A Level Phy Heat and Modern

mbiddeabdul@gmail.
com 0772852540/0706508148
Heat
Heat is a form of energy that causes sensation of warmth. Temperature is a quantity which
measures the degree of hotness or coldness on a chosen scale. Temperature is measured by a
thermometer. There are various types of thermometers; liquid in glass, digital thermometers,
constant volume gas thermometers, platinum resistance thermometers, etc. The different
thermometers have different thermometric substances i.e mercury, gas, resistance, etc.
Thermometric property
Thermometric property is a physical property whose values vary linearly and continuously
with change in temperature. For example; the length of mercury thread in glass
thermometer, resistance of platinum resistance thermometer, pressure of a fixed mass of a
gas at constant volume, volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure and
electromotive force of a thermocouple. Each of the above thermometric property gives its
own temperature scale. Thus two thermometers based on different thermometric properties
may give different temperature readings at the same temperature because the different
thermometric properties respond differently to temperature changes. But the different scales
may agree at fixed points since the choice fixed points are definite.
Qualities of a good thermometric property
1. It should vary linearly and continuously with change in temperature.
2. It should be sensitive to temperature changes.
3. It should vary over a wide range of temperature.
Temperature scales
The two commonly used temperature scales are the Celsius scale and thermodynamic
temperature scale.
Steps taken to establish a temperature scale
A property whose values vary linearly with change in temperature must be selected. This
should be accurately measurable over a wide range of temperatures. Standard reference
fixed temperature points must be chosen.
Fixed temperature points
Fixed points are the temperature at which a substance changes its phase. The two standard
fixed temperature points are lower fixed (ice) point and upper fixed (steam) point.
The lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice under standard atmospheric
pressure.
Upper fixed point is the temperature of steam from pure boiling water at standard
atmospheric pressure.
The difference between values of the physical properties at ice and steam points is called
fundamental interval.
The fundamental interval is then divided into 100 equal parts with each part equivalent to
1 .
1
mbiddeabdul@gmail.com 0772852540/0706508148
Celsius scale ( )
It has two fixed temperature points; the lower and upper fixed temperature points.
Its lower fixed temperature point is at 0 and its upper fixed temperature point at 100 .
Steps taken to establish a Celsius temperature scale
A thermometric property, X which varies linearly and continuously with temperature is
selected. The values of the property at ice point and steam points and respectively
are determined. The value of the property at unknown temperature, θ, is determined. The
points (0, ) and (100, ) are plotted to obtain a straight line graph as shown below;
Thermometric
property, X
X100
Xθ
X0
0 θ 100 Temperature, θ( )
The unknown temperature, θ is determined from, ( ) .

Theory
From the graph, the slope ⇒ ⇒ ( ) .
Thermodynamic scale (K)
A thermodynamic scale has one fixed temperature point called the triple point of water.
Triple point of water is the temperature at which pure melting ice, pure water and saturated
water vapour co-exist in equilibrium.
The triple point of water is about 273K.
Steps taken to establish a thermodynamic temperature scale
A thermometric physical property, X which varies linearly and continuously with temperature
is chosen. The value of the physical property at the triple point of water X tr is determined. The
value of the physical property at unknown temperature, θ, Xθ is determined. The value of the
temperature is obtained from, .
Types of thermometers
Mercury in glass thermometer
The thermometric property is the length of mercury thread. It consists of a glass bulb with a
narrow capillary tube enclosed in a stem. It is calibrated in degrees Celsius.
Calibrating mercury in glass thermometer
The bulb of a thermometer is placed in pure melting ice and the length of mercury column in
the stem, l0 above the bulb is measured. The bulb is placed in steam from pure boiling water
at atmospheric pressure. The length of mercury column in the stem, l 100 above the bulb is
measured. The bulb is now placed in a medium whose temperature, θ is required and the
2
corresponding length, lθ above the bulb is measured. The temperature of the medium, θ is
calculated from, ( ) .
Example
Given that mercury thread has length 5.0 cm and 20 cm at the ice and steam points
respectively. If it is 8 cm long at another temperature, θ, find the value of θ. (20 )
Advantages of mercury in glass thermometer
1. It is simple and cheap to make.
2. It is potable.
3. It has direct reading.
Disadvantages of mercury in glass thermometer
1. It is not accurate.
2. It has limited range.
Sources of inaccuracies of mercury in glass thermometer
1. Non-uniformity of the bore of the capillary tube. This results into equal changes in
volume not producing equal changes in the length of the liquid column.
2. Expansion (shrinking) of the bulb brings about gradual change in the zero mark. This
is minimized by use of glass material with low coefficient of expansion.
3. Not all mercury in the stem is at the same temperature. The liquid column becomes
less than what it would have been when all the mercury in the stem at the same
temperature.
4. Effects of surface tension at mercury surface affect its uniform expansion. This is
minimized by making the capillary tube wide enough.
Constant volume gas thermometer
The thermometric substance is an ideal gas. The thermometric property is pressure.
Dead space Open limb
h0 Mercury
Air
Flexible tubing
Glass bulb
Constant volume mark
The glass bulb is immersed in an ice-water mixture. The open limb is raised or lowered until
mercury level in the closed limb is at constant volume mark. The difference, h0, in mercury
levels is measured. The bulb is then lowered into a bath of steam from water boiling at
atmospheric pressure. The difference, h100, in mercury levels is measured. The bulb is placed
in a medium whose temperature, θ is required. The difference, hθ, in mercury levels is
measured. The temperature, θ of the medium is obtained from, ( ) .
3
Theory
When the bulb is placed in the ice-water mixture, the gas pressure, P0 H + h0, where H is
the atmospheric height. Similarly when the bulb is placed in steam, the gas pressure, P 100 H
+ h100. When the bulb is placed in a medium at a temperature, θ, the gas pressure, P θ H +hθ.
The temperature, ( ) ( ) .
Advantages
1. It is very sensitive and very accurate.
2. It is used to calibrate other thermometers.
3. It has a wide range of temperature through which mercury expands.
Disadvantages
1. It requires skills in setting up.
2. It does not give direct readings.
3. It has high heat capacity and therefore slow to respond to rapidly changing
temperatures.
4. It cannot measure temperature at a point.
5. It is bulky and cumbersome to operate.
Sources of inaccuracy
1. The thermal expansion of the bulb makes the volume of the gas not constant. This
can be minimized by using glass of very low expansivity.
2. The temperature of the gas in the dead space is different from that in the bulb. It
can be minimized by making the dead space as small as possible.
3. The capillary and surface tension effects at the mercury surfaces affect its uniform
expansion.
Example
The bulb of a constant volume gas thermometer gives the following readings.
Level of mercury in a closed
Level of mercury in open
limb. bulb.
Bulb in ice 136mm 112mm
Bulb in steam at 760mmHg 136mm 390mm
Bulb at room temperature 136mm 160mm
Find the temperature of the room. (17.3 )
Answer
( ) ( )
( ) (( ) (
)
)
2. A thermometer is constructed with a liquid whose pressure varies according to the
relation ( ) where is the pressure at 0 , is the pressure at
on the scale of a gas thermometer, a, b are constants. If b , what will the
liquid thermometer read when the gas thermometer reads 50 .
4
Solution
( )
⇒ ( ) ( )
⇒ ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ( )
)
.
Platinum resistance thermometer
The thermometric substance is platinum wire and the thermometric property is resistance. Its
electrical resistance increases with temperature. The temperature, on a platinumresistance
scale is defined by ( ) . The wire is wound around two strips of mica
arranged crosswise and its ends are connected to a meter bridge (or Wheatstone bridge)
Construction
To meter bridge/Wheatstone bridge
Platinum resistance in the circuit
S – variable resistor
Q G – Sensitive galvanometer
T
Q – standard resistor
G T – Standard resistor
S
Connecting
Dummy
leads
leads
R
The platinum resistance wire is placed in a funnel with crushed ice and left for some time.
The switch is closed and variable resistor, S adjusted until the galvanometer, G shows no
deflection. The resistance of platinum, at 0 is determined from ( ) . The
procedure is repeated by transferring the resistance thermometer to a bath of steam from
pure water boiling at atmospheric pressure. The corresponding resistance, determined.
The resistance wire is now placed in a medium whose temperature, θ is required and the
procedure repeated to obtain the resistance of the wire. The temperature, θ of the
medium is obtained from, ( ) .
5
Example
1. The resistance of a certain platinum resistance thermometer is found to be 2.56  at
0 , 3.56  at 100 and 6.78 at 444.5 , the boiling point of sulphur on the gas
scale.
(i) Calculate the temperature of the boiling point of sulphur on the platinum
resistance scale.
(ii) The thermometer is immersed in a given liquid and its resistance is observed
to be 5.05 . Determine the temperature of the liquid on the platinum
resistance scale.
Answer
(i) ( ) ( ) .
On gas scale, the boiling point of sulphur is 444.5 . On platinum resistance
scale, the boiling point of sulphur is 422 . The difference is due to different
thermometric properties respond differently at the same temperature. The
reading would only be the same (agree) at the fixed points since they have
definite temperatures.
(ii) ( ) ( ) .
2. A resistance thermometer has a resistance of 21.42 at the ice point, 29.10 at the
steam point and 28.11 at some unknown temperature, θ. Calculate θ on the scale of
this thermometer. (87.1 )
3. The resistance , of a platinum resistance thermometer at θ on a gas thermometer
is ( ) where and are constants, is the resistance at 0 .
Given that , and , find the temperature on
the resistance thermometer when the temperature on the gas thermometer is 300
Answer
From ( )⇒ ( ),
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
⇒
Advantages of platinum resistance thermometer
1. Since it is possible to measure resistance accurately, is very accurate.
2. It has a wide range of temperature.
Disadvantages of platinum resistance thermometer
1. Since it has a high heat capacity, it takes long time to respond to temperature
changes.
2. It cannot be used to measure rapidly changing temperatures.
3. It cannot be used to measure temperature at points.
6
Thermocouple
It consists of two different metals joined together. When the junctions of the wires are at
different temperatures, an e.m.f is generated between the ends.
G
Copper wire Iron

