %& % !& !"#!$ -&$&-
%$'' 4% % '% % %-% -&, %'%!$ '%
! '% -!%!#!$ ! !#!$, - '! %$&
&$% % "!4%! -&, %'&! &-%!4& ! -"*! !-
)! &' !"#!$ -$%!$ & ! &-&$&% % "!4%! &
&-%!4& !# % %&! 7!&. 5- & -+&! ! %$-
'' &-! ! '7%! % =!'#!$ % !#!$, '! %$&-
! % /!! ! /%-7!! - ! & / !! /% ! „7%! '
&-%!“ ! - -7 &4 '%'!; &% & % !#!$ &-
* - -* -!#!%'! &! & !-!&% % ! &-
%!4'! ! !"'!.23
21
, . !"#!$…, . 145.
22
$, $ . /" '%-%! '! *%!4&% % &%!4'! -
! ! &. – A!-!4'! *-, 11, 1903, K 10, 617–626; !"#!$ & *!$,
140–141, 145–146. )!$ ! &7. , . !"#!$ ! …, . 318.
23 , . !"#!$ ! …, 303–311.
338

.
. 2.

.

'% -!%!#!$ ! !#!$ 1925 *. ! =!'#!$

% !#!$ - !#+' %-% -%!, 4!$ %&%
! - -& !"'! 4 &!!! &-%!4'!
-&, /! ! -"*! . „ -%!“, '' & !&%,
! '! 1928 *., % " ! '!!%%!$ -
- ! =!'#!$ % !#!$. 1931 *. ! ) -!'#!$ -
'! "7 !& #!%! !%!, '$ %!&
&!!! % /!, '4! ! &-%!4'! -&, -*% % -7%!-
!# % -!#!%'! '%, &-&$&% % 7!& !! -
-&% % '"" % &!%%! ! . =!'#!$ % !#!$ !
=!'#!$ % %-% -& -& !%!"#!!, '! %!&-
! !& !"#!$. &)% ' *%!-
% % !"#!$ &$ %& 1934 *. !$ -!' %
!#!$, % =&%++'!$ & 4! & - %.24

5
% ) ! ' &7% #!% .

$ "&-
!4! ! !&$' )&% &%!%! % - & &&-
% &+%, '* "!+& ! "!+& %%! & " %
-%$&% ! !!$ & % 7' %' '!, *"$&-
% % %&! ! "-' % -!#!%% !' ! %! -7'!.
!4&% !&% % % "-%$& !
% '!!%% !!', '$ - *!! %!$ &
% !&;&%. !!' -'% -& 7-%!$ --%
*-!%, % !&;%! *-!% %!$, . . $ -%-
"*&%. 4 *$ &$% ! %"&% % -, $% ,
4 !!' % $& '!!%%! -$%!$ *-!%.25
24
' , . 306. 5 &+ - !4%!$ !#+'! '%-% /&$ *% '-
%4&% % !"#!$ % '!' ! 4& ' -4! % !#!$ - -
-& !"#!$ & /! ! &-%!4'! -& ! - %'& &-%!4&, % -
4!& - ;! !"!% % (!%%! !"'! & &%! ! 7!!-
), ' -&! !#+'! ! -!#!%'! '%.
25 ='' * - #%$, -& ' 1940 *. '!!%% !!' & !!4'!-
*-!;%!#! &'L4& !&;%! %!$ *-!%! ( %!% '#!$);

!!' 1933 *. %$ & ) -+% % -!!). ', "'-
$&% /- % - ! !4!&% % %"%! -%! *-!%! - &
&!% % 30- *-!%! % >> &., 7-%!$ 4& - -& -&$% -& !
'") %. 7. ! !"4&% % % ! (, % .
"4&% % % & *!$. ., 1925; 8-! !"4&% % &
*!$. ., 1925.
= 5 8 339
! -&!- &, * - *- -%! !! !-&% %

%.
%! % -%%! -%! 1910 *. (% % !&;%! -
*& %!$) -& %&%! -%! '%#!!. 16,5%
!'L4%! *& - &;!! 7-% !! "&% 7--
%; %! 83,5% – &-%! ! '$&%, ' '& %-
&"7-% % &!%%!$, '! % * - -'7 -
-. 5 100 000 -";! %%! - 221 -%! -
%!$; % -*$ & *! *-&.
& % &!' -
%, %! & &%%! 998 -%! %!$ % 100 000
-";! %%! ) 1910 *. & %!$. 5 & ! ! /%!-
4'! !4!%!, ' -- !#+' ! -% *%!#!$ & -
%!$, '$ &$ -' + %'!! %!$, '' ! %-
* -'!$ + &-%! !! '%! - (21%). 5+-%*
-%! !# " % ! %!$ !& ! (51,3% &!4'!
-%!), -& %!$ !& !4% (42,5%), %!$
!& -7&, )&%!$ - ! !*!$ (5,4%) ! "7
(0,8%). *%!$ + 7-%!$ !! &! % )!$ %'%
'-', %%4!% + – #!%! '%! (' '% !-
#!$ & '! )!%!). 5 !! -%! -& -";!, % -7!&-
% * %!4% & – 6 !#, % * %!4% & 10–15 *-
-!%! – 23 !#, ! . – -!% %!% ' + 7'! !-!.26
5&% % % - &+%! &!7- '&% --
%! -%%!, &%! %& $ % -%! --% *-!% !#
( % '") *!#!$ % %!$): 1921 *. – 260 -%! !#
% 100 000 -";! %%!; 1923 *. – 340 !#; 1928 *. – 370 !# (% -
7-" $/ ! *-!%! -' + -%! !#). &%% -"*!
-7&!, ! % % ! % &!', -&!' -
&%! %! (5&*!$, N&#!$, =%!$, >%-!$), !&%! %%4!-
% ! %. 87 - 7! 4$&% % "!+&
- &+%!, % ) - -%!' &4 &+'! %! %!&.27
&!4&% % % - &+%! & %4!% (3–4 -
!) '%! ! & -% !-&% !- 1920–1931 *., % ! "*-
26
&
, . 5$'' -"! &/" '!!%% !!' % *!$
1910 *. ! -&7%! "! %$. – A!-!4'! *-, 12, 1915, K 1, 22–28; K 2, 79–
85. ) 1910 *. &7. , . %!$ )" !4% " %. – !%! % A!-
-!4' -"7& & (!$, 13, 1914–1915, K 5–7, 223–245.
27
, . % & *!$. – /!& %' ! #!% !-
!', 7, 1932, K 4, 394–397.
340

.
. 2.

.

