Thin Solid Films 489 (2005) 79 – 85

www.elsevier.com/locate/tsf

A theoretical model for prediction of deposition efficiency in cold spraying

Chang-Jiu Lia,*, Wen-Ya Lia, Yu-Yue Wanga, Guan-Jun Yanga, H. Fukanumab
a
State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710049, PR China
b
Plasma Giken Co., Saitama, Japan

Received 22 September 2004; received in revised form 18 April 2005; accepted 3 May 2005
Available online 6 June 2005

Abstract

The deposition behavior of a spray particle stream with a particle size distribution was theoretically examined for cold spraying in terms of
deposition efficiency as a function of particle parameters and spray angle. The theoretical relation was established between the deposition
efficiency and spray angle. The experiments were conducted by measuring deposition efficiency at different driving gas conditions and
different spray angles using gas-atomized copper powder. It was found that the theoretically estimated results agreed reasonably well with the
experimental ones. Based on the theoretical model and experimental results, it was revealed that the distribution of particle velocity resulting
from particle size distribution influences significantly the deposition efficiency in cold spraying. It was necessary for the majority of particles
to achieve a velocity higher than the critical velocity in order to improve the deposition efficiency. The normal component of particle velocity
contributed to the deposition of the particle under the off-nomal spray condition. The deposition efficiency of sprayed particles decreased
owing to the decrease of the normal velocity component as spray was performed at off-normal angle.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cold spraying; Deposition efficiency; Off-normal angle; Copper; Coating

1. Introduction transition from erosion of the substrate to the deposition of

Cold spraying is an emerging coating technology. A
coating is formed by plastic deformation of sprayed particles
in a solid state during impact in cold spraying. The
temperature of spray particles prior to impact is much lower
than their melting point and spray materials experience little
microstructure change, oxidation or decomposition [1,2].
Most metals including Cu, Al, Ni, Fe, Ti and their alloys can
be deposited by cold spraying [1– 11], and even cermets [3]
or ceramic particles [4] can be embedded into a metal
substrate to form a thin layer coating.
The velocity of a spray particle prior to impact is one of
the most important parameters. It determines whether
deposition of the particle or erosion of the substrate occurs
on impact of a spray particle. For a given material, there
exists generally a critical particle velocity resulting in a
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 29 82660970; fax: +86 29 83237910.
E-mail address: licj@mail.xjtu.edu.cn (C.-J. Li).
0040-6090/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2005.05.002
particle. Only those particles achieving a velocity higher
than the critical value can be deposited to produce a
coating. The particles having a velocity lower than the
critical one will lead to shot peening or erosion of the
substrate. The critical velocity is associated with the
properties of the spray material [1,5] and substrate [5–
7]. On the other hand, the particle velocity of a material is
related to the physical properties of the driving gas and its
pressure and temperature in operation, as well as nozzle
design of the spray gun [8 –10]. The characteristics of the
metal powder, such as density, particle size [8 –10] and
morphology [11] will influence the particle acceleration
and subsequent deposition.
Most investigations on deposition behavior in cold
spraying were focused on the normal approaching of
spray particles with respect to the substrate surface.
Practically, owing to the profile of the substrate and even
surface roughness, spray particles may impact at an off-
normal angle with respect to the substrate surface. As a
result, particle deposition will be influenced by the off-
80 C.-J. Li et al. / Thin Solid Films 489 (2005) 79 – 85
normal angle as reported by Gilmore et al. [8]. Naturally,
the normal component of particle velocity will be less
than that of vertical impact. Because the plastic
deformations of both impacting particles and substrate
mainly depend on the normal component of particle
velocity, the spray angle in cold spraying will influence
plastic deformation through the change of the velocity
components. With thermal spray, the microstructure and
properties of the deposits are influenced by the off-
normal angle, particularly at an angle less than 45- [12 –
15]. In comparison with conventional thermal spray, the
particles in cold spraying are of solid state rather than
molten state, so the particle velocity is more vital in cold
spraying. However, there were few papers investigating
the effect of spray angle on deposition behavior in cold
spraying.
In this paper, the deposition characteristic of a spray
particle stream with a particle size distribution was
theoretically examined using deposition efficiency as a
function of particle size distribution parameters and spray
angle. The established model is confirmed by the exper-
imental correlation between the relative deposition effi-
ciency and spray angle of cold spraying.
2. Theoretical analysis
Practically, the sizes of powder particles for spray
deposition are not identical and usually distribute in a wide
range. When the particles are fed into a spray gas stream,
the acceleration of each particle depends on its size. A
small size particle achieves high acceleration, while the
one of a large size achieves less acceleration. Conse-
quently, the accelerations of spray particles by driving gas
yield a velocity distribution of particle stream. Only the
particle of the velocity higher than its critical one
contributes to the deposition of the coating in cold
spraying based on the understanding up to now. In this
study, the deposition of the particles will be considered
through taking account of the particle size distribution and
its effect on particle velocity, along with the normal
component of the particle velocity. As a first approxima-
tion, the critical velocity for particle deposition is
independent on particle size and the erosion effect caused
by those metallic particles with the velocities less than the
critical value is neglected in this study.
The distribution of particle size can be expressed by the
following Rosin – Rammler formula [16]:
   m 
dp
fm ¼ 1  exp  I100%
d0
where d p is the particle diameter, f m is the cumulative mass
fraction of all particles with the diameter less than d p, d 0 and
m are constants dependent on the powders used and can be
determined experimentally.
In the present study, we take truncation of the size range
and Eq. (1) is modified as follows:
    