T
A test junction, T of the thermocouple is placed in steam of pure boiling water at atmospheric
pressure. The e.m.f, E100 is noted from a sensitive galvanometer. The test junction is then
placed in a medium whose temperature θ is to be determined. The e.m.f, E θ is noted. The
unknown temperature, θ is got from, .
Advantages of a thermocouple
1. Since the test junction is very small, it has small heat capacity and can measure
rapidly changing temperatures.
2. It measures a wide range of temperature ranging from negative values and above.
Disadvantage of a thermocouple
1. Different thermocouples are calibrated differently.
Examples
1. One junction of a thermocouple is placed in melting ice while the other is inserted
into a bath whose temperature, as measured by high temperature mercury-in-glass
thermometer is T. The following readings were obtained.
T( ) 100 200 300 400 500
E.m.f (mV) 0.64 1.44 2.32 3.25 4.32
Plot these readings and hence find the following.
(a) the Celsius temperature on the thermocouple scale corresponding to 350
on the mercury-in-glass scale.
(b) the Celsius temperature on the mercury-in-glass corresponding to 450 on
the thermocouple scale.
Solution
(a)
(b) ⇔ mV,
2. When a test junction of a thermocouple is placed successfully in water bath of
unknown temperature and then in boiling water, it reads 1.44mV and 4.00 mV
respectively. Calculate the
(a) temperature of water bath. ( )
(b) thermoelectric e.m.f when the test junction is placed in melting tin at 232
( mV)
7
CALORIMETRY
Heat capacity
Heat capacity is the quantity of heat gained or lost by any mass of a substance when its
temperature changes by 1K. It is measured in JK-1. The quantity of heat gained or lost,
, where is the change in temperature and is the heat capacity.
Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 K. It is measured in Jkg-1K-1 . The quantity of heat gained or lost, ,
where is the change in temperature, is the specific heat capacity and m is the mass of a
substance. This implies, .
The amount heat absorbed or given out by a substance depends on its specific heat capacity.
A substance with higher the specific heat capacity absorbs or gives out large quantity of heat.
For example; water has very high specific heat capacity of 4200Jkg-1K-1. Thus a small amount
of water can absorb a lot of heat energy. Therefore water used in car radiator as coolant.
Other liquids have low specific heat capacities, and thus it requires large amounts of such
liquids to absorb the same quantity of heat.
Newton’s law of cooling
It states that under forced convection, the rate of loss of heat by a body is directly
proportional to the excess temperature of a body above that of the surrounding.
Suppose θ is the temperature of a body and θR is the temperature of the surrounding, the
rate of heat loss, ( ).
⇒ ( ).
But ( ) where k’ is the constant for the nature of surroundings and A is the
surface area of the body.
Suppose the body has a mass, m and specific heat capacity, c, the rate of loss of heat,
.
Hence the rate of fall of temperature, .
From Newton’s law of cooling, ( ).
Since , A, m and c are constants for a given body, .

Hence ( ), the rate of fall of temperature is proportional to the excess room
temperature.
For different bodies of the same material, at the same temperature placed in the same
environment, . For a given body of volume, V and density , ⇒
where is the linear dimension of the body. Thus bodies with similar shape, the ratio of
surface area to is inversely proportional to any linear dimension.
8
Small bodies have a larger ratio of surface area to volume than larger ones. Since the rate of
heat loss is proportional to the rate of fall of temperature and proportional to, the rate of its
temperature falls is high. Thus small bodies cool faster than larger one.
Cooling of hot bodies
When a hot body is placed in air, the air around it is heated. The air becomes less dense and
rises carrying away he heat with it. Cold air comes to replace the hot air that has risen.
Factors affecting the rate of cooling (loss of heat)
1. Surface area: The bigger the exposed surface area the bigger is the rate of heat loss
due to convection current of air.
2. Temperature difference: The bigger the rate of heat loss.
3. Nature of the surface.
4. Draught (forced convection): When air blows over a hot body, the rate of loss of heat
is higher.
Experiment to verify Newton’s law of cooling
Thermometer
Stirrer
Cork
Glassbeaker
Stop clock
Water
Wooden block
Hot water is placed in a beaker in a beaker and covered with a lid fitted with a thermometer
and stirrer. The beaker is placed near the window where wind blows and the temperature, θ
is recorded at suitable time interval. A graph of θ against time is plotted to obtain a cooling
curve as shown in (i) below.
( )
time
(i) (ii)
The gradients, at different temperatures, θ are determined from the curve. The
corresponding excess temperature, is determined. A graph gradient against excess
temperature is plotted to obtain a straight line graph through the origin as shown in (ii)
above. Thus the rate of cooling under forced convection is directly proportional to the excess
temperature of a body above that of the atmosphere.
Question: Explain why at night it is much cooler in the valley than on the top of the hill.
9
Determining the specific heat capacity of a solid

