Control Mid

Control Mid
What is Control System?

• A system Controlling the operation of another
system.
• A system that can regulate itself and another
system.
• A control System is a device, or set of devices to
manage, command, direct or regulate the
behaviour of other device(s) or system(s).
1
Definitions
System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.
Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired response.
Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The input and
output relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship of the
process.
Input Process Output
2
Definitions
Controlled Variable– It is the quantity or condition that is measured

and Controlled. Normally controlled variable is the output of the control
system.
Manipulated Variable– It is the quantity of the condition that is varied

by the controller so as to affect the value of controlled variable.
Control – Control means measuring the value of controlled variable of

the system and applying the manipulated variable to the system to
correct or limit the deviation of the measured value from a desired
value.
3
Definitions
Manipulated Variable
Input
or Output
Set point Controller Process Or
or Controlled Variable
reference
Disturbances– A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect

the value of the system. It is an unwanted input of the system.
• If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called
internal disturbance. While an external disturbance is generated
outside the system.
4
Types of Control System
• Natural Control System
– Universe
– Human Body
5
• Manmade Control System
– Aeroplanes
– Chemical Process
6
• Manual Control Systems
– Room Temperature regulation Via Electric Fan
– Water Level Control
• Automatic Control System

– Home Water Heating Systems (Geysers)
– Room Temperature regulation Via A.C
– Human Body Temperature Control
7
Open-Loop Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems utilize a controller or control actuator to
obtain the desired response.
• Output has no effect on the control action.
• In other words output is neither measured nor fed back.
Input Output
Controller Process
Examples:- Washing Machine, Toaster, Electric Fan, microwave oven,

e.t.c 8
Open-Loop Control Systems
• Since in open loop control systems reference input is not

compared with measured output, for each reference input there
is fixed operating condition. Therefore, the accuracy of the
system depends on calibration.
• The performance of open loop system is severely affected by the

presence of disturbances, or variation in operating/
environmental conditions.
9
Closed-Loop Control Systems
Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to compare the actual

output to the desired output response.
Input Output
Comparator Controller Process
Measurement
Examples:- Refrigerator, Electric Iron, Air conditioner
10
Multivariable Control System
Outputs
Temp
Humidity Comparator Controller Process
Pressure
Measurements
11
Feedback Control System
• A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output

and some reference input by comparing them and using the difference
(i.e. error) as a means of control is called a feedback control system.
Input + error Output

Controller Process
-
Feedback
• Feedback can be positive or negative.
12
Servo System
• A Servo System (or servomechanism) is a feedback control system in

which the output is some mechanical position, velocity or acceleration.
Antenna Positioning System Modular Servo System (MS150)

13
Linear Vs Nonlinear Control System
• A Control System in which output varies linearly with the input is called a
linear control system.
u(t) Process y(t)
y(t )  2u(t )  1 y(t )  3u(t )  5

y=3*u(t)+5
y=-2*u(t)+1
35
5
30
0
25
-5
y(t)
y(t)
20
-10
15
-15
10
-20 5
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
u(t) 14
u(t)
Linear Vs Nonlinear Control System
• When the input and output has nonlinear relationship the system is said
to be nonlinear.
Adhesion Characteristics of Road
0.4
Adhesion Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Creep
15
Time invariant vs Time variant
• When the characteristics of the system do not depend upon time

itself then the system is said to time invariant control system.
y(t )  2u(t )  1
• Time varying control system is a system in which one or more

parameters vary with time.
y(t )  2u(t )  3t
16
Continuous Data Vs Discrete Data System
• In continuous data control system all system variables are function of a

continuous time t.
x(t)
• A discrete time control system involves one or more variables that are
known only at discrete time intervals.
X[n]
n
17
Deterministic vs Stochastic Control System
• A control System is deterministic if the response to input is predictable

and repeatable.
x(t) y(t)
t t
• If not, the control system is a stochastic control system

z(t)
t 18
Classification of Control Systems
Control Systems
Natural Man-made
Manual Automatic
Open-loop Closed-loop
Non-linear linear
Non-linear linear
Time variant Time invariant

Time variant Time invariant
19
Examples of Control Systems
Water-level float regulator
20
Examples of Control Systems
21
Examples of Modern Control Systems
22
Transfer Function
• Transfer Function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input.
Considering all initial conditions to zero.
u(t) y(t)
Plant
If u ( t )  U ( S ) and
y ( t )  Y ( S )
• Where  is the Laplace operator.

1
Transfer Function
• Then the transfer function G(S) of the plant is given
as
Y (S )
G( S ) 
U (S )
U(S) G(S) Y(S)
2
Why Laplace Transform?
• By use of Laplace transform we can convert many
common functions into algebraic function of complex
variable s.
• For example

 sin t 
s2  2
Or
 at 1
e 
sa
• Where s is a complex variable (complex frequency) and
is given as
s    j 3
Laplace Transform of Derivatives
• Not only common function can be converted into
simple algebraic expressions but calculus operations
can also be converted into algebraic expressions.
• For example
dx(t )
  sX ( S )  x( 0 )
dt
2
d x(t ) 2 dx( 0 )
  s X ( S )  x( 0 ) 
dt 2 dt
4
Laplace Transform of Derivatives
• In general
n
d x(t ) n n 1 n 1
 n
 s X (S )  s x( 0 )    x (0)
dt
• Where x(0) is the initial condition of the system.
5
Example: RC Circuit
• u is the input voltage applied at t=0

• y is the capacitor voltage
• If the capacitor is not already charged then

y(0)=0.
6
Laplace Transform of Integrals
1
  x(t )dt  X ( S )
s
• The time domain integral becomes division by

s in frequency domain.
7
Calculation of the Transfer Function
• Consider the following ODE where y(t) is input of the system and
x(t) is the output.
d 2 x(t ) dy(t ) dx(t )
A C B
• or dt 2 dt dt
Ax' ' (t )  Cy ' (t )  Bx' (t )
• Taking the Laplace transform on either sides
A[ s 2 X ( s )  sx(0)  x' (0)]  C[ sY ( s )  y(0)]  B[ sX ( s )  x(0)]
8
Calculation of the Transfer Function
A[ s 2 X ( s )  sx(0)  x' (0)]  C[ sY ( s )  y(0)]  B[ sX ( s )  x(0)]
• Considering Initial conditions to zero in order to find the transfer

function of the system
As 2 X ( s )  CsY ( s )  BsX ( s )
• Rearranging the above equation
As 2 X ( s )  BsX ( s )  CsY ( s )
X ( s )[ As 2  Bs]  CsY ( s )
X (s) Cs C
 