&', 4 -! !- 1927–1931 *. "&!4&% % %

7 - -7! % 4! % %"&% % - !%! *-!%!,
'' ! % "&;%&% % -%!$ ! !#+'!$ ,
'+ -&7- -*$ + -$%!$ - "-! % %'%!$ '%.28
5 -! ' 4 ! ('!, !&% "&!4%! % %
$&% !.
#!% !)! &!, ' !$ %"&, ! -&%-
% &!;&% % % " %, -#!% "-&$&% %
"!+& ! !! *& % 4"7-!$ 7!&; "-&$&% ! %
"!+& ! !! "!+&. 5 -% % !'&
#!%! !4!%! ( /'% &&% % '!!%* %!' H-
!), ' -4& ! '!& #!(!4%! %!, ' -%$&%
% *!$, &%P 7%#!, !#, "&!4%! %
%%! ! %'! +, '' ! &! % &%!&% -
#!% !!'.29 87 - % ! -!% &-/%&% 4"7-! !--
&%!$ ! - "%&! ! " % '#!$ 7-" % ! %-
'! #!'! (7!% ', -&!7%! % %-%!#!).
'%! !
%4!% %&% % 4!%&%!4' % - 1923 *., '$
-!7& - ! % „-'!%!“ (! &% %$&% %
! ! 4!%&%!4' %!%).30
-% '#!$ % 7-%!$ *-!%! % -&$& %
!%, %7 % *!! '") %, &!-& -
-!% -+% % -!!). -*$ !% -&$& %-
!% 7 % !& % (& %& % 7-%!$):
%!$ !& -7& ! )&, %!$ !& !4-
%, %!$ !& ! ! %!$ "7. ' -
7 - 4'& (!!+'! %$'' !&%! *-!%! -*$ !%-
&), %!$ !& ! -&! %+-*$ ! %&% -
#% – %- &!% – & )! 7-%!$ (! -&% & -
28
% , ). !4!%! "&!4&% % % & *!$. – /!& %-
' ! #!% !!', 12, 1937, K 4, 273–278.
29 (, % . !+& ! "!+& & *!$. ., 1930, . 7, 11; )&% !-
7-% ! %*. ., 1928, . 9, 49–50; 8% !!'. . 1. "!+&. .,
1927, 49–50. 7. ! % , ). !4!%! "&!4%!…, 276–277. 1929 *. . „A!-!-
4'! *-“ & %' !&%! )&%!#! !4!%! "&!4% -
% ! "!+& - &+%, '- % -% % 4 !% %!-
*"% % !4%, !% 7%! - &+% ! . 7. & (, % .
@'L4!%! 7'! %' % ! "!+&. ., 1931.
30 , . % ! %'! #!'!. – /!& %' ! #!%
!!', 9, 1934, K 4, 328–343.

= 5 8 341
%): 7607 11 092 1921 *. (69%); 11 404 22 109 1930 *.
(52%) ! 18 590 36 513 1939 *. (51%). 5 & $ %7-
%!$ !& !4%: 2888 !-! 11 092 1921 *.
(26%); 7890 22 109 1930 *. (36%); 11 428 36 513 1939 *.
(31%). 5 $ !-& %!$ !& -7&, )&-
%!$ - ! !*!$: 471 11 092 1921 *. (4%); 2008 22 109
1930 *. (9%); 5972 36 513 1939 *. (16%). 5+-' #% %
%!$ "7 (& *%!#! 0,1–0,4%).

$& - 7! ! !&% &!;&% % &;&)!
7-% ! "&% 7-% - (& &%%! &-%! ! '%!
-) 10,3% !-! (L 6,1% "&%! !-!) -%*-!;%
1910–1912 *. % 12% !-! (L 9,8% "&%! !-!) 1925–
1928 *. ! 22,4% !-! (L 15,1% "&%! !-!) 1933–1936 *.,
' &!-& -- % !#!$, &% – ---
-*&%! - - "4!.31
#!%! -+#! ! (! -$ #!% &%!%! % -
%! %!#!, '' ! % % "$&!! ! !7%! % -
% -# ! L%;! (!#! ! -.). %!'%! %$'! -"7& '-
&!& (!! %7) %- %%%! %!#!. & -"-
7& ! ! -& !%!#!!& %
- 8!%'& & &-!&
1906 *.32 -&! %- %- %! & & -
& & „!&!%“ &-%! -% *-.33 1932 *. '+ -
(!$ ! '! !L „= - !4“, '- %%$&!
%4!%)! !"'! ! ;%! !"!% !4.34 -
-& ! %$'! !!!): & – %! ! !&%! !-
31 =%%! !!4'! *-!;%!' % & *!$, 32, 1940, 762–764. 7. !
!!4'! *-!;%!' % & *!$, 31, 1939, 750–752. -& *-!;%!' -
%!$ -&: 1. - & % !&;&% % %!; 2. - &, '-
* !-! &! & '%% !. & ' !& & "!' ( 7-
-%!$), %7 % $% '' (! '*) %! -%%! & "!', )&"-
& ! !%&%!$ & ! -%%! 7-" -& *-!;%!'. %$ - !&;%! *-
-!%! %!$ ( %'%!$ '% ! #!%! '%!) & "!', %-
& $%% ' 11 000 1920 *. % ' 30 000 1936 *., - '
'%! !&% -.
32 7.
, ". ="7& '&!& % %%%! %!#! &
&-!&. – A!-!4'! *-, 14, 1906, K 2, 119–122; " , ). %: "+&
! %/-!. – A!-!4'! *-, 15, 1907, K 7, 475–478.
33 $*, +. @ &-!&'!$ %7. – A!-!4'! *-, 32, 1931, K 9,
353–355.
34 , . !"#!$ ! …, 314–316.
342

.
. 2.

.

#! – 1896 *.35 !#!, -# !&%4%! &'!, -%! --
# ! -"*! „#!% !“ ! !7%! % % '*!! !! & #%-
% -+% % %! *&!%! ! 7%'! ! -'! -"7&
! *%!#!! (*-%! % -"* $).
35
!!!). – 4!'! *-, 1, 1896, K 3, 288–291.
343

.
. 2.

.

= 5 8 344

. ,

,
343

,
,
! "#$ %& "!'" '!.