By method of mixtures
Thermometer
Stirrer
Lid
Lagging
Copper calorimeter
Water
Solid
The mass, of calorimeter of known specific heat capacity, is determined. Water of

known specific heat capacity, is poured into a calorimeter and its mass, is determined.
The initial temperature, of the water is determined. The mass of the solid, m is also
determined. The solid is heated in an enclosure through which steam is passed for a long
time. The temperature of the steam chamber, is noted. The calorimeter is placed below
the steam chamber and the solid lowered into the calorimeter. The calorimeter is closed with
a lid carrying a thermometer and a stirrer. Stirring is done and the final temperature, is
noted. Assuming no heat loses to the surroundings, the heat lost by the solid is equal to the
heat gained by the calorimeter together with water.
[ ][ ]
The specific heat capacity, C is determined from ( )
.
Examples
1. A block of metal of mass 0.20 kg is heated to 150 and dropped in a copper
calorimeter of water equivalent 0.025 kg, containing 150 g of water at 27 . Final
temperature is 40 . Find the specific heat capacity of the metal. Given that the spefic
heat capacity of water is (430 )
NOTE: The method applies to solids which are good conductors of heat because the
maximum temperature is attained in a fairly short time.
For poor conductors of heat, maximum temperature is attained after a long time and in this
time; an appreciable amount of heat is lost to the surroundings. A cooling correction must be
done.
Cooling correction
Cooling correction is the temperature difference in degree centigrade that must be added to
the observed maximum temperature of the mixture in calorimeter when the heated solid
cools in water to allow for heat lost to the surroundings.
For example, cooling correction is used when determining the specific heat capacity of a poor
conductor (rubber) by method of mixtures.
Determination of cooling correction
The initial temperature, of the water in the calorimeter is recorded. A hot solid is placed in
the calorimeter and at the same time, stop clock is started. The temperature is recorded at
half minute interval until the maximum temperature, is attained in time, . Timing is
10
continued when the temperature is falling up to time, of cooling such that . A

temperature – time graph is plotted for this time interval as shown below.
Y
Temperature ( )
R
K L
N M Time (min)
O
The theoretical curve shows the temperature might have risen if no heat were lost. The
cooling correction, is calculated where area under the curve and the
horizontal line through, when the temperature is increasing and area under the
curve and the horizontal line through when the temperature is decreasing. The observed
maximum temperature is obtained by adding the cooling correction, to . That is
.
Determine specific heat capacity by poor conductor by cooling correction
The initial temperature, of known mass, m of water in the calorimeter of known heat
capacity, C is recorded. A poor conductor specimen of known mass, whose specific heat
capacity, is required heated to a temperature higher than the room temperature, . The
initial temperature, of a hot specimen is noted. It is then placed into water in the
calorimeter and at the same time, stop clock is started. The mixture is stirred while noting the
temperature every after half minute interval until the maximum temperature, is attained.
Timing is continued when the temperature falls up to a time such that OM is at least twice
ON. A graph of temperature against time is plotted for this time interval. A horizontal line
through the room temperature and parallel to the time axis is drawn. A vertical line NY is
drawn and the areas and bounded by KY and KYRM respectively are obtained by
counting the squares of the paper. The theoretical curve shows the temperature might have
risen if no heat were lost. The cooling correction, .The observed maximum
temperature is obtained by adding the cooling correction, to . That is .
Thus heat given out Heat taken in Heat lost.
( ) ( )( ) ( ) . Hence knowing the specific
heat capacity of water, , can be calculated.
Example
1. 75 g of liquid is placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 50 g. The initial temperature is
17.2 . A heater coil of negligible thermal capacity is immersed in the liquid and is
operated at 1.8 A, 6.3 V, for exactly 4 minutes. After this time the temperature is
recorded as 25.0 . Subsequently the temperature falls steadily to reach 24.7 after 2
minutes has elapsed from the time when the heating was stopped. Obtain the value of
the specific heat capacity of the liquid. (shc of copper is )
11
2. 21.0 g of liquid at 60 is mixed into 100 g of water at 12.5 which is already in a

metal calorimeter of mass 70.0 g and specific heat capacity 400 . If heat escapes
to the surroundings may be neglected, calculate the expected new temperature of the
water, given that the specific heat capacity is 4200 for water and
4000 for the liquid. (20 )
3. 380 g of a liquid at 12 in a copper calorimeter weighing 90 g is heated at a rate of
20 W for exactly 3 minutes to produce a temperature of 17 . If the specific heat
capacity of the calorimeter is 400 , thermal capacity of the heater is
negligible, and there is negligible heat loss to the surroundings, find the specific heat
capacity of the liquid.
Determining specific heat capacity of solid by electrical method
K
A
V
Thermometer
Heater Lagging
Solid under test
Two holes are drilled in the solid one for carrying the heater and the other for the
thermometer. Mass, m and the initial temperature, of the solid is determined. Switch K
closed and the stop clock started at the same time. After a time, t, the ammeter and
voltmeter readings I and V respectively are recorded. The switch is opened and the stop clock
stopped. Time is allowed for the maximum temperature, to be attained. Adjusting the
rheostat, new ammeter and voltmeter readings I’ and V’ respectively are recorded. The
maximum temperature, for the same time, t, is recorded. Assuming no heat losses to the
surroundings, the specific heat capacities and are calculated from and
( )
. The average specific heat capacity, .