Y ( s ) As  Bs As  B
2
9
Example
1. Find out the transfer function of the RC network shown in figure-1.
Assume that the capacitor is not initially charged.
Figure-1
2. u(t) and y(t) are the input and output respectively of a system defined by
following ODE. Determine the Transfer Function. Assume there is no any
energy stored in the system.
6u' ' (t )  3u(t )   y(t )dt  3 y' ' ' (t )  y(t )
10
Transfer Function
• In general
• Where x is the input of the system and y is the output of

the system.
11
Transfer Function
• When order of the denominator polynomial is greater

than the numerator polynomial the transfer function is
said to be ‘proper’.
• Otherwise ‘improper’
12
Transfer Function
• Transfer function helps us to check
– The stability of the system
– Time domain and frequency domain characteristics of the
system
– Response of the system for any given input
13
Stability of Control System
• There are several meanings of stability, in general
there are two kinds of stability definitions in control
system study.
– Absolute Stability
– Relative Stability
14
• Roots of denominator polynomial of a transfer

function are called ‘poles’.
• And the roots of numerator polynomials of a

transfer function are called ‘zeros’.
15
• Poles of the system are represented by ‘x’ and

zeros of the system are represented by ‘o’.
• System order is always equal to number of
poles of the transfer function.
• Following transfer function represents nth
order plant.
16
• Poles is also defined as “it is the frequency at which
system becomes infinite”. Hence the name pole
where field is infinite.
• And zero is the frequency at which system becomes

0.
17
• Poles is also defined as “it is the frequency at which
system becomes infinite”.
• Like a magnetic pole or black hole.
18
Relation b/w poles and zeros and frequency
response of the system
• The relationship between poles and zeros and the frequency
response of a system comes alive with this 3D pole-zero plot.
Single pole system
19
• 3D pole-zero plot
– System has 1 ‘zero’ and 2 ‘poles’.
20
21
Example
• Consider the Transfer function calculated in previous
slides.
X (s) C
G( s )  
Y ( s ) As  B
the denominato r polynomial is As  B  0
• The only pole of the system is
B
s
A
22
Examples
• Consider the following transfer functions.
– Determine
• Whether the transfer function is proper or improper
• Poles of the system
• zeros of the system
• Order of the system
s3 s
i) G( s )  ii) G( s ) 
s( s  2) ( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)
( s  3) 2 s 2 ( s  1)
iii) G( s )  iv) G( s ) 
s( s 2  10) s( s  10)
23
Stability of Control Systems
• The poles and zeros of the system are plotted in s-plane
to check the stability of the system.
j
LHP RHP
Recall s    j

s-plane
24
• If all the poles of the system lie in left half plane the
system is said to be Stable.
• If any of the poles lie in right half plane the system is said
to be unstable.
• If pole(s) lie on imaginary axis the system is said to be
marginally stable. j
LHP RHP
s-plane
25
• For example
C
G( s )  , if A  1, B  3 and C  10
As  B
• Then the only pole of the system lie at
pole  3
j
LHP RHP
X 
-3
s-plane
26
Examples
• Consider the following transfer functions.
 Determine whether the transfer function is proper or improper
 Calculate the Poles and zeros of the system
 Determine the order of the system
 Draw the pole-zero map
 Determine the Stability of the system
s3 s
i) G( s )  ii) G( s ) 
s( s  2) ( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)
( s  3) 2 s 2 ( s  1)
iii) G( s )  iv) G( s ) 
s( s 2  10) s( s  10)
27
Another definition of Stability
• The system is said to be stable if for any bounded
input the output of the system is also bounded
(BIBO).
• Thus the for any bounded input the output either
remain constant or decrease with time.
u(t) overshoot
y(t)
1
Plant 1
t
t
Unit Step Input
Output
28
Another definition of Stability
• If for any bounded input the output is not
bounded the system is said to be unstable.
u(t)
y(t)
1
e at
Plant
t
t
Unit Step Input
Output
29
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• For example
Y ( s) 1 Y ( s) 1
G1 ( s )   G2 ( s )  
U ( s) s  3 U (s) s  3
Pole-Zero Map Pole-Zero Map
4 4
unstable
3 stable 3
2 2
1 1
Imaginary Axis
Imaginary Axis
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis Real Axis
• For example
Y ( s) 1 Y ( s) 1
G1 ( s )   G2 ( s )  
U ( s) s  3 U (s) s  3
1 Y ( s)
1 1 1 Y (s) 1
 G1 ( s)    1
 G2 ( s)   1
 1
U (s) s3 U ( s) s 3
 y (t )  e 3t u (t )  y (t )  e3t u (t )
• For example
3t
y (t )  e u (t ) y (t )  e3t u (t )
12
exp(-3t)*u(t) x 10 exp(3t)*u(t)
1 12
10
0.8
8
0.6
6
0.4
4
0.2
2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 10
• Whenever one or more than one poles are in
RHP the solution of dynamic equations
contains increasing exponential terms.
• Such as e 3t .
• That makes the response of the system
unbounded and hence the overall response of
the system is unstable.
Types of Systems
• Static System: If a system does not change
with time, it is called a static system.
• Dynamic System: If a system changes with
time, it is called a dynamic system.
1
Dynamic Systems
• A system is said to be dynamic if its current output may depend on
the past history as well as the present values of the input variables.
• Mathematically,
y( t )  [u( ),0    t ]
u : Input, t : Time
Example: A moving mass
y
u
M
Model: Force=Mass x Acceleration
My  u
Ways to Study a System
System
Experiment with actual Experiment with a

System model of the System
Physical Model Mathematical Model
Analytical Solution
Simulation
Frequency Domain Time Domain Hybrid Domain
3
Model
• A model is a simplified representation or
abstraction of reality.
• Reality is generally too complex to copy
exactly.
• Much of the complexity is actually irrelevant
in problem solving.
4
What is Mathematical Model?
A set of mathematical equations (e.g., differential eqs.) that
describes the input-output behavior of a system.
What is a model used for?

• Simulation
• Prediction/Forecasting
• Prognostics/Diagnostics
• Design/Performance Evaluation
• Control System Design
Black Box Model
• When only input and output are known.
• Internal dynamics are either too complex or
unknown.
Input Output
• Easy to Model
6
Grey Box Model
• When input and output and some information
about the internal dynamics of the system is
known.
u(t) y(t)
y[u(t), t]
• Easier than white box Modelling.
7
White Box Model
• When input and output and internal dynamics
of the system is known.
dy(t ) du( t ) d 2 y(t )