() &"" !$ "*+, " &"
'! "!'", (-+ – (, ! '(
( /. /-'( '! : +( % !-
-% -' #( -$ (; 1!&
"- -$ ' '( '(* '
-$); ! -$ (; '+ (*-
$ +!& . 2-*"
+(! ' " 3" -(
'1 '% , "" 4
. -+ "*+ *' &+ -$"& ': '
!, ' )-'$" (/
-$ -$" (-. /-, +(! )& (-3
' (+$" *(/ $ +.1
1 )) -( *!% : ,

. 4
-$) '". ., 1912; , . *+&

1878 ( 1928 +(. ( -$ -$ ( *+&, ". 7). .,
1928;
,
. & -$ ( *+&. %, 1926;
,
.
2*& 4 . – $) '+(, 35, 1936, A 8, 955–983; , .
!! & -$) "(. – $) '+(, 37, 1938,
A 2, 171–188;
, . 4 ( -$). '( -$) "-
( (1880–1933). – $) '+(, 36, 1937, A 5–6, 608–620; , !.
/ ( ' '( (( +(. – $) '+(, 37,
1938, A 8, 940–960. '-& '( . , "
. -$ ( -
4 '*$ -$). – $) '+(, 4, 1899, A 5, 503–535; A 9, 1027–1076; 5,
1900, A 4, 245–265. '-"* +1& . #

,
$. D-- '"
*+" (*, 1885–1908. ., " ( „. D! 3(-
"“, 2002 ( ('* (). ! & '(++$"
!* *+&. *. /( "*.
. 2. ., ( ', 1982.
344 E D
F
.
. 2.

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2

$ ( ( ( '(* (%& '3

% *(. 4 *( -
$ ( – "" ) & ( -$) -$" '-
, " $ '% +! 3. (%
( !&, $ ' ( *& + *(*
*(" '3 *+ (-+ ( '( !" .2
2 (-! D $" – " !* '
$ +( ( (:
& -$) + &3 '-'

) *+&. V& & *+" ( *(,
" '! ' *)- *+"/ (
" "& '$ $-( ( *+&,
( & *+" -$). […] -$)
*&4 /-+ $ $" *+" (, "-
* ) , ( ( ( , -
(4 ( ' *+ /-+-& '* "*! (-
'-) *(*).3
2 ( ( '((* ), 1"-

(-& $ %.
& ! $
") , " ' +! -)
'- (+ '" 4 +(, "*( -
" '$ -$). $ ( 1504 -
! ( X *+&) *)- *+"
-$), ) " 1700 (' &"*( ! '$ ( -$-
)); ( -( ! " 120 -$), "(-
& – " 250. 2 60- 70- +( GIG . ! +
3198 -$. '(& " 70
2
!*
, "% . &
*" "-%&. ., G. . -
, 1936, . 39; Clarke, James. Education and National Consciousness in the Balkans. – In: James
Clarke. The Pen and the Sword. Studies in Bulgarian History. East European Monographs (edited
by Dennis Hupchick). New York, Columbia University Press, 1988, 24–57; Sugar, Peter. The
Enlightenment in the Balkans. Some Considerations. – East European Quarterly, 9, Winter 1985,
No 4, 499–507.
3 ,
. ( + $ D& *3- '-
-$ ( D& *+& ' 1881 +. – *: 3 -
( ') 1878–1879 – 1884–1885. *. . ". ., 1905, .
169, 369–410 ( * ", A 2–9, 9 &.–26 &. 1882); Jirecek, Konstantin. Geschichte
der Bulgaren. Prague, 1876, 543.

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366 E D
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380 E D
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382 E D
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384 E D
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386 E D
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Perspective. A Book of Essays. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The Belknap Press of Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1966, 16–21, 353–355.
54 0 0 ! DG D7 „0 #!!“
6+ # ( ! !0! ;#), $: ! 0, !0-
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Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective: The Case of Romania. – In: Social Change in
Romania, Kenneth Jowitt (ed.), 72–116, esp. 89, 113–114; The Politics of Backwardness in
Hungary 1825–1945. Princeton, New Jersey, 1982, 313–314, 322; East Central Europe in the
Modern World. The Politics of Borderlands from pre-/ to Postcommunism. Stanford, California,
Stanford University Press, 2000, 85–99. . Konrad, G., I. Szelenyi. The Intellectuals on the
Road to Class Power. Harvester Press, 1979, 10–11, 109–135.
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474

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7
. Gergova, Ani. Zur Entwicklung des Buchwesens in Bulgarien nach 1878. – In: Südost-
europäische Popularliteratur im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Südosteuropa-Gesellschaft. München
1993, 111–122, bes.117–118.
8
, . "&"&" & 1&, 142, 174–175, 210–216, #"! " . 213.
, „"!" &$“ Eidam, Liliana. Der Weg zum Professionalismus: Bulgarische
Popularautoren 1878–1944. – In: Südosteuropäische Popularliteratur im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert.
Südosteuropa-Gesellschaft, Klaus Roth (Hrsg.). München, 1993, 97–110, bes. 98–99, 106–107.
F
G
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9
, . "&"&" & 1&, 221–222.
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476

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154# 3, 21–22.
16
, . 4 ' !&"&, . 120. . & !$& &! $:
, . "&"&" & 1&, 199–200.

478

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. 2.

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1$!#, "! &, &! & $(&#& #'&& #"#$&-
& #"&"&*, '6#& &#" #"&& 3"*&.18

7N7
„!"# 1“ '!' '$1&(" '", #!

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3& 1" 3""&.19
17 . ''$"& (# " , . #& #"&&!&. ., #&
'&, 1976; # #"&, 234–235.