dp  dmin m
fm ¼ 1  exp 
d0
   m 1
dmax  dmin
I 1  exp  I100% ð2Þ
d0
where d max and d min are the maximum and minimum cut-off
diameters of the particles, which means that the size of all
particles is between d min and d max.
The particle velocity is obtained by numerical simu-
lation using Discrete Phase Modeling (DPM) in a
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program FLUENT
[16]. Owing to the axisymmetrical characteristic of flow in
this study, a two-dimensional symmetrical model is used.
The gas is taken as an ideal and compressible one. A
coupled implicit method is used to solve the flow field and
the result in the steady state is obtained. The standard K-e
turbulence model is utilized. Spray particles are introduced
into the gas flow at the position of 10 mm upstream away
from the nozzle throat. The initial temperature and axial
velocity of spray particle are 300 K and 50 m/s,
respectively. The more detailed description of simulation
method has been given elsewhere [17]. All the results
illustrate the change of particle velocity along the central
axis of the nozzle [17].
According to the simulation results, besides particle size,
the particle velocity mainly depends on nozzle geometry,
particle density, standoff distance from the nozzle exit and
parameters of driving gas including type of the gas, its
pressure and temperature in cold spraying [17]. The particle
velocity obtained by the simulation for a converging/
diverging spray nozzle of a conical shape can be expressed
by an empirical function [17]. Consequently, the relation
between particle velocity and individual parameters, i.e.
particle size, can be obtained.
Therefore, for a spray nozzle operating at a given gas
condition with a particular standoff distance, the particle
velocity of a specific spray material is a function of particle
size. When a uniform accelerating fluid of an identical
velocity is used and the wall effect of the nozzle is
neglected, the particle velocity obtained is inversely related
to particle diameter as far as the velocity of the fluid is larger
than that of the particle. In this case, according to the
simulation result, the particle velocity can be expressed
empirically as follows [17]:
k
Vp ¼ ð3Þ
dpn
ð1Þ
where V p is the particle velocity, k and n are the coefficients
related to driving gas conditions for a certain material. For
given spray conditions, k and n can be determined via
numerical simulation or experiment.
When spray powder holds a certain size distribution
ranging from a minimum diameter d min to a maximum one
 C.-J. Li et al. / Thin Solid Films 489 (2005) 79 – 85 81