u(t) 3  y(t)
dt dt dt 2
• One should know have complete knowledge

of the system to derive a white box model.
8
Basic Elements of Electrical Systems
• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
resistor is given by Ohm’s law i-e
v R (t )  iR (t )R
• The Laplace transform of the above equation is
VR ( s )  I R ( s ) R
Capacitor is given as:
1
vc (t )   ic (t )dt
C
• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no
charge stored in the capacitor) is
1
Vc ( s )  Ic (s)
Cs
inductor is given as:
di L (t )
v L (t )  L
dt
• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no
energy stored in inductor) is
VL ( s )  LsI L ( s )
V-I and I-V relations
Component Symbol V-I Relation I-V Relation
v R (t )
Resistor v R (t )  iR (t )R i R (t ) 
R
1 dvc (t )
Capacitor vc (t )   ic (t )dt ic (t )  C
C dt
di L (t ) 1
Inductor v L (t )  L iL (t )   v L (t )dt
dt L
12
Example#1
• The two-port network shown in the following figure has vi(t) as
the input voltage and vo(t) as the output voltage. Find the
transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the network.
vi( t) i(t) C vo(t)
1
vi ( t )  i( t ) R   i( t )dt
C
1
vo ( t )   i(t )dt
C
13
Example#1
1 1
vi ( t )  i( t ) R   i( t )dt vo ( t )   i(t )dt
C C
• Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering initial
conditions to zero.
1 1
Vi ( s )  I ( s ) R  I (s) Vo ( s )  I (s)
Cs Cs
• Re-arrange both equations as:
1 CsV o ( s )  I ( s )
Vi ( s )  I ( s )( R  )
Cs
14
Example#1
1
Vi ( s )  I ( s )( R  ) CsV o ( s )  I ( s )
Cs
• Substitute I(s) in equation on left
1
Vi ( s )  CsV o ( s )( R  )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1
Cs ( R  )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1  RCs
15
Example#1
Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1  RCs
• The system has one pole at

1
1  RCs  0 s
RC
16
Example#2
• Design an Electrical system that would place a pole at -3 if
added to another system.
Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1  RCs vi( t) i(t) C v2(t)
• System has one pole at

1
s
RC
• Therefore,
1
  3 if R  1 M and C  333 pF
RC
17
Example#3
• Find the transfer function G(S) of the following
two port network.
vi(t) i(t) C vo(t)
18
Example#3
• Simplify network by replacing multiple components with
their equivalent transform impedance.
Z
Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)
19
Transform Impedance (Resistor)
iR(t) IR(S)
+ +
Transformation
vR(t) ZR = R VR(S)
- -
20
Transform Impedance (Inductor)
IL(S)
iL(t)
+ +
vL(t) ZL=LS VL(S)

LiL(0)
-
-
21
Transform Impedance (Capacitor)
ic(t) Ic(S)
+ +
vc(t) ZC(S)=1/CS Vc(S)
- -
22
Equivalent Transform Impedance (Series)
• Consider following arrangement, find out equivalent
transform impedance.
L
ZT  Z R  Z L  Z C
C
1
Z T  R  Ls  R
Cs
23
Equivalent Transform Impedance (Parallel)
1 1 1 1
  
ZT Z R Z L ZC L
1 1 1 1 C
  
ZT R Ls 1
R
Cs
24
Equivalent Transform Impedance
• Find out equivalent transform impedance of
following arrangement.
L2
L2
R1 R2
25
Back to Example#3
L
Z
Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)

1 1 1
 
Z ZR ZL
1 1 1
 
Z R Ls
RLs
Z
1  RLs
26
Example#3
RLs
Z
1  RLs
L
Z
Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)
1 1
Vi ( s )  I ( s )Z  I (s) Vo ( s )  I (s)
Cs Cs
27
Operational Amplifiers
Vout Z2 Vout Z2
  1
Vin Z1 Vin Z1
28
Example#4
• Find out the transfer function of the following
circuit.
Vout Z2

Vin Z1
29
Example#5
circuit.
v1
30
Example#6
circuit.
v1
31
Example#7
circuit and draw the pole zero map.
100kΩ
10kΩ
32
Basic Types of Mechanical Systems
• Translational
– Linear Motion
• Rotational
– Rotational Motion
1
Part-I
TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
2
Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems
Translational Spring
i)
Translational Mass
ii)
Translational Damper
iii)
3
• A translational spring is a mechanical element that
can be deformed by an external force such that the
deformation is directly proportional to the force
applied to it.
i)
Circuit Symbols
4
• If F is the applied force
x1
x2
• Then x1 is the deformation if x2  0 F
• Or ( x1  x 2 ) is the deformation. F
• The equation of motion is given as
F  k ( x1  x2 )
• Where k is stiffness of spring expressed in N/m
5
Translational Mass
• Translational Mass is an inertia Translational Mass
element. ii)
• A mechanical system without

mass does not exist.
• If a force F is applied to a mass x(t )

and it is displaced to x meters
then the relation b/w force and F (t )
M
displacements is given by
Newton’s law.
F  Mx
6
• When the viscosity or drag is not
negligible in a system, we often
model them with the damping
force.
• All the materials exhibit the Translational Damper

iii)
property of damping to some
extent.
• If damping in the system is not

enough then extra elements (e.g.
Dashpot) are added to increase
damping.
7
Common Uses of Dashpots
Door Stoppers
Vehicle Suspension
Bridge Suspension
Flyover Suspension
8
F  Cx F  C ( x1  x 2 )
• Where C is damping coefficient (N/ms-1).
9
Modeling a Simple Translational System
• Example-1: Consider a simple horizontal spring-mass system on a
frictionless surface, as shown in figure below.
mx  kx
or
mx  kx  0
10
Example-2
• Consider the following system (friction is negligible)
k
x
M
F
• Free Body Diagram

fk
M fM
F
• Where f k and f M are force applied by the spring and

inertial force respectively.
11
Example-2
fk
M fM
F
F  fk  fM
• Then the differential equation of the system is:
F  Mx  kx
• Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and ignoring
initial conditions we get
F ( s )  Ms 2 X ( s )  kX ( s )
12
Example-2
F ( s )  Ms 2 X ( s )  kX ( s )
• The transfer function of the system is
X (s) 1

F(s) Ms 2  k
• if
M  1000kg
k  2000 Nm 1
X (s) 0.001
 2
F(s) s 2
13
Example-2
X (s) 0.001
 2
F(s) s 2
• The pole-zero map of the system is

Pole-Zero Map
40
30
20
Imaginary Axis
10
-10
-20
-30
-40
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
14
Real Axis
Example-3
• Consider the following system
k
x
M
F
C
• Free Body Diagram
fk fC
M fM
F
F  f k  f M  fC
15
Example-3
Differential equation of the system is:
F  Mx  Cx  kx
Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and ignoring
Initial conditions we get
F ( s )  Ms 2 X ( s )  CsX ( s )  kX ( s )
X (s) 1

