2014 Power and Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable Energy (PESTSE 2014)

Life Cycle Inventory and Assessment of different

Solar Photovoltaic Systems
*i i
Vishakha Baharwanj , Neetu Meena , Alka Dube/ , Urmila Brighu, Jyotirmay Mathur
2 (Associate Professor)
Deepak Sharma
(M. Tech. Student) Centre for Energy and Environment
Centre for Energy and Environment Malaviya National Institute of Technology
Malaviya National Institute of Technolog / Jaipur Rajasthan, India
Institute of Technology and Managemene

Jaipur Rajasthan, India

vishakha.baharwani90@gmail.com

Abstract- Electricity generation is a key source to global completely clean and have no environmental impacts.
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) and their related However, during its life cycle, it actually consumes a large
environmental impact. Sustainable development requires amount of energy and emits some GHG during some stages
methods and tools to measure the environmental impacts of
such as solar cells manufacturing processes, PV module
human activities for various products viz. goods, services, etc.
assembly, balance of system (BOS) production, material
Life-cycle analysis is an invaluable tool for evaluating the
transportation, and PV system installation and retrofitting,
environmental profile of a product or technology from cradle to
grave. Such life-cycle analysis of energy technologies are and system disposal or recycling [5]. When sunlight hits PV
essential, especially as material and energy flows are often materials, photons with a certain wavelength trigger electrons
interwoven, and divergent emissions into the environment may to flow through the materials to produce direct current (DC)
occur at different life-cycle-stages. Photovoltaic system is a electricity. Commercial PV materials include multi­
technology for the production of electricity from renewable crystalline silicon, mono-crystalline silicon, amorphous
sources that is rapidly growing thanks to its potential to reduce silicon, and thin film technologies, such as cadmium telluride
the energy consumption from traditional sources and to
(CdTe), and copper indium diselenide (CIS). A typical PV
decrease the air pollution. During the operational phase, there
system consists of the PV module and the balance of system
are no emissions and the only input is solar power. However, it
(BOS) structures for mounting the PV modules and
should be noted that, considering the entire life cycle of a plant,
photovoltaic systems, like any other means of electricity converting the generated electricity to alternate current (AC)
production, give rise to emissions that focus especially in the electricity of the proper magnitude for usage in the power
manufacturing stage and installation of components. In this grid. [3]. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is usually used as a
study, the environmental load of photovoltaic power generation technique to compare and analyze the energy using and
system (PV) during its life cycle by energy payback time (EPT) environmental impacts associated with the development of
and Greenhouse Gas emissions are reviewed through LCA products over their life-cycle. The framework of LCA
study to the state of art of the photovoltaic technologies.
methodology is shown in Fig. 1 [4].

Index Terms- Life Cycle Analysis; Solar PV System; GHG

emission; EPBT.
Framework of
Life Cycle Assessment

I. INTRODUCTION Goal and

scope
In these last decades, energy related problems are
definition
becoming more and more important and involves the rational
use of resources, the environmental impact due to the
emission of pollutants and the consumption of non­ Inventory
1----. Interpretation
renewable resources [1]. Therefore, there is urgent need for analysis
developing renewable energy technologies, especially
photovoltaic (PV), to cope with the challenges of energy
shortage and environmental pollution [2]. PV technology,
directly generating electricity from solar energy, is free from
fossil energy consumption and greenhouse gases (GHG)
Fig.l: Framework of Life Cycle Assessment
emission during its operations. Thus, it seems to be

978-1-4799-3421-8114/$3l.00 ©2014 IEEE

 III. LCA OF PV SYSTEM
LCA stage includes definition of goal and scope,
A. LCA ofMono Crystalline PV System
inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation of
results. The goal and scope definition describes the Kato [9] investigated the total energy
underlying question (objective), the system, its boundaries requirement of a mono-Si PV module range from 4I 60
to 15520 MJ/m2 and the EPBT and GHG emission rate
and the definition of a functional unit. The flows of
for mono-Si PV system was C02-eq'/kWh, respectively
pollutants, materials, resources are recorded in inventory
under the irradiation of 1427 kW hlm2/yr. Alsema [10]
analysis. These elementary flows (emissions, resource
found energy requirement of crystalline silicon PV
consumption, etc.) are characterize and aggregated for
modules varying from 5300 to16,500 MJ/m2 for mono­
different environmental problems in impact assessment and
Si modules. Kannan carried out LCA of a distributed 2.7
finally conclusions are drawn in interpretation stage [4].
kWp solar PV system and found the life cycle energy
Informational publications for decision-makers in the
use 2.2 MJ/kWh and the estimated EPBT and the GHG
European Community (European Commission, 2003) and emissions were 4.5 years and about 165 g- C02/kWh
Australian Coal Industry Association Research Program [11]. Kreith [12] has studied 300 kW PV plant
(ACARP), 2004 indicated that photovoltaics have relatively established at Austin having Single Axis tracker. The
high environmental impacts compared with other total embodied energy (emission) was 16.5 GWh and the
technologies, 10 and 2.5 times higher than the GHG life cycle C02 emissions are 280 g-C02eq/kWh. Knapp
emissions of the nuclear-fuel cycle for each country, and and Jester [13] observed on PV modules production that
45% and 23% of those of combined cycle (CC) natural-gas the total process energy and embodied energy of
power generation in the same country [3]. This paper materials of mono-Si modules were 2742 kWhlkWp and
investigates required energy and environmental impact for 2857 kWh/kWp, respectively and resultant EPBT is 4.1
major Si and Thin Film type PV module technologies along years. Nawaz evaluated the embodied energy for
with some recent technologies by means of review of their production of the crystalline silicon PV modules and
Energy payback time and GHG emission rate. BOS components and estimated that embodied energy
for open filed and roof-top PV systems was 1710 and
1380 kWhlm2, respectively, and the EBPT was 7-26
years as a result [14].

II. LIFE CYCLE OF PV

The life-cycle stages of photovoltaics involve:
(I) Production of raw materials, B .LCA ofMulti Crystalline PV System
(2) Processing and purification,
(3) Manufacture of modules and balance of Multi-Si PV system has almost same
system (BOS) components, conversion efficiency as the mono-Si system, but
(4) Installation and use of the systems, consumes less energy during its life cycle. Therefore,
(5) Decommissioning and disposal or recycling multi-Si may be has a shorter EPBT and lower GHG
emissions rate than mono-Si system [6]. Phylipsen and
Alsema [15] considered the life cycle assessment of
M,O M,O M,Q multi-Si PV module in 1995. The embodied energy
M,O Mia M,O
; ; i requirement was found to be 1145 kWhlmz and EPBT of
,
,--L- ,---1- "' ,--l- + � 2.7 years with module efficiency and performance ratio
Raw of 13% and 0.75, respectively. For a grid-connected PV
Decommis· Treatment
Matenal I- Matenal I- Manufactur· Use
sioning IDisposal
�
system, LCA is accom lished in [10]. The primary
Acquisition Processing ing energy was 2600 MJ/m and the EPBTs of multi-Si
module were as regards 2.5-3 years for rooftop systems
� ......
t "' � + M,Q , and 3--4 years for large ground-mounted systems while
E E E E E E the COz emission rates were in the range of 50-60 g
, COreq'/kW h.

Recycling
Ito [16] studied assessment of a 100MW large-scale
PV plant in Gobi Desert with module efficiency of
M, Q: malerial and energy inpuls
.. 12.8%. The results shows that the EPBT and C02
E: effluenls (air, water, solids)
emission rate of the plant were less than 2 years and 12 g
E
C02-eq'/kW h, respectively. Pacca [7] studied the LCA
of multi-crystalline modules with BOS, inverter and
Fig. 2: Flow of the life-cycle stages,energy,materials,and wastes for PV transportation. The manufacturing of one module
systems [3] consumed 1000 MJ of primary embodied energy in
materials and 3020 MJ as process energy. The EPBT for
KC120 was 7.5 years while the life C02 emissions were (l00 MW/yr), and the lifecycle C02 emission rate was
72.4 g-C02eq/kWh for considering US energy fuel mix from 14 (10 MW/yr) to 9 g C02-eq'/kW h (100
whereas 54.6 g-C02eq/ kWh for European energy fuel MW/yr). [to [16] studied the life cycle analysis for
mix. 100MW PV system at Gobi desert using CdTe and CIS
solar cell modules. The life cycle C02 emissions are
TABLE I LCA OF CRYSTALLINE PY MODULES
15.6 and 16.5 g-C02eq/kWh. Hynes [20] conducted life
cycle analysis on two types of CdTe thin film modules
using different deposition technologies. The total energy
Author Type Euergy EPBT GHG
of Cell Required (years) emission (g requirements were 992.52 and 1187.7 MJ/m2,
CO2 respectively and the corresponding EPBTs were 5-11
eq.lkWh) and 6-13 months, respectively with the efficiency of
Kato [9] Mouo 4160-15520 8.9 61 10%.

Kanuan Mouo 2.2 MJ/kWh 4.5 165

[11] TABLE [[ LCA OF THIN FILM PV MODULES

Phylipseu Multi 1145 2.7 NA Autho Type of Energy EPBT(year GHG

and kWh/m2 r Cell Required s) emission (g
Alsema C02eq.lk
[15] Wh)
Ito [16] Multi NA 2 12 Pacca Amorphous 1861 MJ/ 3.2 34.3
Pacca [7] Multi 4020 7.5 72.4 [7] Module
MJ/module Lewis Amorphous 491+(864 4.5,8.1 NA
and and 1990)
Jungbluth Multi NA 3-6 39-110
Keolei
[17]
an [18]
Hynes CdTe 992.52 5-11. 6-13 NA
[20] and month
1. LCA ofa-Si PV System 1187.7
MJ/m2
Thin film PV modules have lower conversion
Raugei CdTe NA 0.5 17
efficiency than crystalline silicon, but require less
[21]
material and energy during life cycle due to the Raugei CIS NA 1.9 70
relatively low temperature production technologies. [21]