( )
Examples
1. In an experiment 30g of granite is contained in a test tube that is heated by
standing in boiling water at 100 . The granite is transferred into a calorimeter
weighing 50g of water at 10 . The temperature of water rises to 25 . Find the
specific heat capacity of granite. [Specific heat capacity of copper and water are
390 Jkg-1K-1and 4200 Jkg-1K-1 respectively]
Solution
Heat lost by granite heat gained by water and calorimeter.
( ) ( ) ( )
⇒ Jkg-1K-1
12
2. With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe an electrical method of determining the
specific heat capacity of a solid. (07 marks)
3. An electrical heater rated 48W, 12V, is placed in a well-insulated metal of mass 1.0kg
at a temperature of 18 . When the power is switched on for 5 minutes, the
temperature of the metal rises to 34 . Find the specific heat capacity of the metal.
Solution
Electrical energy supplied heat energy gained.
⇒ Jkg-1K-1
( )
Determining specific heat capacity of a liquid
By electrical method
K
A
V
Thermometer
Stirrer
Lagging
Heater Calorimeter
Liquid under test
The mass, of an empty calorimeter is determined. It is then half filled with a liquid and
reweighed again to determine the mass, m of the liquid. A lid carrying a heater and a stirrer is
fitted onto the calorimeter. The initial temperature, of the liquid is noted. The switch, K is
closed and at the same time a stop clock is started. The ammeter and voltmeter readings I
and V respectively is recorded. After time, t, the switch is opened and the final temperature,
is recorded. Assuming no heat loses to the surroundings,
VIt ( ) ( ). The specific heat capacity of the liquid, is calculated
( )
from ( )
.
Examples
1. The temperature of 50g of a liquid contained in a calorimeter is raised from 15 to
45 in 530s by an electrical heater dissipating 10.0W. When 100g of liquid is used,
and the same change in temperature occurs in the same time, the power of the
heater is 16.1W. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid and heat capacity of
the calorimeter.
Solution
Energy supplied Heat absorbed by the liquid and calorimeter.
( ) ( )⇔ .
⇔ .
⇒ Jkg-1K-1 and JK-1.
13
2. An electric kettle rated 1000W, 240V is used on 220V mains to boil 0.52kg of water.
If the heat capacity of the kettle is 400JK-1 and the initial temperature of the water
is 20 , how long will the water take to boil?
Solution
⇔ ⇒ 
⇔ [ ] ( )
s
3. A solid copper block of mass 5.0 kg is heated for 7 minutes exactly by an electric heater
embedded in the block. A potential difference of 25 V is applied across the heater, and
the current of 2.0 A is recorded. If the temperature of the block rises by 10 K, calculate
the specific heat capacity of copper, if the specific capacity of the heater is assumed
negligible. ( )
4. 50 g of water at 12 is placed in a copper calorimeter which weighs 0.10 kg. An
electric heater coil of negligible thermal capacity is immersed in water. With 7.0 V
across the heater produces steady current of 1.0 A for exactly 6 minutes, a final
temperature of 22 was obtained, what is the value of the specific heat capacity for
water?
5. Calculate the final temperature when 200 g of water at 50 is mixed with 80 g of
water at 10 . Heat losses to the calorimeter and surroundings may be neglected.
Continuous flow method
Constant head
supply tank A
V Glass jacket
Outflow
Heater
Inflow Vacuum Collected liquid
The rate of flow of a liquid through the apparatus is adjusted to a constant value by the
constant head supply tank. The switch K is closed and the system left to run until the
thermometers indicate steady temperatures. The inflow temperature, and outflow
temperature are recorded. Ammeter reading and voltmeter reading are measured.
The mass of water collected in the beaker per second, is measured. The rheostat is
adjusted to vary the current in the circuit until the inflow and outflow temperatures are the
same as before. The new ammeter reading and voltmeter reading are noted. The mass
of water collected in the beaker per second, is determined. The specific heat capacity of
the liquid is calculated from )
( )(
14
Theory
Let h be the rate of heat loss to the surroundings.
At steady state, ( ) …………(i)
In order to eliminate, h, the experiment is repeated for same temperature rise.
( ) ………..(ii)
( ) ( ) and making C the subject, we have
( )( )
Advantages of continuous flow method
1. Heat capacity of the apparatus is not required since the experiment is repeated.
2. The presence of vacuum prevents heat losses by convection and conduction.
3. A cooling correction is eliminated by a repeat of experiment. Thus there is no heat
loss.
4. Since temperatures are steady, readings are taken at leisure.
Disadvantages of continuous flow
1. A large quantity of liquid is required.
2. It is not suitable for all liquids.
Examples
1. Hot water at 85 and cold water at 10 are ran into a bath at a rate of
and V respectively. At the point of filling the bath, the
temperature of the mixture of water was 40 . Calculate the time taken to fill the
bath if its capacity is 1.5 .
Solution
Heat lost by hot water heat gained by cold water
⇔
⇒ ( ) ( )
⇒
At the time of filling, total volume volume of hot water volume of cold water.
⇒ ⇔ ⇒ minutes.
2. In a continuous flow calorimeter the readings were; 6.0 V, 2.1 A, ,
, 35 followed by 4.0 V, 1.4 A, , , 15 .
Find specific heat capacity of the liquid and the rate of loss of heat to the
surroundings. ( , 0.35 W)
3. A metal cylinder of mass 0.5 kg is heated electrically by a 12 W heater in a room at
15 . The cylinder temperature rises uniformly to 25 in 5 minutes and later
becomes constatnt at 45 .
(a) What is the rate of loss of heat of the surroundings at 45 .
(b) Explain your answer in (a).
(c) Assuming that the rate of heat loss is proportional to excess temperature
over the surroundings calculates the rate of heat of the cylinder at 20 .
15
(d) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal, taking into account the loss
of heat to the surroundings.
4. In an electrical constant flow experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of
a liquid, heat is supplied to the liquid at a rate of 12 W. When the rate of flow is
0.060 kg the temperature rise along the flow is 2.0K.
(a) Calculate a value for the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
(b) If the true value of the specific heat capacity is 5400 J , estimate the
percentage of heat lost in the apparatus.
(c) Explain briefly how, in practice, you would reduce or make allowance for this
heat loss.
5. In a constant flow calorimeter, a p.d of 4.0 V was applied to the heating coil. The rate
of flow was doubled and by adjusting the applied p.d, the same inlet and outlet
temperatures were obtained. Assuming heat losses to be negligible calculate the new
value of the applied p.d.
6. When a metal cylinder of mass kg and specific heat capacity 500 J
is heated by an electrical heater working at a constant power, the initial rise of
temperature is 3.0 K . After a time the heater is switched off and the initial rate
of fall of temperature is 0.3 K . What is the rate at which the cylinder gains heat
energy immediately before the heater is switched off?
7. In a continuous flow, a stream of water flows at a steady rate of 5.0 over an
electrical heater dissipating 135 W, and a temperature of 5.0 K is observed. On
increasing the rate of flow to 10 , the same temperature rise is produced with a
dissipation of 240 W.
(a) Explain why the power in the second case is not twice as that in the first case.
(b) Determine the specific heat capacity of water.
8. The liquid flows past an electrical heating coil. In the steady state the inlet and outlet
temperatures 10.4 and 13.5 respectively. When the mass rate of flow of the liquid
is , the power supplied to the coil is 27.4 W. The flow rate is then
changed to and in order to maintain the same inlet and outlet
temperatures the power supplied is adjusted to 19.3 W.
(a) Explain why two sets of data are obtained.
(b) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
(c) Why are the temperatures made the same in each part of the experiment?
(d) What is the rate of loss of heat?
(e) Explain why the rate of heat loss is zero when the surrounding temperature is
19.95 .
9. In a continuous flow calorimeter for measurement of specific heat capacity of a liquid,
of liquid flow through the apparatus in 10 minutes. When electrical
energy is supplied to the heating coil at a rate of 44 W, a steady difference of 4 K is
16
obtained between the temperatures of the outflowing and inflowing liquid. When the
the flow rate is increased to of liquid in 10 minutes, the electrical power
required to maintain the temperature difference is 58 W. Find the
(a) specific heat capacity of the liquid.
(b) rate of loss of heat to the surroundings. [Density of liquid ]
10. In a continuous flow calorimeter, the following results were obtained:
(a) Using water which enters at 18.0 leaves at 22 , the rate of flow is
20 , the current in the heating element is 2.3 A and the potential
difference across it is 3.3 V.
(b) Using oil, which enters in and flows out at the same temperature as water, the
rate of flow is 70 , the current is 2.7 A and the potential difference
across it is 3.9 V.
Given that the specific heat capacity of water is , calculate the,
(i) rate of heat loss from the apparatus.
(ii) specific heat capacity of oil.
Latent heat
Latent heat is the quantity of heat energy required by a substance to change phase at
constant temperature.
When a substance is heated, its temperature increases. The internal molecular energy (i.e
molecular kinetic energy) increases. At certain temperature, the substance starts changing
phase however much more heat energy is supplied, there is no increase in temperature. The
internal energy is constant. At this constant temperature, the extra heat energy supplied is
used to;
1. weaken the molecular bonding when a solid is turning into a liquid.
2. completely break molecular bonding when a liquid is turning into a gas.
The volume of the gas is very big compared to the volume of the liquid of the same mass at
the same pressure. External work is done by the expanding gas against the external pressure.
Specific latent heat of fusion
Specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to change the state of 1kg of a
substance from solid to liquid or liquid to solid at constant temperature.
The specific latent heat of fusion of ice Jkg-1
Determination of specific latent heat of fusion of ice
The mass of the calorimeter of known specific heat capacity, is determined. The
calorimeter is half filled with warm water of known specific heat capacity, and weighed to
determine the mass, of water. The initial temperature, is read from the thermometer
and recorded. Dry pieces of ice are added to the water in bits and stirred thoroughly. When
all the ice has melted, the final temperature, is recorded. The calorimeter is weighed again
to determine the mass of molten ice, . Assuming no heat is absorbed from the
surrounding, heat gained by ice is equal to heat lost by water and calorimeter.
17
( ) [ ]( ). The specific latent heat of fusion, L is