F(s) Ms 2  Cs  k
16
Example-3
X (s) 1

F(s) Ms 2  Cs  k
• if 2
Pole-Zero Map
1.5
M  1000kg 1
k  2000 Nm 1
Imaginary Axis
0.5
1
C  1000 N / ms
0
-0.5
-1
X (s) 0.001
-1.5
 2 -2
F(s) s  s  1000
-1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
0.5 1
17
Example-4
• Free Body Diagram (same as example-3)

fk fB
M fM
F X (s) 1

F(s) Ms 2  Bs  k
F  fk  fM  fB
18
Example-5
x2
x1 k B
F M
• Mechanical Network
x1 k x2
F ↑ M B
19
Example-5
• Mechanical Network
x1 k x2
F ↑ M B
At node x1
F  k ( x1  x 2 )
At node x2
0  k ( x 2  x1 )  Mx2  Bx
2
20
Example-6
• Find the transfer function X2(s)/F(s) of the following system.
M1 M2
B
21
Example-7
x1 x2
k B3 B4
M1 M2
f (t )
B1 B2
x1 B3 x2
f (t ) ↑ k M1 B1 B2 M2 B4
22
Example-8
• Find the transfer function of the mechanical translational
system given in Figure-1.
Free Body Diagram
fk fB
Figure-1
f (t ) fM
X (s) 1
f (t )  f k  f M  f B 
F(s) Ms 2  Bs  k
23
Example-9
• Restaurant plate dispenser
24
Example-10
• Find the transfer function X2(s)/F(s) of the following system.
Free Body Diagram

f k1 f k f B f k1 fB
2
M2 M1
k2
F (t ) f M 2 f M1
F (t )  f k1  f k 2  f M 2  f B
0  f k1  f M1  f B
25
Example-11
x2 x3
x1
k1 B3 B4
u(t ) B1 M1 k2 M2 k3
B2 B5
26
Example-12: Automobile Suspension
27
Automobile Suspension
28
Automobile Suspension
mxo  b( x o  xi )  k ( xo  xi )  0 (eq .1)
mxo  bxo  kxo  bxi  kxi eq. 2
Taking Laplace Transform of the equation (2)
2
ms X o ( s )  bsX o ( s )  kX o ( s )  bsX i ( s )  kXi ( s )
X o (s) bs  k

X i ( s ) ms 2  bs  k
29
Example-13: Train Suspension
Car Body
Bogie-2
Bogie-1
Secondary
Suspension
Bogie
Frame
Primary
Wheelsets
Suspension
30
Example: Train Suspension
31
Part-I
ROTATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
32
Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Rotational Spring
1
2
T  k (1   2 )
33
Rotational Damper
C
1
2 T
T  C(1  2 )
34
Moment of Inertia

J T
T  J
35
Example-1
B1
1 k1 2 3 k2
T J1 J2
1 k1 2 B1 3
T ↑ J1 J2 k2
36
Example-2
1 k1 2 B2 B4
3
T J1 J2
B1 B3
1 k1 2 B2 3
T ↑ J1 B1 B3 J2 B4
37
Example-3
1
k1 2
T k2
J1 J2
B2
38
Example-4
39
Part-III
MECHANICAL LINKAGES
40
Gear
• Gear is a toothed machine part, such
as a wheel or cylinder, that meshes
with another toothed part to
transmit motion or to change speed
or direction.
41
Fundamental Properties
• The two gears turn in opposite directions: one clockwise and
the other counterclockwise.
• Two gears revolve at different speeds when number of teeth

on each gear are different.
42
Gearing Up and Down
• Gearing up is able to convert torque to
velocity.
• The more velocity gained, the more torque
sacrifice.
• The ratio is exactly the same: if you get three
times your original angular velocity, you
reduce the resulting torque to one third.
• This conversion is symmetric: we can also
convert velocity to torque at the same ratio.
• The price of the conversion is power loss due
to friction.
43
Why Gearing is necessary?
• A typical DC motor operates at speeds that are far too

high to be useful, and at torques that are far too low.
• Gear reduction is the standard method by which a

motor is made useful.
44
Gear Trains
45
Gear Ratio
• You can calculate the gear ratio by using
the number of teeth of the driver
divided by the number of teeth of the
follower.
• We gear up when we increase velocity Driver

and decrease torque.
Follower
Ratio: 3:1
• We gear down when we increase torque

and reduce velocity.
Ratio: 1:3
Gear Ratio = # teeth input gear / # teeth output gear

= torque in / torque out = speed out / speed in
46
Example of Gear Trains
• A most commonly used example of gear trains is the gears of
an automobile.
47
Mathematical Modeling of Gear Trains
• Gears increase or reduce angular velocity (while
simultaneously decreasing or increasing torque, such
that energy is conserved).
Energy of Driving Gear = Energy of Following Gear
N11  N 2 2
N1 Number of Teeth of Driving Gear
1 Angular Movement of Driving Gear
N2 Number of Teeth of Following Gear
2 Angular Movement of Following Gear
48
• In the system below, a torque, τa, is applied to gear 1 (with
number of teeth N1, moment of inertia J1 and a rotational friction
B1).
• It, in turn, is connected to gear 2 (with number of teeth N2,
moment of inertia J2 and a rotational friction B2).
• The angle θ1 is defined positive clockwise, θ2 is defined positive
clockwise. The torque acts in the direction of θ1.
• Assume that TL is the load torque applied by the load connected
to Gear-2.
N2
N1
B1
B2 49
• For Gear-1
 a  J11  B11  T1 Eq (1)
• For Gear-2
T2  J 22  B22  TL Eq (2) N1

N2
B1
• Since
B2
N11  N 2 2
• therefore
N1
2  1 Eq (3)
N2 50
• Gear Ratio is calculated as
T2 N2 N1
  T1  T2
T1 N1 N2
N2
• Put this value in eq (1) N1
B1
N
 a  J11  B11  1 T2
N2 B2
• Put T2 from eq (2)
  N1
 a  J11  B11  ( J 22  B22  TL )
N2
• Substitute θ2 from eq (3)
  N1 N1  N1  N1
 a  J11  B11  (J2 1  B2 2  TL )
N2 N2 N2 N 2 51
  N1 N1  N1  N1
 a  J11  B11  (J2 1  B2 2  TL )
N2 N2 N2 N2
• After simplification
2 2
  N1     N1  N
 a  J11    J 21  B11    B21  1 TL
 N2   N2  N2
  N1 
2    N 
2  N1

 a  J1     
 J 2 1  B1   1  
 B2 1  TL
  N2     N2   N2
   
2 2
N  N 
J eq  J1   1  J 2 Beq  B1   1  B2
 N2   N2 
  N1
 a  J eq1  Beq1  TL
N2 52
• For three gears connected together
2 2 2
 N1   N1   N3 
J eq  J1    J 2      J 3
 N2   N2   N4 
2 2 2
 N1   N1   N3 
Beq  B1    B2      B3
 N2   N2   N4 
53
Introduction
• A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial representation of
the cause-and-effect relationship of a system.
• The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually

contains a description of or the name of the element, or the
symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on
the input to yield the output.
• The arrows represent the direction of information or signal

flow.
d
x y
dt
1
Introduction
• The operations of addition and subtraction have a special
representation.
• The block becomes a small circle, called a summing point, with

the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the arrows
entering the circle.
• The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.
• Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.
• Some books put a cross in the circle.
2
Introduction
• In order to have the same signal or variable be an input
to more than one block or summing point, a takeoff
point is used.
• This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along

several different paths to several destinations.
3
Example-1
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables,
and a1, a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.
x3  a1 x1  a2 x2  5
4
Example-1
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables,
and a1, a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.
x3  a1 x1  a2 x2  5
5
Example-2
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2,. . . , xn, are
variables, and a1, a2,. . . , an , are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.
xn  a1 x1  a2 x2  an 1 xn 1
6
Example-3
• Draw the Block Diagrams of the following equations.
dx1 1
(1) x2  a1   x1dt
dt b
d 2 x2 dx1
( 2) x3  a1 3  bx1
dt 2 dt
7
Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System
8
Characteristic Equation
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the system.
C( s ) G( s )