and substrate surface (See Fig. 1). Therefore, d c will

become:
 1=n
kIsinðhÞ
dc ¼ ð7Þ
Vc
At a given off-normal angle, the particles of the
minimum and maximum sizes also correspond to the
maximum and minimum normal velocity components,
respectively. For the particles of velocity ranges between
the maximum and minimum values, the deposition effi-
Fig. 1. Sketch of the substrate fixture for spraying at different angles. ciency at a given spray angle can be calculated with
substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (2):
   m 
d max, the particle of the diameter of d min and particle of d max ðkIsinðhÞ=Vc Þ1=n  dmin
achieve the maximum velocity (V max) and the minimum Ed ¼ 1  exp 
d0
velocity (V min) according to Eq. (3), respectively. If V min is    m 1
dmax  dmin
higher than the critical velocity of spray particles, all the I 1  exp  I100% ð8Þ
particles will be deposited on the coating surface and results d0
in 100% deposition efficiency. On the other hand, when The normal velocity component should be largest as the
V max is lower than the critical velocity, no particle will be nozzle is placed normal to the substrate surface, and its
effectively deposited on the substrate, and the deposition deposition efficiency is highest. As the critical velocity is
efficiency is equal to 0%. When the critical velocity ranges lower than the minimum normal velocity component, 100%
from V min to V max, the maximum size of the particles deposition efficiency could be achieved. When the nozzle is
adhered to the substrate (d c) can be calculated from Eq. (3) tilted from the vertical direction, such ideal deposition
as follows: efficiency can be maintained until the normal velocity
 1=n component of particle in diameter d max equals to the critical
k
dc ¼ ð4Þ value. Then the deposition efficiency decreases with the
Vc increase of tilting angle. As the maximum normal velocity
where V c is the critical velocity for the particle to be component drops to the critical value, the deposition
deposited into the coating in cold spraying for a certain efficiency becomes 0%, and no particle is deposited.
material. Fig. 2 shows schematically the change of the deposition
Thus, the deposition efficiency (E d) can be related to efficiency with off-normal spray angle, assuming that the
particle size by substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (2) as minimum particle velocity is higher than the critical velocity
follows: at a given spray condition at normal angle. The particle
   m  approaching angle at which the maximum normal component
ðk=Vc Þ1=n  dmin is equal to the critical velocity is defined as the critical angle.
Ed ¼ 1  exp 
d0 The critical angle is a threshold, less than which no particle
     deposition occurs. Fig. 2 shows that the spray angle can be
dmax  dmin m 1
I 1  exp  I100% ð5Þ
d0
Critical angle
100
As spray angle decreases from the normal angle, the
Deposition efficiency (%)

normal component of particle velocity decreases and the Free of Transient Maximum
tangential component increases. Presuming that the effect of deposition region deposition
the tangential velocity component on particle deposition is
region region
negligible, and the deposition of the particles will mainly
depend on the normal component, only the particles with the 50
normal velocity components higher than the critical value
will be deposited during impact. The normal component of
the particle velocity prior to the impact can be described as
follows:
0
k
Vn ¼ IsinðhÞ ð6Þ Decreasing spray angle
dpn
Fig. 2. Schematic of effect of spray angle on deposition efficiency. The
where V n is the normal component of particle velocity, h is spray angle is divided into three regions: free of deposition region, transient
the spray angle defined as the angle between the nozzle axis region and maximum deposition region.
82 C.-J. Li et al. / Thin Solid Films 489 (2005) 79 – 85

divided into three typical regions: maximum deposition Table 1

region, transient region and free of deposition region. The Spray conditions and the necessary parameters obtained using the data in
Ref. [6] for estimating deposition efficiency
maximum deposition region is around the vertical direction
Driving gas N2
and its deposition efficiency reaches nearly 100%. On the
Standoff distance (mm) 30
other hand, the free of deposition region extends from zero Feedstock Cu
degree to the critical angle. In the transient region, the Particle size (Am) 5 – 25
deposition efficiency increases from 0% to 100%, depending Constants defining the size distribution in Eq. (2) d0 14.3
on the velocity of the particles. These angle ranges depend m 2.2
d max 50.0
mainly on the ratio of distribution of particle velocity to
d min 2.0
critical velocity for a given spray material. Constants in Eq. (3) k 965
n 0.21