18 Skowronski, Monika. Die Distribution bulgarischer Volksbücher im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert
(bis 1944). – In: Südosteuropäische Popularliteratur im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Klaus Roth
(Hrsg.). Südosteuropa-Gesellschaft. München 1993, 137–158, bes. 154–156.
19 , '&!&("& '( . , . (, 6 & B! " 1#& '-
&!&(" '(.
. 2. ., 1948; , . # &$" '&!&#. ., K,
1972, 1. 116–139, 265–285. . &" &!&&"& '! " ,
F
G
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1988. ., >
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558 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
CONCLUSION:
AN OUTLINE OF THE BULGARIAN DEVELOPMENT
Bulgaria began its existence as a nation state when it seceded from the
Ottoman empire as a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877–1878. The
political interests of the Great Powers prevented the creation of a large
Bulgarian state that would have coincided with the ethnic boundaries roughly
delineated by the Bulgarian Exarchate as a kind of proto-state with a popula-
tion of people who primarily self-identified as Bulgarians. This image of a
Great Bulgaria from the preliminary San-Stefano Russian-Turkish peace treaty
(undone by the Berlin Congress in 1878) left a lasting impression and became
the national „ideal“ to be pursued by Bulgarian political elites. Because
Bulgaria had been liberated by Russia, the young state was initially under
Russian tutelage which caused the domestic political troubles of the early
years. Under the „dictator“ Stefan Stambolov (called the Bulgarian Bismarck)
the small Principality of Bulgaria was successful in steering an independent
course, and re-oriented itself toward the Western Powers. The Unification of
the Principality of Bulgaria with the autonomous region of Eastern Rumelia (to
the south of the Balkan range) in 1885 looked like a first step on the way to
national unity. But all subsequent attempts for a military solution to the
„national question“ in the two Balkan wars (1912–13) and in World War I
failed. Despite some strategic mistakes made by the Bulgarian leadership, this
was the outcome of the constellation of interests of its Balkan neighbors that
also aspired toward territorial expansion in the same direction (especially in
Macedonia still under Ottoman rule) and of siding with Great Power alliances
during World War I. The subsequent course of Bulgaria as a revisionist state
seems quite pre-conditioned but it was an external force majeur that pushed
her toward a new alliance with Germany.
The political elites and most of the Bulgarian governments placed nation-
al unification as their primary goal, hence the importance of foreign policy and
of the military. Heavy expenditures for the creation and the keeping of a strong
army (covered to a great extent by foreign loans) were the logical outcome.
The officer corps together with the upper bureaucracy formed the natural sup-
port of the monarch in his drive toward a dominant power position. The close
union between monarch and army characterized the „personal regime“ of
Ferdinand von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha (1887–1918) and the late period of the
rule of his son and heir Boris III. The military intervened several times on the
Bulgarian political scene in the political troubles of the initial period (in 1886),
CONCLUSION. AN OUTLINE OF THE BULGARIAN DEVELOPMENT 559
against a radical agrarian government (on June 9, 1923) and in establishing an

authoritarian government to counteract the „corruption“ of the political parties
(a coup d’etat on May 19, 1934).
The Bulgarian state was created later than most of the neighboring Balkan
states under more advanced conditions, and therefore it did not pass through
the traditionalist or patriarchal phase of the initial political development of
Serbia and Greece. The rule was exercised not by an „absolutist“ (in the sense
of arbitrary) monarch contested by oligarchies but by educated modernizing
elites, who limited the power of the newly-established monarchy. The so-
called „personal regime“ of Ferdinand had its limits and compromises. This
was partly due to the rather democratic Turnovo constitution (1879) modeled
on the Belgian constitution. It was also the consequence of the fact that the tra-
ditional prominent people in Bulgaria (the „chorbadzhi“) lost influence and
were displaced by revolutionary intelligentsia and by the ascending social
classes of craftsmen and traders during the liberation struggles and under the
initial Russian administration. Hence, „Conservative“ ideas and their propo-
nents remained quite weak.
Power was exercised by the populist and revolutionary („nihilist“) ele-
ments of the intelligentsia of the previous so-called „Revival“ epoch. Elites
were subsequently formed to a large extent by way of education, hence the
prominent role of the intelligentsia that supplied the state apparatus with civil
servants, given the weakness of purely economic elites. In this sense, the state
„produced“ elites rather than being taken over by previously existing ones.
This rather unique state of affairs is explained by the undifferentiated and egal-
itarian socio-economic structure of a predominantly peasant society – the
absence of an „aristocracy“ (comparable to the big estate-owners in Romania)
or a strong bourgeoisie as well as the social and political weakness of the tra-
ditional notables (in contrast with Serbia and Greece).
Because the intelligentsia stood at the rudder of the Bulgarian state, the
outlook of the government was modern. This also explains the drive toward
centralization and the belief that the state was a creator (Demiurg) and an
instrument for the achievement of national and modernizing goals. The rela-
tive weakness of the local elites in Bulgaria facilitated centralization and the
penetration of the territory and society by the state and its functionaries. The
outcome was a stunting of local self-government even where it had been strong
in the past and its transformation into a simple transmission of instructions
from the center. Still, this did not happen without resistance at the local level,
especially in some borderland regions and areas with mixed population. Some
traditional communities continued to exit in isolation, relatively untouched by
the central administration and by the official law and jurisdiction. They were
560 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
governed instead by local custom; the religious minorities in particular were

left under their own law and judges.
The objectives of development – economic, social, cultural – were placed
below the national goal. Given the scarcity of resources, the state paid more
attention to promoting education, fostering national industries, and building
infrastructure. There is a clear link between the prevalence of modernizing
educated elites and the special care for education as well as for the industry and
the railroads regarded as symbols of progress during this epoch. The accept-
ance of Western influences and the borrowing of formal law, institutions and
doctrines (political, philosophical, aesthetic) are also characteristic of the
epoch before the wars. The leftist intelligentsia that aspired with success
toward intellectual dominance in Bulgaria at that time was oriented even more
radically toward progress and pro-Western. While nationalism and populism
were dominant, they were not directed against the European influence.
The state apparatus was arranged according to the contemporary Western
models, by adopting the centralist French administration in particular and sup-
pressing the local self-government. But the realities remained far from the
rational bureaucratic model of strict hierarchies, formal rules, and permanent
and qualified civil servants. The system of political „partizanstvo“ ( Bulgarian
equivalent for the „spoils system“) whereas elections were won with the help
of „partisans“ (adherents) eager for remuneration resulted into an overpopu-
lated state apparatus, unstable positions (dismissals en mass with each change
of the ruling party) and the incompetence of the bulk of the civil servants.
There was also the great importance of kinship and regional allegiances in
appointments and promotions. Characteristic of the Bulgarian case are the ini-
tial Russian schooling of the civil servants and a considerable number of edu-
cated or at least literate people (in contrast to the Serb and the Greek cases).
The first generation of political leaders trained in the pre-liberation epoch
proved to be more mature and responsible in the conduct of public affairs than
the next leaders who started abusing power for private gain. In general, the
heavy state apparatus with its public finances, especially the military and infra-
structure expenditures, came into conflict with the under-developed and large-
ly self-subsistent agricultural national economy that had to support it. As else-
where in the Balkans and Eastern Europe, the state preceded the development
of the economy and the civil servants came before the entrepreneurs.
Accumulation of foreign debts and chronic financial crises were the logical
consequences.
Political power in Bulgaria before the wars was contested and distributed
among several political forces – the monarch, the cabinet and national assem-
bly (consisting of adherents of competing political parties) and the military as
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 561
a non-constitutional but real political force. The early political struggles for
prevalence between the prince (Alexander von Battenberg, 1879–1886) and
the big populist party (Liberals) were followed by the „dictatorship“ of the
strong man Stefan Stambolov (1887–1894). Stambolov’s regime of the strong
hand was established in extraordinary circumstances of asserting the national
sovereignty (against the liberator Russia) and made use of a repressive admin-
istrative and police apparatus and of a nationalist ideology. It was followed by
the so-called „personal regime“ of prince/king Ferdinand I (von Sachsen-
Coburg-Gotta), who did not go beyond the wide constitutional prerogatives of
the monarch but weakened the parties with „divide and rule“ policies and tied
the military officers to the crown. The efforts of some politicians and public
figures to „parliamentarize“ the government, i.e. to prevent the faking of elec-
tions and make the cabinet responsible primarily to the parliament (not to the
monarch) were unsuccessful.
The liberation in 1878 also led to an economic regression in relation to the
previous level of agrarian and proto-industrial development and market-orient-
ed economy. This was due to a number of factors. First, the partitioning of the
larger land estates and of the lands held by Turks to be distributed among a
multitude of peasant smallholders was accompanied by the rise of a subsistence
economy and consumption of one’s own products. Second, there was a deteri-
oration of handicraft production because of Western competition and the loss
of part of the Ottoman market. Third, the symbiosis between the proto-indus-
tries and agriculture (and the pastoral economy) was destroyed. After an initial
period of low custom duties (imposed by the Berlin Congress) and unimpeded
Western imports, the state embarked upon a protectionist course of „encour-
agement“ of the domestic industries (since 1895), though not a very strong one.
The foundations of a credit and banking system were laid, dominated by the
state in the absence of significant private capital. After some efforts, the gold
standard was achieved in the beginning of the twentieth century. The arma-
ments and the modernization initiatives of the state required substantial capital
and were financed mostly by foreign loans under heavy conditions that soon
led to foreign control over state revenues. The financial crisis at the end of the
nineteenth century was overcome after a series of plentiful years at the begin-
ning of the twentieth century (the so-called „fat years“) and increased agricul-
tural exports. This created preconditions for financing the army (and the wars)
and for the development of infrastructure, especially railroads and harbors. But
this initial economic „spurt“ did not result in any structural changes.
Socially, Bulgaria was overwhelmingly a land of peasant smallholders – a
„peasant state“. This basic socio-economic fact, which was there before the
liberation and became even stronger afterwards, exerted an enormous and
562 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
multi-linear influence. To begin with, there was a regression toward a self-sub-