R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
• The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines the

characteristic equation of the system.
• Which is usually determined as:
1  G( s )H ( s )  0
9
Example-4
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function  G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function  G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
B( s ) G( s ) H ( s )
4. feedback ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s ) H ( s )
E( s ) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
7. characteristic equation 1  G( s )H ( s )  0
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10. 10

Reduction of Complicated Block
Diagrams
• The block diagram of a practical control system is often
quite complicated.
• It may include several feedback or feedforward loops, and

multiple inputs.
• By means of systematic block diagram reduction, every

multiple loop linear feedback system may be reduced to
canonical form.
11
Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade
G1 G2 G1G2
2. Combining blocks in parallel
G1
G1  G2
G2
12
Reduction techniques
3. Moving a summing point behind a block
G G
G
4. Moving a summing point ahead of a block
G G
1
G
13
5. Moving a pickoff point behind a block
G G
1
G
6. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block
G G
G
14
7. Eliminating a feedback loop
G
G
1  GH
H
G
G
1 G
H 1
8. Swap with two neighboring summing points
A B B A
15
Example-5: Reduce the Block Diagram to Canonical Form.
• Combine all cascade block using rule-1
• Combine all parallel block using rule-2
16
Example-5: Reduce the Block Diagram to Canonical Form.
𝐺2 + 𝐺3
𝐺1 𝐺4
17
Example-5: Continue.
• Eliminate all minor feedback loops using rule-7
• After the elimination of minor feedback loop the block diagram is reduced to as shown below
• Again blocks are in cascade are removed using rule-1
18
Example-6
• For the system represented by the following block diagram
determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.
19
Example-6
– First we will reduce the given block diagram to canonical form
K
s 1
20
Example-6
K
s 1
K
G
 s 1
1  GH K
1 s
s 1
21
Example-6
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function  G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function  G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
B( s ) G( s ) H ( s )
4. feedback ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s ) H ( s )
E( s ) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
7. characteristic equation 1  G( s )H ( s )  0
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10. 22

Example-7
• For the system represented by the following block diagram
determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=100.
23
Example-8
H2
R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+
H1
24
Example-8
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1 G2 G3
+
H1
25
Example-8
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+
H1
26
Example-8
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+
H1
27
block diagram: reduction example
H2
G1
R _
G1G2 C
+_ + G3
1  G1G2 H1
28
H2
G1
R _
G1G2G3 C
+_ +
1  G1G2 H1
29
R G1G2G3 C
+_ 1  G1G2 H1  G2G3 H 2
30
Example 9
Find the transfer function of the following block diagram
G4
R ( s) Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1
31
I
G4
R (s ) B A
Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1 G2
Solution:
1. Moving pickoff point A ahead of block G2
2. Eliminate loop I & simplify
B
G4  G2G3
32
G4
R (s )
GG4 
B A G2G3
Y (s )
G1 2 G 3
H2
H1G2
3. Moving pickoff point B behind block G4  G2G3

II
R (s ) B C
Y (s )
G1 G4  G2G3
H2
H1G2 1 /(G4  G2G3 )
33
4. Eliminate loop III
R (s ) Y (s )
G1 GG4 4GG2G2G3 3
C C
1  H 2 (GH4 2 G2G3 )
G2 H1
G4  G2G3
R (s ) G1 (G4  G2G3 ) Y (s )
1  G1G 2 H1  H 2 (G4  G2G3 )
Y (s) G1 (G4  G2G3 )


R( s ) 1  G1G 2 H1  H 2 (G4  G2G3 )  G1 (G4  G2G3 )
34
Example 10
Find the transfer function of the following block diagrams
R (s ) Y (s )
G1 G2
H1 H2
H3
35
Solution:
1. Eliminate loop I
R (s ) A
G2 I
B
Y (s )
G1 G2
H1
1  GH2 H
2 2
H3
2. Moving pickoff point A behind block G2
1  G2 H 2
R (s ) A G2 B
Y (s )
G1
1  G2 H 2
1  G2 H 2 II
H1 1  G2 H 2
G2 H 3  H1 ( )
G2
H3 Not a feedback loop 36
3. Eliminate loop II
R (s ) G1G2 Y (s )
1  G2 H 2
H1 (1  G2 H 2 )
H3 
G2
Y (s) G1G2

R( s ) 1  G2 H 2  G1G2 H 3  G1H1  G1G2 H1 H 2
37
Example 11
H4
R (s ) Y (s )
G1 G2 G3 G4
H3
H2
H1
38
Solution:

I
H4
R (s ) Y (s )
A B
G1 G2 G3 G4
H3 1
H3 G4 G4
H2 1
H2
G4 G4
H1
39
2. Eliminate loop I and Simplify
R (s ) II Y (s )
G2G3G4 B
G1
1  G3G4 H 4
H3
G4
H2
G4 III
H1
II feedback III Not feedback
G2G3G4 H 2  G4 H1
1  G3G4 H 4  G2G3 H 3 G4
40
3. Eliminate loop II & IIII
R (s ) G1G2G3G4 Y (s )
1  G3G4 H 4  G2G3 H 3
H 2  G4 H1
G4
Y (s) G1G2G3G4

R( s ) 1  G2G3 H 3  G3G4 H 4  G1G2G3 H 2  G1G2G3G4 H1
41
Example 12
H2
R (s ) A Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
B
H1
G4
42
Solution:

I
H2
R (s ) A B Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
1
H1 G3
1
H1 G3
G4
43
2. Eliminate loop I & Simplify
H2
B
G2 G3 B G2G3
1 H1
 H2
H1 G3 G3
II
R (s ) G2G3 Y (s )
G1
1  G2 H1  G2G3 H 2
H1
G3
G4 44
3. Eliminate loop II
R (s ) G1G2G3 Y (s )
1  G2 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1
G4
Y ( s) G1G2G3
T ( s)   G4 
R( s ) 1  G2 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1
45
Example-13: Multiple Input System. Determine the output C
due to inputs R and U using the Superposition Method.
46
47
48
Example-14: Multiple-Input System. Determine the output C
due to inputs R, U1 and U2 using the Superposition Method.
49
50
51
Example-15: Multi-Input Multi-Output System. Determine C1
and C2 due to R1 and R2.
52
53
When R1 = 0,
When R2 = 0,
54
Block Diagram of Armature Controlled D.C Motor
Ra La
c
ia
Va eb T J

La s  Ra I a(s)  K b(s)  Va(s)
Js  c (s)  K ma I a(s)