3. Experimental correlation
the downstream length from the throat to the exit was 100
mm. Nitrogen and helium were used as accelerating gases.
3.1. Experimental procedures
Nitrogen was also used as the powder carrier gas. The
substrate was fixed at a specially designed fixture as shown
The commercially available copper powder was used as
in Fig. 1. The standoff distance was kept at 15 mm from the
spray material. The powder was produced by gas atom-
nozzle exit to the center of the substrate surface. During
ization process and exhibited spherical morphology. Stain-
deposition, the spray gun was manipulated by a robot and
less steel was used as a substrate being grit-blasted with 24
traversed at a speed of 80 mm/s across the substrate and all
mesh alumina grits.
specimens at different angles were prepared in one single
In order to obtain a reliable relation between the
pass. The weight gain of each specimen after deposition was
deposition efficiency and spray angle, the size distribution
measured using a balance with the precision of 0.1 mg. The
of copper powder was characterized by a laser diffraction
relative deposition efficiency was evaluated by a ratio,
sizer (MASTERSIZER 2000, Malvern Instruments Ltd.,
which was the weight gain of the specimen placed at tilting
UK). Then, the size distribution was fitted using the
angle to that of the specimen sprayed at the normal angle.
modified Rosin –Rammler formula (See Eq. (2)) to obtain
the relation between the cumulative mass fraction and
3.2. Deposition efficiency obtained through the simulation
particle diameter. The comparison of the fitted relation with
of particle acceleration
the experimental one is shown in Fig. 3. It is confirmed that
the modified Rosin –Rammler formula represented well the
Stoltenhoff et al. [6] reported experimentally the depo-
size distribution of the copper powder used in the present
sition efficiency of copper particles. Using the processing
study. The fitting yielded the constants 27.5 Am for d 0, 1.8
conditions in the paper [6], we obtained the parameters, as
for m, 89.5 Am for d max and 2.0 Am for d min.
shown in Table 1, to estimate the deposition efficiency by
A cold spraying system developed in Xi’an Jiaotong
fitting Eqs. (2) and (3). The critical velocity of 550– 570 m/s
University was employed to produce the deposit. The design
was also found from the paper [6]. A deposition efficiency
of the system has been described in detail elsewhere [11]. A
of 52.9% was obtained by Eq. (5) as the critical velocity was
converging/diverging de Laval nozzle of a conical shape
550 m/s. This result agreed well with the experimental data
was adopted. The expansion ratio of the nozzle was 9 and
of approximately 53% in the paper [6]. The agreement
between the measured and calculated results evidently
100
suggests that the deposition efficiency in cold spraying
Cumulative mass fraction (%)

can be reasonably estimated by the model proposed in this

80
study. However, it can also be found that the estimated
deposition efficiency decreases to 45% when the critical
60 velocity of 560 m/s is used. This fact indicates that in order
to achieve the deposition efficiency, the critical velocity
40 Experimental result
should be measured accurately.
Fitted result It was found that different critical velocities for copper
20 particles were reported by different investigators [1,6,8].

0 Table 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Coefficients of k and n for two different gas conditions in this study
Particle diameter (µm) Gas Pressure (MPa) Temperature (-C) k n

Fig. 3. Size distribution of copper powder by experimental result and by N2 2.0 340 1287.1 0.36
modified Rosin – Rammler formula. He 2.0 340 1962.5 0.36
 C.-J. Li et al. / Thin Solid Films 489 (2005) 79 – 85 83

1200 Calculated result

Calculated by equation 3

Relative deposition efficiency (%)

100
He Experimental result
1000
Particle velocity (m/s)

N2 80

800 Obtained by simulation

60
He
N2 40
600

20
400

0
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Particle diameter (µm)
Spray angle (degree)
Fig. 4. Effect of particle diameter on particle velocity under He and N2
Fig. 6. Comparsion of relative deposition efficiency calculated theoretically
gases operated at the inlet pressure of 2 MPa and temperature of 340 -C.
with those measured under helium gas operated at the inlet pressure of 2
MPa and temperature of 340 -C versus spray angle.
These velocities were approximately 500 [1], 550 – 570 [6]
and 640 m/s [8]. The difference may be resulted from critical velocity. In addition, the deposition efficiency is
various features of copper powders and different gas higher when using helium as driving gas than that using
conditions used in different studies. Therefore, it is nitrogen, owing to higher particle velocity achieved using
necessary to investigate the effect of the critical velocity helium gas at the same processing conditions [17].
on deposition efficiency in cold spraying.
With the cold spray torch mentioned above and helium 3.3. Relative deposition efficiency
and nitrogen as accelerating gases, the coefficients of k and
n in Eq. (3) were obtained through numerical simulation as When the deposition efficiency at a given angle is
shown in Table 2. Fig. 4 shows the effect of particle size on normalized with that at the vertical direction, the relative
particle velocity under two typical processing conditions deposition efficiency (E r) can be obtained by the following
using both Eq. (3) and simulation. Both cases clearly show equation:
that the particle velocity decreases with the increase of    m 
particle diameter. The decrease is remarkable when particle ðkIsinðhÞ=Vc Þ1=n  dmin
Er ¼ 1  exp 
size is small, particularly less than 20 Am. On the other d0
hand, the calculated result by Eq. (3) fitted well with the one    1=n m 1
ðk=Vc Þ  dmin
obtained through the simulation. I 1  exp  I100% ð9Þ
Fig. 5 shows the calculated result by Eq. (8) on the effect d0
of critical velocity on deposition efficiency for two gas Fig. 6 shows the effect of spray angle on relative
conditions in Fig. 4. It is clear from Fig. 5 that the critical deposition efficiency of copper powder using helium as
velocity is of significant influence on deposition efficiency. driving gas operated at the inlet pressure of 2 MPa and
The deposition efficiency decreases with the increase of