Therefore, have less EPBT and GHG emissions. Lewis Wild- CIS 1684 1.45 21
Scholte MJ/m2
and Keoleian [18] conducted a case study on amorphous
n[22]
PV module production. The total process energy was Ito and CdTe NA 1.8 46
about 491 MJ/m2 while embodied energy were 864 and Komot
1990 MJ/m2 for low energy consumption and high 0[23]

energy consumption, respectively. The EPBT for a-Si

frame modules were 8.1 and 4.5 years for high energy
consumption and low energy consumption, respectively. Raugei [21] conducted analysis for CdTe and CIS

This energy can be reduced to 386 and 640 MJ/m2 by compared to crystalline modules. The results showed

using frameless modules. Alsema [19] reviewed the that the EPBT of CdTe and CIS PV modules were 0.5

energy analysis studies of thin film PV modules from six and l.9 years, and their life-cycle GHG emission rates

studies on a-Si modules and three studies on CdTe were 17 and 70 g C02-eq'/kW h, respectively. Though,

module, the author presented the best approximation for if the BOS components were taken into account, the

the energy requirement of a-Si and CdTe thin film EPBT and GHG emission would goes up to 1.5 and 2.8

frameless modules was between 600 and 1500 MJ/m2 years, and 48 and 95 g C02-eq'/kW h, respectively.

and estimated the EPBT of a grid-connected system Alsema[19] investigated required primary energy as
2 2
350-650 MJ/m ( process energy) and 300-400 MJ/m
below 2 years with 1700 kWh/m2/yr irradiation.
(material energy) while EPBT is 3.2 yr for CdTe
2
2. LCA ofCdTe ICIS PV System Modules with 6% module efficiency and 1000 W/m

The first solar cell based on CdTe/CdS has been irradiation. Ito and Komoto 2010 evaluated EPBT is 1.8

reported in 1972 with an efficiency of 6%. Since then, and GHG is 46 g COreq'/kWh for 11 % Efficiency at

significant improvement has been made in the cell and Very-large scale PV systems installed in desert [23].

the highest efficiency of 16.5% has been reported. Kato

[9] estimated that the total required primary energy for
3. LCA ofBOS Components
Balance of system (BOS) components includes
producing the CdS/CdTe PV module was approximate
inverter, controller, junction box, cabling, array support,
1803 MJ/m2 at 10 MW/yr and 1272 MJ/m2 at 100
battery, etc. Therefore, in order to obtain the total energy
MW/yr. The results shows that the EPBT of PV system
requirement of PV system throughout its life time, we
was in the range of l.7 (l0 MW/yr scale) to l.l years
 also need to know the energy requirement of BOS
components. Alsema [27] investigated
consumption of BOS components in
applications such as on rooftops and building facades.
The results showed that the BOS energy content of a
ground field PV power plant was as high as 1900 MJ/m2
due to the large amount of concrete and steel used for
supporting structure, while it was only around 600
MJ/m2 for building integrated PV systems. In addition,
the energy consumption of module's
significant due to the large amount of aluminum used in
the frame, which was about 300-770 MJ/m2. The EPBT
and GHG emissions rate of CdTe PV system were
reported to be l.9 years and 53 g C02-eq'/kW h,
respectively in [28], to which the BOS components
contributed 1.0 years of EPBT and 21 g C02-eq'/kW h.
Therefore, if the effects stemmed from BOS components
could be improved by reducing the possible amount of
aluminum and steel used in the support structure, the
EBPT and GHG emissions rate of CdTe PV system
might sharply decrease.
4. LeA ofOther Systems
Greijer [24] estimated life cycle GHG emissions of
nanocrystalline dye sensitized (ncDSC) system by in the
range of 19--47 g-C02eq/kWh for considering 20 years
life time and estimated in the range of 78-188 g­
C02eq/kWh for 5 years life time. A life
assessment of flexible amorphous silicon/nano­
crystalline silicon (a-Si/nc-Si) PV system was conducted
in [25]. With 10% conversion efficiency, the EPBT of
this a-Si/nc-Si PV system was about 2.3 years under the
solar radiation of 1000 kW h/m2/yr.
evaluated the C02 emission reduction effects of dye
sensitized solar cells by life cycle assessment. It was
found that the C02 emission rate ranged from 84.5 to
393 g C02/kW h, and the corresponding C02 payback
time was between 4.92 and 27.9 years with 1200
kWhlm21 yr irradiation.
IV.DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The usually used four types of solar PV system had been
reviewed with some latest PV technologies based on Life
Cycle Assessment. The energy requirement, EPBT and GHG
emissions have been estimated for mono-crystalline, poly­
crystalline, amorphous and CdTe/CIS and other solar PV
systems. For Crystalline modules have good conversion
efficiency but the required primary energy is very high and
corresponding EPBT and GHG emissions are also high while
Thin film modules consumes less primary energy and have
lower EPBT and GHG emission but the efficiency is low.
A set of parameters is responsible for the variability
in the performance of different installations. Aside from the
level of incoming solar radiation, Life expectancy, BOS
components, conversIOn efficiency, Cell
manufacturing process are some parameters on which it
the energy depends.
different
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