[ ]( )
calculated from .
Examples
1. Ice at 0 is added to to 200 g of water at 70 in a vacuum flask. When 50 g of ice
has been added and has all melted the temperature of the flask and contents is 40 .
When further 80 g of ice hass been added and hass all melted the temperature of
the whole becomes 10 . Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice, neglecting
any heat lost to the surroundings.
2. 20 g of ice of specific heat capacity 2090 at -15 are placed inside 80 g of
water at 40 inside a 50 g calorimeter of specific heat capacity 418 . Find
the final temperature if the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 334400 .
3. A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated to a temperature of 500 and then placed on
a large block of ice. What is the maximum amount of ice that can melt? (1.455 kg)
Electrical method
V power
A
supply
Heater
Ice
Beaker
Collected water
The experiment is set up with ice surrounding a heater packed in the funnel as shown above.
An empty beaker of known mass, is placed below the funnel and switch K is closed.
Ammeter reading, I1 together with voltmeter reading, V1 recorded after a given time, t. At the
same time beaker and molten are weighed and mass per second, of molten ice is
determined. where h is the rate at which heat is lost. The experiment is
repeated by adjusting the rheostat to vary the current in the circuit. The new ammeter
reading, I2 and voltmeter reading, V2 are recorded. The new mass per second in the same
time, t is determined. . The specific latent heat of fusion, L is calculated from,
.
( )
Examples
1. In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice, a heating coil is
placed in a filter funnel and surrounded by lumps of ice. The following two sets of
reading were obtained.
V(V) 4.0 6.0
(A) 2.0 3.0
Mass of water m(g) collected in 500 s 14.9 29.8
Calculate the,
18
(a) specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

(b) energy gained in the course of obtaining the first set of readings.
Specific latent heat of vaporization
Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change the state of 1 kg
of a substance from its liquid to vapour or vapour to liquid without change in temperature.
The specific latent heat of vaporization of steam is 2.25 JK-1
Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of steam
Method of mixture
Wet steam
Dry steam
Heat
Shield
Water in a conical flask is heated to produce steam. The steam produced is passed through a
steam trap which traps water. It is then passed into a calorimeter of known mass, and
specific heat capacity, containing water of known mass, and specific heat capacity,
at a measured temperature, .The mixture is stirred until the mixture is about 10 above
the room temperature. The final temperature, of the mixture is recorded. The calorimeter
and its content is re-weighed to determine the mass, m of condensed steam. Heat lost by
steam is equal to heat gained by calorimeter and cold water.
( ) [ ]( ). The specific latent heat of
[ ]( ) ( )
vaporization of steam, L is calculated from .
Examples
1. An electrical kettle with a 2.0 kW heating element has a heat capacity of 400 J .
1.0 kg of water at 20 is placed in the kettle. The kettle is switched on and it is found
that 13 minutes later the mass of water in it is 0.5 kg. Ignoring heat losses calculate a
value for the specific latent heat of vaporization of water. (specific heat capacity of
water )
2. An electric kettle with 2.0 kW heating element has heat capacity of 400 J . 1.0 kg of
water at 20 is placed in the kettle. The kettle is switched on and it is found that
13 minutes later the mass of water in it is 0.5 kg. Ignoring heat losses calculate a value
for the specific latent heat of vaporization of water.
(Specific heat capacity )
Solution
Heat supplied Heat absorbed by the kettle heat require to raise the
temperature of water Heat required to evaporate water.
19
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3. An electrical heater of 2 kW is used to heat 0.5 kg of water in a kettle of heat

capacity 400 J . The initial water temperature is 20 . Neglecting heat losses,
(a) how long will it take heat the water to its boiling point 100 ?
(b) starting from 20 , what mass of water is boiled away in 5 minutes?
(Assuming that specific heat capacity of water and specific
latent heat of vaporization )
Electrical method
A
Water Heater
Warm water out Condenser