55
La s  Ra I a(s)  K b(s)  Va(s)
56
Js  c (s)  K ma I a(s)
57
58
Outline
• Introduction to Signal Flow Graphs
– Definitions
– Terminologies
– Examples
• Mason’s Gain Formula
– Examples
• Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagrams
• Design Examples
1
Introduction
• Alternative method to block diagram representation,
developed by Samuel Jefferson Mason.
• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula,

also called Mason’s gain formula.
• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes

are connected by directed branches.
• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system

to another and gives the relationships among the signals.
2
Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y  ax
• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;
a y
x
• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by a
Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
3
Signal-Flow Graph Models
Y1( s ) G11( s )  R1( s )  G12( s )  R2( s )
Y2( s ) G21( s )  R1( s )  G22( s )  R2( s )
4
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs
a11 x1  a12 x2  r1 x1
a21 x1  a22 x2  r2 x2
5
xo is input and x4 is output
x1  ax0  bx1  cx2 f

c
x2  dx1  ex3 x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x3  fx0  gx2
x4  hx 3 b e
6
Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.
• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are
required to construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated
branches.
• Another way to arrange this

graph is shown in the figure.
7
Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4
• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on
the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.
8
Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self
loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path.
i.e. the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain
of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.
• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have
no nodes in common.
9
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
10
• There are two forward path gains;
11
• There are four loops
12
• Nontouching loop gains;
13
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following
a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
14
Input and output Nodes
a) Input node
b) Output node
15
(c) Forward Paths
16
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
17
18
19
20
(e) Self Loop(s)
21
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
22
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths
23
Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph
to a single transfer function requires the application of one
formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the
signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be
written from the graph.
24
Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph
is;
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
Where
n = number of forward paths.

Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path
• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since

∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.
25
Mason’s Rule:
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains
of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the
products of the gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each
other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop
gains
∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-
th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
26
Systematic approach
1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward

path i.
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward
path i
27
Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
Therefore, C P11  P2  2

R 
There are three feedback loops
L1  G1G4 H1 , L2  G1G2G4 H 2 , L3  G1G3G4 H 2

28
There are no non-touching loops, therefore
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)
  1  L1  L2  L3 
  1  G1G4 H1  G1G2G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2 
29
Eliminate forward path-1
∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1
∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
30
Example#1: Continue
31
Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
P1
P2
1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1  G1G2G3G4 (path 1) and P2  G5G6G7 G8 (path 2)
2. Calculate all loop gains.

L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7
3. Consider two non-touching loops.

L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3 32
Example#2: continue
4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.
5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.
  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1L3  L1L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 
  1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7  
G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 
33
Example#2: continue
1  1  L3  L4 
1  1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 
 2  1  L1  L2 
 2  1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 
34
Example#2: continue
Y ( s ) P11  P2  2

R( s ) 
Y (s) G1G2G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G5G6G7 G8 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 


R( s ) 1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 
35
Example#3
• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow
graph in figure below.
36
Example#3
• There is only one forward Path.
P1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s )G4 ( s )G5 ( s )
37
Example#3
• There are four feedback loops.
38
Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.
39
Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.
40
Example#3
41
Example#4: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.
3
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1 P11  P2  2  P3  3
 
R( s )  
42
Example#4: Forward Paths
P3  A42 A54 A65 A76
P1  A32 A43 A54 A65 A76 P2  A72
43
Example#4: Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
L1  A32 A23
L5  A76 A67
L2  A43 A34 L9  A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
L6  A77
L3  A54 A45 L10  A72 A67 A56 A45 A34 A23
L7  A42 A34 A23
L4  A65 A56
L8  A65 A76 A67
44
Example#4: two non-touching loops
L1L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L1 L4 L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1 L5 L2 L6
L1 L6 L2 L8
L1L8
45
Example#4: Three non-touching loops
L1L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L1 L4 L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1 L5 L2 L6
L1 L6 L2 L8
L1L8
46
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
H1
R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－ X2
－
H2
H3
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)
－H2
－H3
47
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)
－H2
－H3
  1  (G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1 )

P1  G1G2G3G4 ; 1  1
C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G 
R( s ) 1  G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1
48
Example#6
－
－ X1 Y1
G1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－－X +
2
G2
－ Y2
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2
-1
-1
49
Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2
-1 -1
7 loops:
3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :
50
Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2
-1 -1
Then: Δ  1  2G2  4G1G2

4 forward paths:
p1  (  1)  G1  1 Δ1  1  G2
p2  (  1)  G1  (  1)  G2  1 Δ2  1
p3  1  G 2  1 Δ3  1  G1
p4  1  G2  1  G1  1 Δ4  1
51
Example#6
We have
C( s )  pk k

R( s ) 
G  G1  2G1G2
 2
1  2G2  4G1G2
52
Example-7: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below
by signal flow graph techniques.
• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.
• There are two forward paths. The path gains are
• The three feedback loop gains are
• No loops are non-touching, hence
• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is
hence
• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2,

therefore 53
Example-6: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.
• The signal flow graph is shown in the figure.
• The two forward path gains are
• The five feedback loop gains are
• There are no non-touching loops, hence
• All feedback loops touches the two forward

paths, hence
• Hence the control ratio T = 54

Design Example#1
1
V1 ( s )  I1 ( s )  I1 ( s ) R
Cs
CsV1 ( s )  CsV 2 ( s )  I1 ( s )
V2 ( s )  I 1 ( s ) R
Cs
Cs R
V1 (s ) I1 (s ) V2 (s )
55
Design Example#2
F  M1s 2 X1  k1( X1  X 2 ) 0  M 2 s 2 X 2  k1( X 2  X1 )  k2 X 2
56
Design Example#2
57
Design Example#2
58
Introduction
• In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic system
to an input is expressed as a function of time.
• It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the
nature of input and the mathematical model of the system
are known.
• Usually, the input signals to control systems are not known
fully ahead of time.
• For example, in a radar tracking system, the position and the
speed of the target to be tracked may vary in a random
fashion.
• It is therefore difficult to express the actual input signals

mathematically by simple equations.
Standard Test Signals
• The characteristics of actual input signals are a
sudden shock, a sudden change, a constant
velocity, and constant acceleration.
• The dynamic behavior of a system is therefore

judged and compared under application of
standard test signals – an impulse, a step, a
constant velocity, and constant acceleration.
• Another standard signal of great importance is a

sinusoidal signal.
• Impulse signal
– The impulse signal imitate the
sudden shock characteristic of
actual input signal. δ(t)
A
A t0
 (t )  
0 t0
0 t
– If A=1, the impulse signal is

called unit impulse signal.
• Step signal
– The step signal imitate
the sudden change u(t)
characteristic of actual
A
input signal.
A t0 t
u( t )   0
0 t0
– If A=1, the step signal is

called unit step signal
• Ramp signal r(t)
– The ramp signal imitate

the constant velocity
characteristic of actual
input signal.
0 t
 At t0
r(t )  
r(t)
0 t0
ramp signal with slope A
– If A=1, the ramp signal r(t)

is called unit ramp
signal unit ramp signal
p(t)
• Parabolic signal
– The parabolic signal
imitate the constant
acceleration characteristic
of actual input signal. 0 t
 At 2 p(t)
 t0
p(t )   2
0 t0
parabolic signal with slope A
 p(t)
– If A=1, the parabolic

signal is called unit
parabolic signal. Unit parabolic signal
Relation between standard Test Signals
A t0
• Impulse  (t )  
0 t0
d
 dt
A t0
• Step u( t )  
0 t0 d
 dt
 At t0
• Ramp r(t )  
t0
0 d
dt
  At 2
 t0
• Parabolic p(t )   2
0 t0

Laplace Transform of Test Signals
• Impulse
A t0
 (t )  
0 t0
L{ (t )}   ( s)  A
• Step
A t0
u( t )  
0 t0
A
L{u(t )}  U ( s ) 
S
Laplace Transform of Test Signals
• Ramp  At t0
r(t )  
0 t0
A
L{ r(t )}  R( s ) 
s2
• Parabolic  At 2
 t0
p(t )   2
0 t0

2A
L{ p(t )}  P( s ) 
S3
Time Response of Control Systems
• Time response of a dynamic system response to an input
expressed as a function of time.
System
• The time response of any system has two components

• Transient response
• Steady-state response.
• When the response of the system is changed form rest or
equilibrium it takes some time to settle down.
• Transient response is the response of a system from rest or

equilibrium to steady state.
-3
x 10 Step Response
6
Step Input
5
• The response of the
Steady State Response

system after the transient 4
Response
Amplitude
response is called steady 3
state response. 2 Transient Response

1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)
• Transient response depend upon the system poles only and not
on the type of input.
• It is therefore sufficient to analyze the transient response using a

step input.
• The steady-state response depends on system dynamics and the

input quantity.
• It is then examined using different test signals by final value

theorem.
Introduction
• The first order system has only one pole.
C( s ) K

R( s ) Ts  1
• Where K is the D.C gain and T is the time constant
of the system.
• Time constant is a measure of how quickly a 1st

order system responds to a unit step input.
• D.C Gain of the system is ratio between the input

signal and the steady state value of output.
Introduction
• The first order system given below.
10
G( s ) 
3s  1
• D.C gain is 10 and time constant is 3 seconds.
• And for following system

3 3/ 5
G( s )  
s  5 1 / 5s  1
• D.C Gain of the system is 3/5 and time constant is 1/5

seconds.
Impulse Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
δ(t)
K
R(s ) C(s )
1
Ts  1
t
0
R( s )   ( s )  1
K
C( s ) 
Ts  1
K
C( s ) 
Ts  1
• Re-arrange following equation as
K /T
C( s ) 
s  1/ T
• In order represent the response of the system in time domain

we need to compute inverse Laplace transform of the above
equation.
1 
C  K t / T
L    Ce  at c(t )  e
sa T
K t / T
• If K=3 and T=2s then c(t )  e
T
K/T*exp(-t/T)
1.5
1
c(t)
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
Step Response of 1st Order System
K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts  1
1
R( s )  U ( s ) 
s
K
C( s ) 
sTs  1
• In order to find out the inverse Laplace of the above equation, we
need to break it into partial fraction expansion
Forced Response Natural Response
K KT
C( s )  
s Ts  1
1 T 
C( s )  K   
 s Ts  1 
• Taking Inverse Laplace of above equation

c(t )  K u(t )  e t / T 
 
• Where u(t)=1
c(t )  K 1  e t / T
• When t=T
 
c(t )  K 1  e 1  0.632K
• If K=10 and T=1.5s then 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T 
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
9 Step Response
8
steady state output 10
7 D.C Gain  K  
63% Input 1
6
c(t)
2
Unit Step Input
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time
• If K=10 and T=1, 3, 5, 7 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T 
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
T=1s
9
8 T=3s
7
T=5s
6
c(t)
5 T=7s
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
Step Response of 1st order System
• System takes five time constants to reach its
final value.
• If K=1, 3, 5, 10 and T=1 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T 
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
K=10
9
8
7
6
K=5
c(t)
5
4
K=3
3
2
K=1
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
Relation Between Step and impulse
response
• The step response of the first order system is
 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T  K  Ke t / T
• Differentiating c(t) with respect to t yields

dc(t ) d
dt

dt

K  Ke t / T 
dc(t ) K t / T
 e
dt T
Example#1
• Impulse response of a 1st order system is given below.
c(t )  3e 0.5t
• Find out
– Time constant T
– D.C Gain K
– Transfer Function
– Step Response
Example#1
• The Laplace Transform of Impulse response of a
system is actually the transfer function of the system.
• Therefore taking Laplace Transform of the impulse
response given by following equation.
c(t )  3e 0.5t
3 3
C( s )  1    (s)
S  0.5 S  0.5
C( s ) C( s ) 3
 
 ( s ) R( s ) S  0.5
C( s ) 6

R( s ) 2 S  1
Example#1
• Impulse response of a 1st order system is given below.
c(t )  3e 0.5t
• Find out
– Time constant T=2
– D.C Gain K=6
– Transfer Function C ( s )  6
R( s ) 2 S  1
– Step Response
– Also Draw the Step response on your notebook
Example#1
• For step response integrate impulse response
c(t )  3e 0.5t
0.5t
 c( t )dt  3 e dt
cs (t )  6e 0.5t  C
• We can find out C if initial condition is known e.g. cs(0)=0
0  6e 0.50  C
C6
cs (t )  6  6e 0.5t
Example#1
• If initial Conditions are not known then partial fraction
expansion is a better choice
C( s ) 6

R( s ) 2 S  1
1
since R( s ) is a step input , R( s ) 
s
6
C( s ) 
s2S  1
6 A B
 
s2S  1 s 2s  1
6 6 6
 
s2S  1 s s  0.5
c(t )  6  6e 0.5t
Ramp Response of 1st Order System
K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts  1
1
R( s ) 
s2
K
C( s ) 
s 2 Ts  1
• The ramp response is given as

c(t )  K t  T  Te t / T 
• If K=1 and T=1

c(t )  K t  T  Te t / T 
Unit Ramp Response
10
Unit Ramp
Ramp Response
8
6
c(t)
4
error
0
0 5 10 15
Time
• If K=1 and T=3

c(t )  K t  T  Te t / T 
Unit Ramp Response
10 Unit Ramp
Ramp Response
8
6
c(t)
2 error
0
0 5 10 15
Time
Parabolic Response of 1st Order System
K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts  1
1 K
R( s )  Therefore, C( s ) 
s 3
s 3 Ts  1
• Do it yourself
Practical Determination of Transfer
Function of 1st Order Systems
• Often it is not possible or practical to obtain a system's
transfer function analytically.
• Perhaps the system is closed, and the component parts are

not easily identifiable.
• The system's step response can lead to a representation even

though the inner construction is not known.
• With a step input, we can measure the time constant and the
steady-state value, from which the transfer function can be
calculated.
Practical Determination of Transfer
Function of 1st Order Systems
• If we can identify T and K from laboratory testing we can
obtain the transfer function of the system.
C( s ) K

R( s ) Ts  1
Practical Determination of Transfer Function
of 1st Order Systems
• For example, assume the unit
step response given in figure. K=0.72
• From the response, we can
measure the time constant, that
is, the time for the amplitude to
reach 63% of its final value.
• Since the final value is about T=0.13s
0.72 the time constant is

evaluated where the curve
reaches 0.63 x 0.72 = 0.45, or • Thus transfer function is
about 0.13 second. obtained as:
• K is simply steady state value. C( s ) 0.72 5.5
 
R( s ) 0.13s  1 s  7.7
1st Order System with a Zero
C ( s ) K (1  s )

R( s ) Ts  1
• Zero of the system lie at -1/α and pole at -1/T.
• Step response of the system would be:

K (1  s )
C( s ) 
sTs  1
K K (  T )
C( s )  
s Ts  1

c(t )  K 1  e t / T
 K
c(t )  K  (  T )e t / T
T
1st Order System with & W/O Zero
C( s ) K C ( s ) K (1  s )
 
R( s ) Ts  1 R( s ) Ts  1

c(t )  K 1  e t / T
 K
c(t )  K  (  T )e t / T
T
• If T>α the response will be same

K
c(t )  K  ( n )e t / T
T
 Kn t / T 
c(t )  K 1  e 
 T 
• If T>α the response of the system would look like
Unit Step Response
10
9.5
C( s ) 10(1  2s )
 9
R( s ) 3s  1
8.5
c(t)
7.5
10
c(t )  10  ( 2  3)e t / 3 7
3
6.5
0 5 10 15
Time
• If T<α the response of the system would look like
Unit Step Response of 1st Order Systems with Zeros

14
C( s ) 10(1  2s ) 13

R( s ) 1.5s  1
Unit Step Response

12
11
10
c(t )  10  ( 2  1)e t / 1.5 10
1.5
9
0 5 10 15
Time
1st Order System with a Zero
14
13
12
Unit Step Response
11
T 
10
9 T 
8
6
0 5 10 15
Time
14
12
T 
10
Unit Step Response
T 
8
1st Order System Without Zero

4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
Example#2
• A thermometer requires 1 min to indicate 98% of the
response to a step input. Assuming the thermometer to
be a first-order system, find the time constant.
• If the thermometer is placed in a bath, the temperature

of which is changing linearly at a rate of 10°min, how
much error does the thermometer show?
PZ-map and Step Response
jω
C( s ) K

R( s ) Ts  1
T  1s
C( s ) 10
 δ
R( s ) s  1 -3 -2 -1
jω
C( s ) K

R( s ) Ts  1
T  0.5s
C( s ) 10
 δ
R( s ) s  2 -3 -2 -1
C( s ) 5

R( s ) 0.5s  1
jω
C( s ) K

R( s ) Ts  1
T  0.33s
C( s ) 10
 δ
R( s ) s  3 -3 -2 -1
C( s ) 3. 3

R( s ) 0.33s  1
Comparison
C( s ) 1 C( s ) 1
 
R( s ) s  1 R( s ) s  10
Step Response
Step Response
1
0.1
0.8 0.08
0.6 0.06
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.4 0.04
0.2 0.02
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Time (sec) Time (sec)
First Order System With Delays
• Following transfer function is the generic
representation of 1st order system with time
lag.
C( s ) K
 e  std
R( s ) Ts  1
• Where td is the delay time.

C( s ) K  st d
 e
R( s ) Ts  1
Unit Step
Step Response
t
td
Step Response
10
K  10
8
6
Amplitude
C( s ) 10  2 s
 e
R( s ) 3s  1 4
t d  2s
0
T  3s
0 5 10 15
Time (sec)
Examples of First Order Systems
• Armature Controlled D.C Motor (La=0)
Ra La
B
ia
u eb T J

Ω(s)

K t Ra 
U(s) Js  B  K t K b Ra 
• Electrical System
Eo ( s ) 1

Ei ( s ) RCs  1
• Mechanical System
X o (s) 1

X i (s) b
s 1
k

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What is Control System?

System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.

Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system

Input Process Output

Controlled Variable– It is the quantity or condition that is measured

Manipulated Variable– It is the quantity of the condition that is varied

Control – Control means measuring the value of controlled variable of

Disturbances– A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect

• Automatic Control System

Examples:- Washing Machine, Toaster, Electric Fan, microwave oven,

• Since in open loop control systems reference input is not

• The performance of open loop system is severely affected by the

Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to compare the actual

Examples:- Refrigerator, Electric Iron, Air conditioner

• A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output

Input + error Output

• Feedback can be positive or negative.

• A Servo System (or servomechanism) is a feedback control system in

Antenna Positioning System Modular Servo System (MS150)

u(t) Process y(t)

y(t )  2u(t )  1 y(t )  3u(t )  5

Adhesion Characteristics of Road

• When the characteristics of the system do not depend upon time

• Time varying control system is a system in which one or more

• In continuous data control system all system variables are function of a

• A control System is deterministic if the response to input is predictable

• If not, the control system is a stochastic control system

Time variant Time invariant

• Where  is the Laplace operator.

U(S) G(S) Y(S)

• Where x(0) is the initial condition of the system.

• u is the input voltage applied at t=0

• If the capacitor is not already charged then

• The time domain integral becomes division by

Ax' ' (t )  Cy ' (t )  Bx' (t )

• Taking the Laplace transform on either sides

A[ s 2 X ( s )  sx(0)  x' (0)]  C[ sY ( s )  y(0)]  B[ sX ( s )  x(0)]

A[ s 2 X ( s )  sx(0)  x' (0)]  C[ sY ( s )  y(0)]  B[ sX ( s )  x(0)]

• Considering Initial conditions to zero in order to find the transfer

6u' ' (t )  3u(t )   y(t )dt  3 y' ' ' (t )  y(t )

• Where x is the input of the system and y is the output of

• When order of the denominator polynomial is greater

– The stability of the system

– Time domain and frequency domain characteristics of the

– Response of the system for any given input

• Roots of denominator polynomial of a transfer

• And the roots of numerator polynomials of a

• Poles of the system are represented by ‘x’ and

• And zero is the frequency at which system becomes

Single pole system

the denominato r polynomial is As  B  0

• The only pole of the system is

Experiment with actual Experiment with a

Physical Model Mathematical Model

Frequency Domain Time Domain Hybrid Domain

What is a model used for?

• Easier than white box Modelling.

dy(t ) du( t ) d 2 y(t )

• One should know have complete knowledge

• The Laplace transform of the above equation is

vi( t) i(t) C vo(t)

• Re-arrange both equations as:

• The system has one pole at