100
Relative deposition efficiency (%)

Calculated result
100 He
Experimental result
80
Deposition efficiency (%)

N2
80
60
60
40

40
20

20
0

0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
400 450 500 550 600 Spray angle (degree)
Critical velocity (m/s)
Fig. 7. Comparison of relative deposition efficiency calculated theoretically
Fig. 5. Effect of critical velocity on the deposition efficiency under He and with those measured under nitrogen gas operated at the inlet pressure of 2
N2 gases operated at the inlet pressure of 2 MPa and temperature of 340 -C. MPa and temperature of 340 -C versus spray angle.
84 C.-J. Li et al. / Thin Solid Films 489 (2005) 79 – 85
temperature of 340 -C. The relative deposition efficiency in
Fig. 6 was predicted by Eq. (9) with a critical velocity of
550 m/s. The calculated result agrees well with the
measured one.
Fig. 7 shows the effect of spray angle on relative
deposition efficiency when nitrogen was used as driving
gas operated at the inlet pressure of 2 MPa and temperature
of 340 -C. A critical velocity of 550 m/s was also used.
Although the deviation between the calculated deposition
efficiency and experimental one is a little larger than that
using helium gas, a reasonable agreement between the
experimental relative efficiency and estimated one can also
be recognized for the use of nitrogen gas.
Moreover, based on the relationship between the
deposition efficiency and particle velocity distribution as
given by Eq. (5), the deposition efficiency can be estimated
for a certain spray material with a known particle size
distribution and gas flow. Because the particle velocity can
be calculated through the CFD numerical simulation [17],
therefore, it is possible to optimize the processing param-
eters using the method proposed in this study. According to
the present results, it is necessary for the majority of
particles to achieve a velocity larger than the critical velocity
to improve the deposition efficiency.
The correlation between experimental results and
theoretical model indicated that the present model explains
well the effects of spray angle, particle velocity distribu-
tion and critical velocity on deposition efficiency. Those
results also suggest that assumption neglecting erosion
effect caused by particles having velocities lower than the
critical velocity is reasonable. Generally, with metallic
alloy microcutting by erosive particle would be a main
erosion mechanism by which a maximum erosion rate is
observed at an approaching angle of about 15- [18]. Such
cutting effect would be noticeable when a hard particle of
angular morphology is used. With spherical alloy particle
impact causing remarkable plastic deformation, wear by
oxidation and fatigue during repetitive impacts would be a
main erosion mechanism. Therefore, it is reasonable to
neglect the erosion effect for soft metal alloys. But when
composite materials having hard particles are employed as
spray material, the erosion effect by hard particles might
not be neglected.
4. Conclusions
The coating deposition behavior in cold spraying was
theoretically examined by using deposition efficiency as a
function of particle size distribution and critical velocity.
With the modified Rosin –Rammler model of particle size
distribution and the relation between particle size and
particle velocity, a formula was proposed to calculate
deposition efficiency in cold spraying. Besides particle size
distribution, this formula involves critical velocity and
correlation of particle velocity and particle size. A theoret-
ical relationship was also established to explain the effect of
off-normal spray angle on the deposition efficiency in cold
spraying when the effect of the tangential component of the
velocity on particle deposition was neglected.
The experimental results agreed well with the theoretical
calculations. It was confirmed that the normal component of
particle velocity contributes essentially to the deposition of
the particle under the off-normal spray condition. The
deposition efficiency of the particles is decreased owing to
the decrease of the normal velocity component due to the
increase of the tilting angle from the surface normal. The
present results suggest that the deposition efficiency of the
particles of a certain size distribution can be estimated
theoretically using the present model assisted by CFD
numerical simulation of particle acceleration. Based on the
theoretical model and experimental results, it was shown
that the distribution of particle velocity due to size
distribution influences significantly the deposition in cold
spraying. In order to improve the deposition efficiency it is
necessary for the majority of particles to achieve velocities
larger than the critical velocity. It is also emphasized that the
accurate estimation of the deposition efficiency requires
precise determination of the critical particle velocity.
Acknowledgement
This project is supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 50171052) and the Doctoral
Foundation of Xi’an Jiaotong University. The authors would
like to thank Professor Jia-Wen He of Xi’an Jiaotong
University for his kind discussion in the preparation of the
manuscript. The authors would also like to thank Professor
Hanlin Liao from LERMPS in UTBM of France for the
provision of spray powders.
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