Cold water in
Condensed water
The apparatus is set up as shown above. The circuit is switched on and left until the apparatus
has reached its steady state when the water is at its boiling point. The condensed water
emerging from the condenser is collected into the beaker for a given time, t and its mass,
is determined. The ammeter reading and voltmeter reading are recorded. The rheostat
is adjusted to new ammeter and voltmeter readings, and respectively. The new mass,
of the liquid collected in the same time is recorded. , the specific latent
( )
heat of vaporization, L is obtained from . Then where h is rate
of heat lost to the surrounding.
Examples
1. Water in a vacuum flask is boiled steadily by a coil of wire immersed in the water.
When the p.d across the coil is 5.25V and the current through it is 2.5A, 6.85g of
water evaporate in 20 minutes. When the p.d and the current are maintained at
3.2V and 1.57A respectively, 2.38g of water evaporate in 20 minutes, other conditions
being the same. Calculate the specific latent heat of vaporization and power loss to the
surrounding. ( JK-1, W)
Processes involved during fusion and vaporization
20
During both fusion and vaporization, the heat supplied is used to weaken the intermolecular
bonds in both solids and liquids. The ordered pattern of the molecules is thus changed to
disordered pattern. This increases the molecular separation (molecular potential energy) but
keeping the average molecular kinetic energy constant. So the temperature remains
constant.
During fusion, a solid is changing to liquid state. Since solid molecules are close together and
vibrate about their fixed positions, small heat energy supplied is used to weaken its molecular
and cause small increase in volume. Thus negligible work is done against atmospheric
pressure.
During vaporization, a liquid is changing to gaseous state, a lot of heat energy is needed to
break the molecular bond and allow them to move independently as gas molecules. More
work is done against atmospheric pressure by the expanding gas. Thus at a given pressure,
the specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is higher than its specific latent heat of
fusion.
Examples
1. Explain the changes that take place in the molecular structure of substances during
fusion and vaporization.
2. Explain why the specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporization
of a substance at the same pressure are different.
3. Steam at 100 is passed into a copper calorimeter of mass 150g containing 340g of
water at 15 . This is done until the temperature of the calorimeter and its content
is 71 . If the mass of the calorimeter and its content is found to be 525g, calculate
the specific latent heat of vaporization of water. ( Jkg-1)
4. An appliance rated 240V, 200W evaporates 20g of water in 5 minutes. Find the heat
loss if the specific latent heat of vaporization is Jkg-1 ( J)
3. (a) What is meant by the specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid?
(b) Explain how latent heat of vaporization can be regarded as molecular potential
energy.
(c) Calculate the potential energy per molecule released when 18 g of steam
condenses to water at 100 . (Specific latent heat of vaporization of water
Jkg-1, mass of one mole of water 18g, number if molecules in a
mole of molecules )
4. In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid using
electrical method, the following results were obtained.
Voltage, V(V) Current, (A) Mass of condensed liquid collected in 300s (g)
7.4 2.6 5.8
10.0 3.6 11.3
Calculate the power of the heater required to evaporate 3.0 g of the liquid.
21
Evaporation
Evaporation is a process by which molecules with high enough kinetic energy escape from the
surface. During evaporation latent heat required to cause evaporation is absorbed by the
liquid. The absorbed heat is required to change into vapour as the liquid evaporates. It takes
place at all temperature, but occurs at the greatest rate when the liquid is at its boiling point.
Molecular theory of evaporation
Evaporation is due to continuous random motion of molecules in a liquid moving with
different velocities. Since the molecules make frequent collisions with each other, the
molecules gain kinetic energy. A molecule near the liquid surface which is moving towards
the surface gains enough energy to overcome the attractive forces of the molecules behind it,
escapes from the surface.
Factors affecting evaporation
The rate of evaporation can be increased by
1. increasing the temperature of the liquid. This increases the average kinetic energy of
all the molecules and weakens the strength of intermolecular forces.
2. increasing surface area exposes more molecules to the surface.
3. blowing wind which causes draught which removes the vapour molecules before they
have the chance to return to the liquid.
4. reducing humidity so that more space for the escaping molecule is created.
5. reducing air pressure above the liquid. This reduces the possibility of a vapour
molecule rebounding off air an air molecule.
Cooling by evaporation
Surface molecules with higher kinetic energy move faster and escape the attractive force of
the less energetic neighbouring molecules. The body loses its most energetic molecules and is
left with less energy. Since average kinetic energy of the body depends on temperature, a
reduction in kinetic energy results into a fall in temperature and cooling occurs.
Vapours
A vapour is a gas at a temperature below its critical temperature. When a liquid is enclosed in
a vessel, its molecules escape the attraction of the neighbouring molecules in the liquid body
to form a vapour. Since the vapour molecules are always in random motion and hit the
container wall and rebound, the vapour exerts a vapour pressure.
Saturated and unsaturated vapour
Suppose a container is partly filled with a liquid and then sealed. Some molecules escape
from the liquid by evaporation. There exists vapour in the space above the liquid surface. The
vapour molecules move about at random, and some return to the liquid after condensation.
The rate of condensation is determined by the number of molecules in the vapour phase. If
the space above the liquid can allow more vapour to enter, the space is said to be
unsaturated. When the rate at which vapour molecules leave the liquid surface is equal to
the rate at which they return to the liquid, a dynamic equilibrium is established. The space
22
above the liquid cannot allow more vapour molecules and is said to be saturated with the
vapour. Such a region contains the maximum possible number of molecules which the
conditions will allow. If the number of vapour molecules were increased beyond this, the rate
of condensation would be greater than the rate of evaporation and equilibrium would be re-
established. The vapour pressure exerts saturated vapour is called saturated vapour
pressure.
Saturated vapour pressure is one which is exerted when the vapour is in state of dynamic
equilibrium with its own liquid.
Effect of volume on saturated vapour pressure

If the volume available to the vapour is increased at constant temperature, the density of the
vapour decrease momentary and the rate of condensation becomes less than the rate of
evaporation. As a result less number of molecules returns to the liquid than those leaving it.
The number of molecules in the vapour continues to rise as its density rises until dynamic
equilibrium is again restored with saturated vapour pressure having the original value.
On the other hand if the volume available to the vapour is reduced, the density of the vapour
increase momentary and the rate of condensation is becomes greater than the rate of
evaporation. As a result more number of molecules returns to the liquid than those leaving it.
The number of molecules in the vapour continues to fall as its density falls until dynamic
equilibrium is again restored with saturated vapour having the original vale. Thus saturated
vapour pressure is independent of volume.
If the increase in volume is continued, more and more liquid evaporates until none is left. Any
further increase in volume causes the vapour become unsaturated. Once this happens, the
vapour obeys Boyle’s law.
Pressure Saturated vapour
SVP
Unsaturated vapour
Volume
Effect of temperature on saturated vapour pressure
I a liquid is in dynamic equilibrium with its own vapour, an increase in temperature increases
the mean kinetic energy of the molecules. The rate of evaporation increases and hence the
rate of at which the molecules escape from the liquid. The density of the vapour increases,
implying increase in the rate of condensation until dynamic equilibrium is restored. There is
more number of molecules which are faster in the vapour phase than previously. This results
into rapid increase in pressure. As the rate at which the molecules bombard the liquid
increases, a dynamic equilibrium is restored at a higher saturated vapour pressure.
23
Pressure
Unsaturated vapour
Saturated vapour
( )
Boiling
A liquid boils when its temperature is such that bubbles of vapour form throughout its
volume. The pressure inside the bubble is the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid at a
given temperature. The saturated vapour pressure inside the bubbles must be equal to
pressure outside the bubbles otherwise they would collapse.
The boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid forms bubbles of air when its saturated
vapour pressure is equal to the external atmospheric pressure.
Effect of pressure on the boiling point
If the pressure above a boiling liquid is increased, it stops boiling. This is because the external
pressure now greater than the saturated vapour pressure. If the temperature of the liquid is
increased, its saturated vapour pressure rises and eventually become equal to the new
external pressure. Thus boiling point of a liquid increases with pressure.
Experiment to show that a liquid boils when its SVP is equal to external pressure
J-tube
Beaker
Water Liquid
Heat
Air is trapped in the closed limb of a J-tube by a water column. The tube is heated in a water
bath. When water in the beaker begins boiling, the water in the J-tube comes to the same
level in each limb. This shows that the vapour pressure in the closed limb is equal to the
external pressure.
Difference between boiling and evaporation
1. Boiling occurs throughout the volume of a liquid , whereas evaporation occurs only at
the surface.
2. For a given external pressure a liquid boils at a single temperature only, whereas
evaporation takes place at all temperatures.
24
Experiment to determine saturated vapour pressure

Water out
Tap
Condenser
Thermometer h
Cold water in
Mercury manometer
Liquid Air reservoir
Heat
Air is trapped in or out of the reservoir by using a pump or opening tap. The tap is closed and
the liquid is gently heated to its boiling point. The temperature, of the vapour is recorded.
The difference in mercury levels, h is noted from the manometer. The pressure, P of the
vapour is calculated from where H is the barometric height. The tap is opened and
the apparatus is allowed to cool for few minutes. The procedure is repeated for different
pressures. A graph of P against is plotted. Saturated vapour pressure of the liquid at a
particular temperature can be determined.
Cooking at high altitude (Pressure cooker)
Cooking pots are fitted with clamped lids and safety valves. As water boils steam accumulates
inside the pots. This increases the saturated vapour pressure to a value higher than
atmospheric pressure at that altitude as the density of steam increases. By the design the
safety valve opens at 76 cmHg. This ensures that the pressure inside the pot does not rise
above 76 cmHg. Hence there is no explosion and cooking is done at 100 .
Gases
A gas is a state of a substance above its critical temperature while a vapour is a state of a
substance below its critical temperature. The behaviour of a gas is characterized by changes
in its temperature, pressure, volume and number of moles.
Dalton’s law of partial pressure of mixture of gases
Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to
the sum of partial pressures of its constituents in the mixture.
Partial pressure of a mixture of gases is that pressure of the gas would exert if it occupied the
entire volume alone.
Let and be the partial pressures of gases 1 and 2, he total pressure of the mixture,
.
25
Gas laws
These are laws that govern the behaviour of a fixed mass of a gas.
Boyle’s law
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is inversely
proportional to its pressure.
That is ⇒ constant. Thus
Examples
1. A faulty barometer tube has some air at the top above mercury. When the length of
the air column is 250 mm, the reading of mercury above the outside level is 750 mm.
When the length of the air column is decreased to 200 mm, by depressing the
barometer tube further into the mercury the reading of the mercury above the outside
level becomes 746 mm. Calculate the atmospheric pressure.
Solution
Since volume is proportional to length, the initial volume, wher k is a
constant. ( )mmHg, where A is the atmospheric pressure. The new
volume and the new pressure ( )mmHg. Applying Boyles
law, , we obtain mmHg.
2. A container of gas has a volume of 0.1 at a pressure of and a
temperature of 27 . The gas pressure is now reduced to at a
constant temperature. What is the new volume of the gas?
3. A gas cylinder has a volume of 0.040 and contains air at a pressure of Pa.
Assuming that the temperature remains constant, calculate the
(a) equivalent volume of air at atmospheric pressure. (0.80 )
(b) volume of air, at atmospheric pressure, which escapes from the cylinder when it
is open to the atmosphere. (0.76 )
4. A uniform capillary tube, closed at one end, contained air trapped by a thread of
mercury 85 mm long. When the tube was held horizontally the length of air column
was 50 mm; when it was held vertically the closed end downwards, the length was
45 mm. Find the atmospheric pressure. ( Pa)
(Take density of mercury
9. A barometer tube, 100 cm long above the outside mercury level, contains some air
above the mercury inside it, and the height of mercury inside stands 75 cm above the
outside level of mercury. By how much is the tube depressed when the mercury inside
is 74.5 cm above the outside level? (Assume the atmospheric pressure is 76 cmHg)
26
Experiment to verify Boyle’s law
Bourdon gauge
Glass tube
Scale Dry air To foot pump
Oil
Gas under investigation is trapped above oil in a glass tube. Volume, V of air trapped is read
from the scale. It is compressed by using the foot pump to increase the pressure above the oil
in the reservoir. Pressure, P of air trapped is read from the bourdon gauge. Pressure is
increased in stages and different pairs of P and V are recorded. The results are tabulated
including values of . A graph of V against is plotted. A straight line graph through the origin
is obtained. This verifies Boyle’s law.
Alternative method
H
Dry air Open limb
h Mercury
Flexible rubber
tubing
The atmospheric pressure, H is measured using a barometer. The flexible rubber tubing is
adjusted by lowering and raising the open end. The difference in mercury level, h is
measured. The length, of the air column trapped in the closed tube is measured. The air
pressure, is calculated. The experiment is repeated for various values of P. The
results are recorded in a suitable table including values of . A graph of against P is plotted.
A straight line graph through the origin is obtained showing that . Since volume, V.
This implies . Hence Boyle’s law is verified.
Application of Boyle’s in piston Pump
At the start the piston is pushed right in and there is no space between it and the bottom of
the barrel. Suppose the pump which is connected to a vessel of volume, V at a pressure, p so
that the piston displaces a volume, v when the piston is right in, at the start of evacuation.
When the piston is pulled right out, the volume of air originally in the vessel increases to
from V to . Since the action is slow, we assume that he expansion is isothermal
(constant temperature); applying Boyle’s law, ( ).
Thus the air pressure after expansion, ( )……………………..(1)
27
When the piston is pushed in again, as the valve at the vessel closes, the air in the vessel
remains at the pressure, . The second out-stroke then reduces pressure to where
( ). From (1), we have ( )( ) ( ) .
Similarly after n strokes, the pressure is reduced to ( ) ……………………….(2)

Examples
1. A vacuum pump has a cylinder of volume and is connected to a closed vessel
of volume to pump out air from the vessel. What number of strokes is needed
to reduce the pressure from Pa to Pa.
Solution
After n strokes, the pressure is reduced to ( ) where ,
, Pa, Pa
⇒ ( ) we obtain 56 strokes.
2. A bicycle tyre has a volume of when fully inflated. The barrel of a
bicycle pump has a working volume of . Assuming that air is pumped in
slowly so that its temperature does not change.
(a) How many strokes of this pump are needed to inflate the completely empty
tyre to a total pressure of Pa, the atmospheric pressure being
Pa?
(b) Explain why the barrel of the bicycle becomes hot when the tyre is being
inflated quickly
3. A piston pump of effective volume 150 is used to exhaust a vessel of volume
(a) 1 litre,
(b) 2.5 litres. Calculate the number of strokes required to reduce the pressure to
0.01 atmospheres if the original pressure in the vessel is 1 atmosphere.
4. The cylinder of an exhaust pump has a volume of 25 . If it is connected through a
valve to a flask of volume 225 containing air at a pressure of 75 cmHg, calculate
the pressure of the air in the flask after two strokes of the pump, assuming that the
temperature of the air remains constant.
28
Charles’ law
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure is directly proportional
to absolute temperature. That is ⇒ constant. Thus .
Experiment to verify Charles’ law
Open limb
Stirrer
Closed limb
Water bath
Tap
Dry air is trapped by mercury in closed limb of a tube of known uniform cross sectional area.
The tube is surrounded by water bath in which steam is passed. Water is thoroughly stirred to
ensure uniform temperature of the water bath. When the temperature is steady, the mercury
in both limbs is maintained at the same level by either adding mercury vie the open end or
running it off through the tap so that the trapped air is at atmospheric pressure. The
temperature, together with length, of air column are recorded. The experiment is
repeated by more passing steam through the water bath. A graph of against is plotted. A
straight line graph which does not pass through the origin but cuts axis at is
obtained. This verifies the law.
Absolute temperature
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which a gas has its minimum kinetic energy
and its volume would be zero.
V( )
-273 0 T( )
A graph of volume, V against temperature, T is a straight line which does not pass through the
origin is obtained. If the line is produced backwards it meets the temperature aixs at .
This temperature is called the absolute zero. If the gas is cooled, it liquefies before it reaches
the absolute zero temperature and Charles’s law no longer holds, but the does not affect
relationship volume and temperature at higher temperatures.
Examples
1. A fixed mass of a gas is held at 27 . To what temperature must it be heated so that its
volume doubles if its pressure remains constant?
29
2. A car tyre has a volume of and contains air at an excess pressure of

above atmospheric pressure of . Calculate the volume
of which the air inside would occupy at atmospheric pressure assuming that its
temperature remains constant.
3. A container of gas has volume of 0.10 at a pressure of and
temperature 0f 27 . Find the new volume if the gas is
(a) heated to 87 at constant pressure.
(b) cooled to at constant pressure.
4. A horizontal tube of uniform bore, closed at one end, has some air trapped by a small
quantity of water. If the length of the enclosed air column is 20 cm at 14 , what will it
be if the temperature is raised to 40 and atmospheric pressure remains constant at
760 mmHg?
(saturated vapour pressure of water at 14 and 40 is 10.5 mm and 49.5 mm of
mercury respectively)
5. A volume of of air is saturated with water vapour at 100 . The air is
cooled to 20 at constant pressure of Pa. Calculate the volume of air after
cooling, if the saturated vapour pressure of water at 20 is Pa.
(Atmospheric pressure at 20 is Pa)
Pressure law
It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature. That is ⇒ constant. Thus
-273 0 T( )
Examples
1. A closed vessel contains air saturated with water vapour at 77 . The total pressure in
the vessel is 1000 mmHg. Calculate the new pressure in the vessel if the temperature
is reduced to 27 . (SVP of water at 77 is 314 mmHg, SVP of water at 27 is
27 mmHg)
Solution
By Dalton’s law of partial pressure, air pressure at 77 ,
⇒ mmHg. K. K,
But ⇒ ⇔ mmHg.
The new pressure of water at 27 mmHg.
30
2. When hydrogen gas is collected over water, the pressure in the tube at 15 and 75
are 65.5 cm and 105.6 cm of mercury respectively. If the saturated vapour pressure at
15 is 1.42 cm of mercury, find its value at 75 . (28.17cmHg)
3. The total pressure in a closed vessel containing air and saturated vapour at 35 is
Pa. If the saturated vapour pressure at 35 and 87 are Pa and
Pa respectively, calculate the total pressure in the vessel at 87 , assuming
the air remains constant.
Experiment to verify Pressure law
H
Thermometer Open limb

Stirrer
Mercury
B
Water
Flexible rubber
tubing
Dry air is trapped into bulb B and the bulb is connected to one end tube containing mercury.
The bulb in now inserted into water in bath which being heated as it is thoroughly stirred.
When the temperature is steady, mercury in the limb of the tube connected to the bulb
brought to a fixed constant volume mark. The temperature, together with difference in
mercury levels, h are recorded. The gas pressure, is calculated where H
atmospheric pressure. The experiment is repeated by passing steam in the water bath. A
graph of P against is plotted. A straight line graph which does not pass through the origin
but cuts the axis at -273 obtained. This verifies the law.
Examples
1. A flask containing air is corked when the atmospheric pressure is 750 mmHg and the
temperature is 17 . The temperature of the flask is now raised gradually. The cork
blows out when the pressure in the flask exceeds atmospheric pressure by 150 mmHg.
Calculate the temperature of the flask when this happens. (75 )
2. Inside a sealed container is a fixed mass of gas at a pressure of Pa when the
temperature is 17 . At what temperature will the pressure inside be Pa?
Ideal gas (perfect gas) equation (or equation of state)
Gas expand Gas heated at

at constant constant
temperature pressure to
to
(a) (b) (c)
31
At (a) the gas occupies a volume, at a pressure and an absolute temperature, .

Consider a transition form (a) to (b) at constant temperature, from Boyle’s law, .
Consider a transition from (b) to (c) at constant pressure, from Charles’ law, .
⇒ . Substituting for ⇒ ( )⇒ .
Examples
1. A horizontal tube of uniform bar, closed at one end, has some air trapped by a small
quantity of water. The length of the enclosed air column is 20 cm at 12 . Find, stating
assumptions made, the length of the air column when the temperature is raised to
38 . (SVP of water at 12 and 38 are 10.5 mmHg and 49.5 mmHg respectively.
Atmospheric pressure 75.0 cmHg)
Solution
K, K. mmHg,
mmHg , A, A where A is the cross sectional
area of the tube and x is the length of air column.
⇒ ⇔ cm.
Assumption: The tube does not expand when the temperature increases so that A is
kept constant.
2. A gas cylinder of volume 4.0 litres contains oxygen at a temperature of 15 and a
pressure of . Calculate the
(a) equivalent volume of oxygen at stp ( )
(b) mass of oxygen in the cylinder. If its density at stp is . (0.13 kg)
3. A fixed mass of gas has a volume of 200 at a temperature of 57 and a pressure
of 780mmHg. Find its volume at stp.
4. A gas cylinder of volume of 20 litres contains air at 17 and an excess pressure of
above atmospheric pressure ( ). Calculate the the
mass of air in the cylinder, given that the density of air at stp is 1.3 .
5. A balloon of volume is filled with helium to a pressure of
at a temperature of 20 . Calculate the
(a) number of helium atoms in the balloon.
(b) net force acting on the square metre of a material of the balloon if the
atmospheric pressure is
Ideal gas equation and the gas constant
From the ideal gas equation, it implies that where R is a constant. The magnitude of
the constant depends on
1. the nature of the gas enclosed in the vessel.
2. the mass and the number of moles of gas in the vessel.
32
For one mole of a particular gas occupying a volume, at an absolute temperature, T

………………(4)
For n moles of the gas at the same pressure, P and temperature T occupying volume, V where
. The gas constant is . Thus ………………..(5).
For a given gas of mass, m and molar mass, M, occupying a volume, V, the number of moles,
, ⇒ ………………(6)
Let
⇒ ………………(7)
Suppose , ⇒ …………(8)
is called gas constant for 1 kg of a gas. If is the density of the gas, ⇒ .
Thus equation (4) becomes ………(9)

Units of gas constant
From equation (4),the units of and the unit of gas
constant per unit mass .
Avogadro’s Hypothesis
It state that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules.
A mole is the amount of substance which contains as many molecules (atoms) in 12g of
carbon-12.
Avogadro’s number NA is the number of molecules (atoms) per mole of a substance.
If m is the mass of one molecule in grams, molar mass, where is the mass
of carbon. Therefore, .
At stp, one mole any gas occupies 22.4 litres. For one mole, where
and .
Therefore, The value of R is the same for all
substances.
Examples
1. A cylinder of volume contains a gas at a temperature of 300 K and a
pressure Pa. Calculate the
(a) number of moles of the gas. (1.2)
(b) number of molecules of the gas.( molecules)
(c) mass of one molecules of the gas. ( kg)
2. A cylinder of volume contains oxygen at a temperature of 300 K and a
pressure Pa. After some of oxygen is used at constant temperature, the
pressure falls to Pa. Find the mass of oxygen used.
33
Solution
Initial mass of the gas in the cylinder, ