Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 32
Circulation and
Cardiovascular Systems
Lecture Outline

32-1
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 Outline
32.2 Transport in Vertebrates
32.3 The Human Cardiovascular System
32.4 Blood

32-2
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 Open versus closed circulatory systems

Top: The grasshopper, an arthropod, has an open circulatory Top: The earthworm, an annelid, has a closed
system. Bottom: A hemocoel is a body cavity filled with circulatory system. The dorsal and ventral blood
hemolymph, which freely bathes the internal organs. The vessels are joined by five pairs of anterior hearts,
heart, a pump, sends hemolymph out through vessels and which pump blood. Bottom: The lateral vessels
collects it through ostia (openings). This open system distribute blood to the rest of the worm.
probably could not supply oxygen to wing muscles rapidly
enough. These muscles receive oxygen directly from
tracheae (air tubes). 32-3
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 32.2 Transport in Vertebrates
All vertebrates have a closed circulatory system called
a cardiovascular system.
Vertebrate heart:
• Atria of the heart receives blood from general circulation.
• Ventricles of the heart pump blood out through blood
vessels.
Vertebrate vessels:
• Arteries – Carry blood away from heart
• Arterioles – Small arteries which lead to capillaries
• Diameters are regulated by nervous and endocrine systems.
• Capillaries – Exchange materials with tissue fluid
(interstitial)
• Venules – Join to form a vein
• Veins – Return blood to heart
• Both venules and veins collect blood from capillary beds. 32-4
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 Transport in Vertebrates – artery,
capillary, vein

Transport in vertebrates. a. Arteries have well-developed walls with a thick middle layer of
elastic tissue and smooth muscle. b. Capillary walls are only one cell thick. c. Veins have
flabby walls, particularly because the middle layer is not as thick as in arteries. Veins
have valves, which ensure one-way flow of blood back to the heart.
32-5
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 Anatomy of a capillary bed

Anatomy of a capillary bed. When a capillary bed is open, sphincter muscles are relaxed
and blood flows through the capillaries. When precapillary sphincter muscles are
contracted, the bed is closed and blood flows through an arteriovenous shunt that carries
blood directly from an arteriole to a venule.
32-6
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 Comparison of circulatory
pathways
Fish – Blood flows in a single loop.
• Single atrium and single ventricle

Amphibians – Blood flows in a double loop.

• Systemic circuit and pulmonary circuit
• Two atria with a single ventricle
Most reptiles – A septum partially divides the ventricle.
• Mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood is kept to a minimum.
• In crocodilians, septum completely separates the ventricle.

Birds and mammals – Blood flows in a double loop (two circuits).

• The heart is also divided by a septum into separate sides.
• Right ventricle pumps blood to lungs; left ventricle pumps blood to rest
of body.
• Blood pressure is adequate for both pulmonary and systemic circuits. 32-7
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 Comparison of circulatory
circuits in Vertebrates
a.In fishes, the blood
moves in a single circuit.
Blood pressure created by
the pumping of the heart is
dissipated after the blood
passes through the gill
capillaries. This is a
disadvantage of this one-
circuit system.
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b.Amphibians and most
reptiles have a two-circuit
system in which the heart
pumps blood to both the
pulmonary capillaries in
the lungs and the systemic
capillaries in the body
itself.
c.The pulmonary and systemic
circuits are completely separate
in crocodiles (a reptile) and in
birds and mammals, because
the heart is divided by a septum
into right and left halves. The
right side pumps blood to the
lungs, and the left side pumps
blood to the rest of the body.
32-8
 32.3 The human cardiovascular
system
The human heart
• Fist-sized
• Cone-shaped
• Located between lungs directly behind
sternum (breastbone)
• Muscular organ (cardiac fibers)
• Lies within a membranous sac (the
pericardium)
32-9
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 The human cardiovascular
system – Structure
Structure of the heart
• The septum separates the heart into left and
right sides.
• Each side has two chambers.
• The upper two chambers are the atria.
• Thin-walled
• Receive blood from circulation
• The lower two chambers are the ventricles.
• Thick-walled
• Pump blood away from heart
32-10
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 External heart anatomy

a. The venae cavae and the

©McGraw-Hill Education/Professor David F. Cox, Photographer
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pulmonary trunk are attached to
the right side of the heart. The
aorta and the pulmonary veins are
attached to the left side of the
heart. Blood vessels are colored
red if they carry oxygen-rich blood
and blue if they carry oxygen-poor
blood. b. Photograph of a
mammalian heart in its natural
position in the chest.
32-11
 The human cardiovascular
system – Valves
Valves open and close to control blood flow
through the heart.
Atrioventricular valves
• Tricuspid valve between right atrium and ventricle

• Bicuspid valve between left atrium and ventricle

Semilunar valves
• Pulmonary semilunar valve between right ventricle and
pulmonary trunk

• Aortic semilunar valve between left ventricle and aorta

32-12
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 Internal view of the heart

a. The heart has four chambers; the two chambers

on the right are separated from the two chambers on
the left by a septum. When the atrioventricular
valves open, blood passes from the atria to the
©Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR/Science Source
ventricles, and when the semilunar valves open,
blood passes out of the heart. b. Intercalated disks
contain gap junctions, and these allow muscle cells
to contract simultaneously. Desmosomes at the
same location allow the cells to bend and stretch.
32-13
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 The human cardiovascular
system – Pathway of blood
Path of blood through heart
• Blood returning to heart from systemic circuit
• Venae cavae return blood to the right atrium.
• The right atrium pumps blood through the tricuspid valve to the right
ventricle.
• The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve
to the pulmonary circuit.
• Blood returning to heart from pulmonary circuit
• Enters left atrium
• The left atrium pumps blood through the bicuspid valve to the left
ventricle.
• The left ventricle pumps blood through the aortic semilunar valve to the
systemic circuit.
• Oxygen-poor blood never mixes with oxygen-rich blood (in
humans).
• Blood must go through the lungs in order to pass from the right
side to the left side of the heart.
32-14
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 The human cardiovascular
system – Heartbeat
Heartbeat
• Systole – Contraction of heart chambers
• Diastole – Relaxation of heart chambers
• Cardiac cycle – Two-part pumping action that
takes about a second
• Blood collects in atria; the atria contract
• Pushes blood through tricuspid and mitral valves into the
resting lower ventricles
• This phase (the longer of the two) is called diastole.
• Second part begins after the ventricles fill.
• Ventricles contract
• This phase is called systole.
• After blood moves into the pulmonary artery and aorta,
the ventricles relax.
32-15
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 Stages in the cardiac cycle

d. Aortic semilunar valve (shown on left)

and bicuspid or mitral atrioventricular
valve (shown on right).
a. When the atria
contract, the ventricles
are relaxed and filling
with blood. The
atrioventricular valves c. When the heart is relaxed,
©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
are open, and the both the atria and the ventricles
b. When the ventricles contract, the
semilunar valves are are filling with blood. The
atrioventricular valves are closed,
closed. atrioventricular valves are open,
the semilunar valves are open, and
the blood is pumped into the and the semilunar valves are
pulmonary trunk and aorta. closed.
32-16
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 Pulse and conduction system
The pulse is a wave effect passing down the walls
of the arterial blood vessels when the aorta
expands and recoils following ventricular systole.
• Rhythmic contraction of the atria and ventricles is due
to the internal (intrinsic) conduction system of the
heart.
• Sinoatrial node (SA) keeps the heartbeat regular.
• It is called the pacemaker.
• Atrioventricular node (AV) signals ventricles to contract.
• Input from the brain can increase or decrease the
rate/strength of heart contractions.
• The hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine,
secreted into the blood by the adrenal glands, also
stimulate the heart.
32-17
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 Conduction system of the heart

a. Normal ECG b.Ventricular fibrillation

c. Recording of an ECG
a to b: ©Ed Reschke; c: ©MedicImage/Alamy Stock Photo

Conduction system of the heart. a. The SA node a. A normal ECG usually indicates that the heart is functioning
sends out a stimulus (black arrows), which properly. The P wave occurs just prior to atrial contraction; the
causes the atria to contract. When this stimulus QRS complex occurs just prior to ventricular contraction; and the T
reaches the AV node, it signals the ventricles to wave occurs when the ventricles are recovering from contraction.
contract. Impulses pass down the two branches b. Ventricular fibrillation produces an irregular electrocardiogram
of the atrioventricular bundle to the Purkinje due to irregular stimulation of the ventricles. c. The recording of an
fibers, and thereafter the ventricles contract. ECG.
32-18
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 Comparison of circulatory
circuits
The human cardiovascular system includes two
major circular pathways:
Pulmonary Circuit
• Takes O2 -poor blood to the lungs, returning O2 -rich blood to
the heart
Systemic Circuit
• Takes O2 -rich blood from the heart to tissues throughout the
body, returning O2 -poor blood to the heart through the venae
cavae
In a portal system, blood from capillaries goes
through veins to another set of capillaries without
traveling first through the heart.
• Example: hepatic portal system takes blood from
intestines directly to the liver
32-19
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 Path of blood
Path of blood. When tracing
blood from the right to the
left side of the heart in the
pulmonary circuit, you must
mention the pulmonary
vessels. When tracing
blood from the digestive
tract to the right atrium in
the systemic circuit, you
must mention the hepatic
portal vein, the hepatic
vein, and the inferior vena
cava. The blue-colored
vessels carry oxygen-poor
blood, and the red-colored
vessels carry oxygen-rich
blood; the arrows indicate
the flow of blood.

32-20
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 The human cardiovascular
system – Blood pressure
Blood pressure
• Contraction of the heart supplies pressure that
keeps blood moving in the arteries.
• Systolic pressure results from blood forced into the
arteries during ventricular systole.
• Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during
ventricular diastole.
• Normally measured with a sphygmomanometer on the
brachial artery, an artery on the upper arm.
• Expressed in the form: Systolic “over” Diastolic
• Example: 120 80, represents systolic and diastolic pressures
• Blood pressure is measured in millimeters (mm) of mercury.
32-21
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 Mechanics of blood pressure
Blood pressure
• In arteries, the pressure of the blood forces it to move
forward.
• Blood pressure falls as blood flows from the aorta into
arteries and arterioles.
• Blood flow in the capillaries is slow.
• Blood pressure in the veins is too low to move blood
back to the heart.
• Skeletal muscle contraction pushes blood in the veins toward the
heart.
• Veins have valves to prevent backward flow of blood.
• Varicose veins develop when valves become ineffective.
• A respiratory pump reduces pressure in the thoracic cavity to
cause blood to move from the abdominal cavity (higher
pressure) into the thoracic cavity (lower pressure) during
each inhalation. 32-22
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 Valves regulate blood flow in
veins

a. Contracted skeletal muscle b. Closed valve prevents

pushes blood past open valve. backward flow of blood.

a. Pressure on the walls of a vein, exerted by skeletal muscles, increases blood pressure
within the vein and forces a valve open. b. When external pressure is no longer applied to
the vein, blood pressure decreases, and back pressure forces the valve closed. Closure
of the valves prevents the blood from flowing in the opposite direction. 32-23
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 Velocity and blood pressure related
to vascular cross-section