sistent „natural“ economy oriented toward the cultivation of cereals and a
decrease of marketization. Next, the independent peasants were able to resist
the tax pressure of the state, similar to the situation in Serbia and unlike the
severe exploitation of dependent peasant tenants in Romania (by owners of
land estates). As a result, the Bulgarian state assumed a comparatively mild
attitude toward the peasants: a decrease of the tax burden (after some attempts
to increase it in the end of the nineteenth century that provoked peasant
revolts), measures resembling homestead laws, making agricultural credit
available, etc. Characteristic of the Bulgarian case is the spread of cooperatives
as a form of mutual assistance between economically weak people in tune with
the structure of small peasant (and urban) proprietors; the state encouraged the
cooperatives and financed them. Thus, the social structure of peasant small-
holders was preserved over the entire period until World War II.
Given the universal manhood suffrage of the Turnovo constitution, the
independent peasant smallholders were available for political mobilization.
The socialists were the first to tap this potential, but it was a genuinely peas-
ant party (The Bulgarian Agrarian Popular Union) that succeeded most thor-
oughly in mobilizing the peasants. The authoritarian regimes of the 1930s also
attempted an ideological and political mobilization of the peasants whose
pragmatism and skepticism they could not overcome. Finally, one may specu-
late that the praised military qualities of the Bulgarian army were possibly due
to its composition of economically and politically independent peasants.
The „petty bourgeois“ structure of peasant smallholders was complemented
by the small proprietors in the towns (artisans, petty traders, etc.). Their number
(and relative share) were impressive and remained without change throughout
the period. It was hard for capitalism (of a scale) to penetrate such a hostile and
resistant milieu, the more so as the burgeoning entrepreneurs had to accumulate
capital by way of „internal exploitation“. Capitalism itself bore the imprint of its
rather primitive milieu – lack of trust and crass individualism, preference for
low-paid non-specialized labor over skilled workers, long working hours, etc.
Among the political implications of the weak social differentiation were the
similar composition of the parties and the need for political demagoguery to
delude the mass electorate about policies against its interest. Still, some compli-
ance with the mass of independent proprietors supplied with universal manhood
suffrage was necessary. The government encountered resistance and its leverage
over the broad layers of the population was limited despite the weakness of the
Bulgarian „civil society“ in the sense of voluntary organizations and autonomous
corporations. This is revealed by the comparison with the ruthless development
policies pursued by the Liberal party in Romania at the expense of the village.
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 563
The Bulgarian bourgeoisie was and remained relatively small and weak.
The entrepreneurs and businessmen (bankers, industrialists, merchants, etc.)
were characteristically mainly oriented toward state opportunities: deliveries,
construction works, various concessions, etc. The greatest gains were made
with political protection. While it is not true that the commercial-industrial
bourgeoisie managed the Bulgarian state directly, it enjoyed various privileges
(e.g. the course toward industrial protectionism) and exerted an even stronger
informal influence. High civil servants (civilian and military officers) formed
another section of the bourgeoisie, at least in status and life-style. One can
speak of a „political class“ (or „political bourgeoisie“) to express the close
relationship between the ruling politicians and the economically strong.
Somewhat lower in incomes and status were representatives of the „liberal
professions“ (lawyers, medical doctors, etc.).
Bulgaria emerged out of both the Balkan wars (1912–13) and World War I
as a loser, and suffered enormous loss of life and material resources. Most of
the territories claimed for ethnic reasons were lost and the ensuing terror, col-
onization and de-nationalization of these lands incorporated within neighbor-
ing nation states devaluated the Bulgarian claims. As a consequence of the
wars, several hundreds of thousands of refugees flocked to Bulgaria, creating
grave problems of assistance and accommodation. The nationalist organiza-
tions also moved their headquarters to Bulgaria and became a factor of politi-
cal instability resulting from internal strife and terrorist acts. On the other
hand, the country preserved a compact territory and relatively homogeneous
population and was spared the difficulties of „integration“ encountered by
neighboring Romania and Yugoslavia.
The wars brought in an abrupt change of the socio-economic and the polit-
ical situation. The established order was challenged first from the Left (by
agrarians and communists) during a radical peasant government (1919–1923)
that was eventually overthrown by a military coup d’etat (June 9, 1923). This
was followed by revolts, terror and counter-terror in a situation resembling a
civil war. There also emerged right-wing formations that gradually assumed a
more definite outlook ranging between authoritarianism and fascism accom-
panied by strong nationalism. The extreme leftist and extreme rightist forces
were vying for influence in the strongly politicized Bulgarian society, recruit-
ing their adherents from various milieus without clear-cut affinities. The rul-
ing politicians in their turn moved toward authoritarianism in defense of the
established order. The authoritarianism in power was carried out by various
forces: by army officers (two military coup d’etats – in 1923 and 1934), by
political formations cutting across the parties (such as the Concord) and by the
monarch and higher bureaucratic circles (since 1935). The government tried to
564 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
co-opt some right-wing formations and even assumed some of their ideas and
features while it implemented repressive measures against the leftist forces,
followed by periods of appeasement and legalization. To shore up the estab-
lished order, the authorities adopted extraordinary laws (law for defense of the
state in 1924) and strengthened the repressive police machine. Increasing
attention was paid to the ideological legitimation of the order and the regime
in terms of social harmony and elimination of the class conflict (by increased
state intervention in the economy and the society) as well as in the name of
above-party and above-class nationalism and monarchism.
These domestic developments were not isolated but stood against the
mighty impact of the revisionist Central European states – Germany and Italy.
The crisis of liberalism, interventionism and etatism, the new and pointed
nationalism and the upsurge of right-wing and fascist movements were com-
mon European tendencies shared by Bulgaria to one extent or another. This
was the more so in a defeated revisionist state that had to cope with heavy
domestic problems: the postwar crisis, the refugee problem, nationalist organ-
izations pursuing their objectives by violence, sharp social conflict channeled
by leftist political forces with foreign (communist) support, etc.
The economic development in the inter-war period was quite uneven and
passed through various domestic and international phases. The post-war recon-
struction took several years (until 1924) followed by a slight upsurge, but then
came the Great Depression (1929–1933). A new upward trend started in 1935,
but was interrupted by the war. Advances in agriculture were realized through
a bigger share of intensive cash crops for industrial processing (tobacco, oil-
yielding plants, sugar beet, etc.), labor-intensive gardening, some advances in
animal breeding and dairy production as well as a general increase in marketi-
zation of the produce. One may speculate whether there is a connection
between this development, characteristic of Bulgaria in contrast with neigh-
boring countries, and the decisive advance toward general literacy presumably
making for the greater adaptability and flexibility of the Bulgarian peasants.
On the negative side, population increases under a regime of subdivision of the
farm land between the male heirs resulted in ever smaller landholdings.
„Overpopulation“ and superfluous labor in the villages (given negligible
migration toward the towns) threatened to lower the rural living standards. The
advent of the so-called demographic transition in the 1920s (if not earlier), i.e.
the decrease of birth rates from near-natural levels is explained partly by such
negative economic tendencies (though other factors were also involved).
Placed in a situation of excessive custom’s protection, Bulgarian industries
made some progress. It consisted mostly in imports substitution (driven also
by insufficient hard currency) and the industrial processing of some domestic
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 565
raw materials. The food-processing and textile industries remained predomi-

nant; most of the factories were small in size, the bigger ones being joint stock
companies. Again, the development was mainly quantitative as a result of set-
ting up of new production units – growth without structural change. Quite
characteristic were cartels, i.e. agreements about prices between firms that
remain independent. Industrial production remained at a low level of organi-
zation without merging and incorporation. There were beginnings of financial
capital, i.e. factories grouped around banks, financed and partly controlled by
them. The share of the handicraft production in the gross domestic product
remained very high and only in 1935 was it overtaken by the bigger industries.
The application of industrial protectionism in the Bulgarian case is controver-
sial and highly problematic because most of the industries thus fostered
remained weak and their products were overpriced.
An important post-war development was the strengthening of state inter-
vention and stronger etatism. The wars themselves gave a strong impetus as
the state established control (not quite successful) over the food exports, regu-
lated and controlled the domestic trade in foodstuffs and adapted the produc-
tion in many factories to its needs. In the inter-war period the government of
Alexandur Tzankov (1923–1925) was strongly interventionist; the Depression
led to the establishment of a state grain monopoly (in 1930) in favor of the
peasant producers and etatism increased under authoritarian auspices after
1934 to reach even higher levels during World War II. Among its particular
forms were strict state regulation of the foreign trade and of the currency
exchange after 1931 in an international situation of contraction of trade (with
the end of the gold standard) and autarchic tendencies.
Characteristic of the Bulgarian case (and of the other Balkan states) was
the purely factual predominance of the state over the economy from the very
beginning in a milieu of small proprietors and scarcity of private capital accu-
mulation. The state banks prevailed in the all-important credit (with some
interruptions as in 1924–1929). After the Depression many private banks were
consolidated under state auspices (in the bank „Bulgarian credit“) and the war
saw a further etatization of the credit. The Bulgarian state possessed the rail-
ways and other infrastructure, industrial enterprises (as the coal mines
„Pernik“); it also owned land and forests. Finally, it was by far the biggest
employer. All this resulted in the overwhelming role of the state. In a sense,
„etatism“ was in Bulgaria from the beginning.
The actual predominance of the state was ideologically buttressed and
mystified with ideas about its „creative role“, the priority of the statist or pub-
lic „principle“, the reliability of state management (of funds or enterprises) in
contrast to the privately managed. In addition, the cooperatives were elaborat-
566 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
ed from an economic form into „cooperativism“ as another collective or com-

munalist ideology. Far-reaching expectations of the public were accordingly
addressed to the state, e.g. to supply „cheap credit“, to annul taxes, etc.
Conversely, private initiative and private capitalism were regarded with mis-
trust. But more often than not the statist and collectivist ideologies were con-
cealing totally different realities, namely, the captivation of the state and pri-
vatization of its resources by kinship groups and circles of associates.
Bulgarian society between the wars became socially more differentiated
and diverse and assumed a clearer class outlook. It is true that the country pre-
served its peasant outlook with the predominance of independent peasant
smallholders and that the small proprietors were the broadest social stratum in
the towns. At the same time, the development of industry was accompanied by
the formation of a working class, part of which became unionized under the
influence of the leftist parties. In its turn, the bourgeoisie became more numer-
ous and was consolidated in various economic and social corporations, exert-
ing considerable impact over the economic policies to further its own interests.
It also acted in hidden ways and used political protection for securing profits.
Thus, the „dependence“ of the Bulgarian capitalism and bourgeoisie on the
state was, in fact, a form of exploiting the state (and the society) by them.
The leftist forces (especially the communists) capitalized on the social con-
tradictions and tried to exacerbate the class conflict in order to realize their ide-
ological goals. Conversely, the state assumed the role of an arbiter of social
relations in the interest of social peace. There emerged the contours of a
„social state“ – labor laws, social insurance, social assistance, etc. – but more
on paper than in reality. Characteristically, the Bulgarian social state took
shape under the auspices of authoritarian governments that were less bound by
party interests and claimed public responsibility. But the state had very limit-
ed financial resources for conducting social policies; the economic upsurge in
the second half of the 1930s, however, placed some means at its disposal.
Under authoritarian auspices again, the position of civil servants was finally
stabilized and qualifications considered in the interest of creating a more effec-
tive administration.
The processes of the emancipation of Bulgarian society and the articulation
of sectional and group interests and their autonomous organization and repre-
sentation were hard and slow. There were beginnings of a „civil society“ in the
sense of voluntary associations even before the liberation; they grew and
became more diverse upon independence – syndicates, professional organiza-
tions, benevolent societies, women’s associations, cultural, recreational and
sport organizations, etc. They developed freely and without control by the state
in the generally liberal climate until the wars. Societies with similar activities
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 567
tended to unite into larger supra-local unions. Under conditions of strong