Velocity and blood pressure related to vascular cross-sectional area. In

capillaries, blood is under minimal pressure and has the least velocity. Blood
pressure and velocity drop off, because capillaries have a greater total cross-
sectional area than arterioles. 32-24
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 Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
• Leading cause of death in most Western countries
• Hypertension – High blood pressure
• 30% of Americans are sufferers
• Caused by narrowing of arteries due to atherosclerosis
• Atherosclerosis – Accumulation of fatty materials between the
inner linings of arteries
• Deposits are called plaque.
• A clot, called a thrombus, may form on an arterial wall.
• Stroke – A disruption of blood supply to the brain
• Results when a cranial arteriole bursts or is blocked by an embolus
• Angina pectoris – Painful squeezing sensation from myocardial
oxygen insufficiency due to partial blockage of a coronary artery
• Heart attack (myocardial infarction) – Coronary artery becomes
completely blocked
• Stents, or self-expanding wire mesh tubes, can be inserted into blocked
artery to keep it open.
• If stents are unsuccessful, a coronary bypass may be required in which a
surgeon replaces the artery with a healthy artery from elsewhere in the
body. 32-25
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 Coronary arteries and plaque

©Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Atherosclerotic plaque is an irregular accumulation of cholesterol and fat. When

plaque is present in a coronary artery, a heart attack is more likely to occur
because of restricted blood flow. 32-26
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 Angioplasty with stent
placement

a. Artery is blocked. b. Stent is placed. c. Balloon is inflated

a. A catheter is inserted b. A metal stent with a c. When the balloon is

into the coronary artery balloon inside it is inflated, the vessel
until it reaches the pushed out the end of opens, and the stent is
clogged area. the plastic tube into the left in place to keep the
clogged area. vessel open. 32-27
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 32.4 Blood
Blood functions
• Transports gases, nutrients, waste products,
antibodies, and hormones throughout the
body
• Helps combat pathogenic microorganisms
• Helps maintain water balance and pH
• Regulates body temperature
• Carries platelets and factors that ensure
clotting to prevent blood loss
32-28
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 Composition of blood

Plasma Formed Elements

Type Function Type Number (per cubic millimeter blood)

Water Maintains blood volume, Red blood cells

(90 to 92% of transports molecules (erythrocytes)
plasma) Transport O2 and help
Plasma proteins Maintain blood osmotic transport CO2
(7 to 8% of plasma) pressure and pH 4 million to 6 million
Globulins Transport; fight infection
White blood cells Neutrophils Lymphocytes
Fibrinogen Blood clotting (leukocytes)
5,000 to 11,000
Salts Maintain blood osmotic
Fight infection
(less than 1% of pressure and PH; aid
plasma) metabolism 40 to 70% 20 to 45%
Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils
Gases Cellular respiration
(O2 and CO2 )
Nutrients Food for cells
(lipids, glucose, and 4 to 8% 1 to 4% 0 to 1%
amino acids)
Platelets
Wastes End product of metabolism; (thrombocytes)
(urea and uric acid) excretion by kidneys Aid clotting
Hormones Aid metabolism 150,000 to 300,000

32-29
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 Red blood cells
Red blood cells (RBCs)/ Erythrocytes
• Small, biconcave disks
• Lack a nucleus and contain hemoglobin
• Hemoglobin contains
• Four globin protein chains
• Each associated with heme, an iron-containing group
• Manufactured continuously in bone marrow of skull,
ribs, vertebrae, and ends of long bones
If the number of RBC is insufficient or if cells
don’t have enough hemoglobin, the individual
has anemia.
• The hormone, erythropoietin, stimulates RBC
production. 32-30
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 White blood cells/ Leukocytes

White blood cells (WBCs)

• Most types are larger than red blood cells.
• Contain a nucleus and lack hemoglobin
• Important in inflammatory response
• Five main types can be identified.
• Divided into two categories based on presence or
absence of cytoplasmic granules:
• Granular leukocytes
• Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils
• Agranular leukocytes
• Monocytes and lymphocytes
32-31
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 Granular leukocytes
• Granular leukocytes
• Contain granules composed of proteins and
enzymes used to help defend the body against
invading organisms
• Neutrophils – phagocytize and digest bacteria
• Basophil – contain histamine
• Eosinophils – involved in fighting parasitic worms,
among other activities

32-32
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 Agranular leukocytes
• Agranular leukocytes
• Lack granules
• Monocytes – migrate into tissues in response to
chronic, ongoing infections
• Differentiate into macrophages
• Fight infection, release growth factors that increase
the production of WBCs by the bone marrow
• Lymphocytes
• T cells and B cells involved in the immune response and
antibody production

32-33
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 Platelets/ Thrombocytes
Platelets
• Result from fragmentation of megakaryocytes in
red bone marrow
• Non-cellular, formed elements
• 150,000 to 300,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
• Involved in blood clotting (coagulation)
• A blood clot consists of:
• Platelets
• Red blood cells
• Fibrin threads
• Thrombin is an enzyme that, when activated by
prothrombin activator, converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
• Fibrin threads wind around the platelet plug to provide a
framework for a clot.
• Plasmin destroys the fibrin network. 32-34
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 Blood clotting

©Eye of Science/Science Source

Blood clotting. A number of plasma proteins participate in a series of enzymatic

reactions that lead to the formation of fibrin threads. 32-35
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 Blood types
Blood types
• Blood type is determined by the presence or
absence of a surface antigen.
• ABO System
• Rh System
• Antibodies in the plasma can cause
agglutination.
• Cross-reactions occur when antigens meet
antibodies.
• Organ damage can result.
32-36
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 ABO System

Antigen on Antibody In
Blood Type
Red Blood Cells Plasma
A A Anti-B
B B Anti-A
AB A, B None
O None Anti-A and anti-B

32-37
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 Matched blood transfusion

©J.C. Revy/Medical Images RM

Matched blood transfusion. No agglutination occurs when the donor and

recipient have the same type blood. 32-38
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 Mismatched blood transfusion

©J.C. Revy/Medical Images RM

Mismatched blood transfusion. Agglutination occurs, because blood type B has

anti-A antibodies in the plasma. 32-39
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 Rh System
During pregnancy, if the mother is Rh
negative and the father is Rh positive, the
child may be Rh positive.
• Rh-positive red blood cells may leak across the
placenta.
• The mother will produce anti-Rh antibodies.
• Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) occurs when
anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta and attack the
RBC of another Rh-positive baby in a subsequent
pregnancy.
• HDN can be prevented by giving an Rh-negative woman
an Rh immunoglobulin injection within 72 hours of
bearing an Rh-positive child.
32-40
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 Blood – Capillary exchange
Capillary exchange
• Capillaries are very narrow and tiny RBCs must
go through single file.
• The movement of fluid through a capillary wall is
controlled by osmotic pressure and blood
pressure.
• Walls of capillaries are very thin to facilitate
diffusion of nutrients, gases, and wastes.
• Water exits a capillary near the arterial end.
• Water enters a capillary near the venous end.
• Solutes diffuse into and out of a capillary according to
their concentration gradient.
• Oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of capillaries.
• Carbon dioxide and wastes diffuse into the capillary.
32-41
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 Capillary exchange and Lymph
Substances leaving capillaries contribute
to interstitial fluid.
Excess interstitial fluid is collected by
lymphatic capillaries.
• It is called lymph.
Lymph is returned to systemic venous
blood when the major lymphatic vessels
enter the subclavian veins in the shoulder
region.
32-42
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 Capillary exchange

A capillary, illustrating the exchanges that take place

and the forces that aid the process. At the arterial end
of a capillary, the blood pressure is higher than the
osmotic pressure; therefore, water H2 O tends to leave
the bloodstream. In the midsection, molecules,
including oxygen O2 and carbon dioxide CO2 , follow
their concentration gradients. At the venous end of a
capillary, the osmotic pressure is higher than the blood
pressure; therefore, water tends to enter the
bloodstream. Notice that the red blood cells and the
plasma proteins are too large to exit a capillary.

32-43
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 Capillary bed

Capillary bed. A lymphatic capillary bed lies near a blood capillary bed. When lymphatic
capillaries take up excess tissue fluid, it becomes lymph. Precapillary sphincters can shut
down a blood capillary, and blood then flows through the shunt. 32-44
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