politicization in the inter-war period many of the voluntary (non-governmen-
tal) associations, especially women’s and youth’s organizations but also cul-
tural ones, became mere extensions of political parties or stood under their
influence. The state then began to show interest in the activities of the associ-
ations and attempted to regulate and control them. In addition, it lent its mate-
rial and administrative support to some associations (for support of children,
socially weak, the activities of reading rooms, etc.) transforming their charac-
ter in the process. The authoritarian governments tried (to small effect) to eta-
tize the youth and sport organizations in particular and to entrust them with
education tasks in a statist and nationalist spirit.
Ideologically as well, the Bulgarian society stood under the domination of
the idea of a united and homogeneous nation, an imagined community after all,
and found it difficult to enunciate and assert sectional (corporate or group)
social and cultural interests, causes and identities. Indicative in this respect
were the obstacles before the women’s emancipation movement, which tried
hard to find its particular place and steer its own course between the political
parties (with their women’s branches) and the already anachronistic organiza-
tions for women’s education and philanthropy. During the crisis of liberalism,
even long established sectional formations such as the political parties lost
prestige and became suspect from the point of view of the new ideologies that
took the unitary and the collective (public, national, statist) principle as their
point of reference. Still, a number of important social issues were hotly debat-
ed in the public space, mainly in the periodical press, e.g. the workers’ ques-
tion, the peasant question, the women’s question, the situation of the civil ser-
vants, civil marriage and children born out of wedlock, prostitution and crim-
inality, etc.
In general and for most of the period, the state policies toward minorities
were tolerant (compared to the standards of the times) after the initial confis-
cation of Muslim property following the Russian-Turkish war of 1877–78. The
biggest Turkish minority in particular was left to its own resources, in its tra-
ditional religious communities and under its own authorities. One can debate
whether and to what extent this was due to tolerance, lack of interest or com-
pliance with the international agreements. But after the Kemalist revolution in
Turkey and especially after the authoritarian takeover in Bulgaria in 1934, the
state apparatus was mobilized against the burgeoning Turkish nationalism.
Support was lent to traditional Turkish religious authorities against the mod-
ernizing but nationalist Turkish forces. The Bulgarian speaking Muslims
(Pomaks) were (and are) considered ethnically Bulgarian and „only“ reli-
giously others. They were treated accordingly in policies of re-conversion to
568 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
Christianity and „return“ to their own people. These objectives were pursued
by cultural propaganda and modernization of their way of life, but there were
also attempts to convert them by force during the Balkan wars and again dur-
ing World War II.
Modernization made substantial progress in Bulgaria, partly due to an
advancing integration into the European „space“ – economy, science, technolo-
gy, way of life, etc. Beyond the economy, modernization found its expression in
other areas and directions. Especially noteworthy was the advance toward gen-
eral literacy and the establishment of a solid educational system, including
higher education. Modern communications were put in place. Contemporary
technical inventions, such as automobiles, radio and cinema, made their appear-
ance in the country with some delay from the more advanced West. The urban-
ization and public utilities also scored some success, though with the character-
istic unevenness of the development and the favoring of the capital city over the
other towns, of the towns over the countryside, of some parts of the country
over backward regions. The amenities of the civilization in general were first
enjoyed by richer people and were then slowly propagated among wider strata.
In a number of ways the novelties became part of life in Bulgaria and created
new opportunities. At the same time, the new tastes and aspirations that accom-
panied them created social tensions and shattered traditional communities,
livelihoods, customs and ways of life thus exacting a high social price.
Among the areas of progress was healthcare, promoted as it was with
scanty means. Major successes were achieved in fighting epidemics and con-
tagious diseases and in the so-called public, prophylactic hygiene. The result
was a decline of mortality rates and the rise of life expectancy, hence a rapid
increase of the population (despite reduced birth rates). As the population
grew, the economy was faced with the new challenge of raising productivity to
avoid a decrease in living standards.
In reviewing the progress achieved during this period, one should take the
general conditions and limitations of the Bulgarian case into consideration.
Among the most important were the limited demographic potential and small
size of the domestic market plus a previous backwardness. There were also the
strong pressures and constraints of the external political and economic envi-
ronment – international relations presided by great powers, competitive inter-
national markets, etc. As a small state and contrary to nationalistic over-esti-
mation, Bulgaria only rarely had freedom of action in foreign policy.
Economically, the country remained an under-developed European periphery
and its economic integration in the more advanced part of Europe was slow
and painful, made even harder by the advanced Western capitalism and the
aggressive „power politics“ of the times.
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 569
The Bulgarian political elites pushed for national unification through for-
eign policy and military means as their priority while the economic and social
development came second. It is true that much was done in these areas as well,
in spite of a mistaken underestimation of the potential of agriculture. But the
bulk of the resources were channeled toward a large army and a bloated civil
bureaucracy. A considerable part of the not very great potential was then lost
in the wars. It is another, perhaps a vain, question to ask whether a different
path of development was possible in the nationalistic Balkan environment and
within the imperialist European context. One may only speculate about lost
chances of reaching a higher level of development. But it is quite indicative
that the neighboring states, which succeeded in realizing their national goals
and gained even bigger territories, did not demonstrate more substantial eco-
nomic and social progress.
570 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
THE BULGARIAN SOCIETY, 1878–1939

ROUMEN DASKALOV
VOL. 1. STATE. POLITICS. ECONOMY

Introduction. TOWARD A STRUCTURAL HISTORY OF THE
BULGARIAN SOCIETY.
PART ONE: STATE, LAW, POLITICS
Chapter 1. THE BUILDING UP OF THE STATE: CONSTITUTION,

CENTRAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION, CIVIL SERVANTS
Provisional Russian administration
The Turnovo constitution
The arrangement of Eastern Rumelia
Sovereignty and the division of powers according to the Constitution
Constitution and realities
Central administrative apparatus and its evolution
Local self-government
Civil servants and the civil servants’ question
Chapter 2. LAW AND JUDICIARY SYSTEM. PRISONS.

The beginning
Reception of civil law
Formal and customary law
Penal law and extraordinary penal laws
Judiciary system, irremovability of judges
Law education and professional bodies of lawyers
Prisons
Chapter 3. THE ARMED FORCES

Organization of the Bulgarian army
Military budget and loans for armaments
Social status of the army officers
Involvement of the military in political struggles
The wars and the losses
Evolution of the army after the wars.
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 571
Chapter 4. POLITICAL SYSTEM AND POLITICS.

The political evolution before the wars
Formation of the parties
The „personal regime“
The „spoils system“ (partizanstvo) and political corruption
The national question and foreign policies
The wars
Chapter 5. EVOLUTION OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

IN THE INTER-WAR PERIOD
The regime of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union
The authoritarian regimes
Critiques of liberalism, authoritarian and fascist ideas
The parties and other political forces after World War I
National-liberation organizations and foreign policy
The free masonry
Political violence in social context
SECOND PART: THE ECONOMY
Chapter 5. AGRICULTURE. COOPERATIVES.

The initial situation
The development in short
Distribution of land ownership
Systems of land use and rotation of crops
Farm equipment, agro-technical amelioration, agronomy service
Crops
Animal breeding
Agrarian exports
Problems of underdevelopment
Cooperatives
The cooperatives during the wars and in their aftermath
Chapter 6. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Decline of the handicrafts and early industries
The „industry versus agriculture“ debate
Protectionism („encouragement of industry“)
Results of the encouraged industries
572 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
The law of 1936 and recapitulation of protectionism

Higher forms of organization
Chapter 7. FOREIGN TRADE. CREDIT AND CURRENCY.

ECONOMIC CONJUNCTURES.
Foreign trade and trade policies
Credit and credit institutions of the state
Private banks and foreign capital
The Bulgarian capitalism
Joint stock companies
Increasing state intervention (etatism)
Economic conjunctures – a synthesis
Chapter 8. Public finances: budget, loans, taxes

The expenditures of the state
Expenditures of some ministries
The public finances after the wars
Foreign loans, debts
The tax system and its evolution
The main direct taxes
Indirect taxes
Vol. 2. POPULATION. SOCIETY. CULTURE
PART ONE: POPULATION, HEALTHCARE,

URBANIZATION, COMMUNICATIONS
Chapter 1. POPULATION, REFUGEES, MINORITIES.

Population indexes
Nuptuality, nativity rates and the demographic transition
Mortality rates
Emigration and immigration
The fate of the Bulgarians in Macedonia, Thracia, Southern Dobrudzha
The Turkish and Pomak minorities
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 573
Chapter 2. HEALTHCARE.
The heritage of the Revival epoch
Laws and the administration of healthcare
The pharmacist and the doctor’s assistant questions
Statistics: doctors, pharmacists, hospitals
Status of the medical doctors and professional bodies
The healtcare after the wars
Statistics of medical doctors and medical establishments
Epidemic and social diseases
Share of the diseases in the total mortality
Popular and scientific medicine
Chapter 3. PUBLIC HEALTH.

Water supply
Sanitary conditions of the settlements
Public and industrial establishments
Housing conditions
Personal hygiene
Diet
Chapter 4. URBANIZATION AND MODERNIZING CHANGE.

Changes in the urban network, the capital city
Changes in the outlook of the towns and public unilities
Public and private buildings
Urban lifestyles
The inter-war period
Changes outside the towns and regional peculiarities
Agents and mechanisms of change
Chapter 5. COMMUNICATIONS
Railways
Roads
Automobile connections
Water connections
Post and telegraph
Telephone
Technical specialists and professional unions
Beginnings of aviation
Radio
574 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
SECOND PART: SOCIETY
Chapter 6. SOCIAL STRUCTURE, SOCIAL STRATA,

SOCIAL „QUESTIONS“
Groups according to occupation and profession
Social classes
Social conflict
Impact of the social structure
Chapter 7. PEASANT QUESTION, PEASANT IDEOLOGY,

AGRARIAN POLICIES.
Viability of the smallholder agriculture
Peasants and the peasant way of life
Agrarian ideology: popular rule, labor property, cooperatism
Problems of the smallholder agriculture and of the peasant economy
Agrarian policies and agrarian reform
Chapter 8. WORKERS’ QUESTION AND THE

FORMATION OF WORKERS’ UNIONS.
The working class according to the socialist doctrine
The early working class
The unionization movement
Under state supervision
Chapter 9. SOCIAL LAWS AND SOCIAL POLICIES.

Labor laws
Social insurance, pensions
Social assistance
Debtors and creditors
Factors of the social legislation
Chapter 10. THE „WOMAN’S QUESTION“ AND THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT.
Chapter 11. OTHER SOCIAL PROBLEMS.

Prostitution
Criminality
PART THREE: CULTURE

!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 575
Chapter 12. EDUCATION, LITERACY, TEACHERS
Management and supervision of the educational activities

The education course, school levels and types of schools
Material basis of the educational system
Mandatory primary education and rates of literacy
Beginnings of vocational education
Beginnings of higher education
The education after the wars
Teachers and the „teachers’ question“
Teachers’ movement and professional unions
Goals and ethos of the education
Chapter 13. CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AND CULTURAL POLICIES.
Chapter 14. THE INTELLIGENTSIA.
Chapter 15. THE BULGARIAN CHURCH AND ITS SOCIAL ROLE.

Founding and organization of the Bulgarian Exarchate
Church and state
Activities of the Church
After the wars
Church jurisdiction of marriage and divorce
Chapter 16. PRINTED WORKS, THE PERIODICAL PRESS,

CIVIC ASSOCIATIONS.`
Printed works
Newspapers
Journals
Censorship of the printing press
Civic associations
The „civil society“ after the wars
Conclusion: AN OUTLINE OF THE BULGARIAN DEVELOPMENT

576 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 577
578 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 579
580 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 581
582 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 583
584 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 585
586 CBD"=>&> >E/&#>, 1878–1939 &>* 1
!C"H#. >B&=. =>;>*=
: !C"H#, "#>, >B&= 587

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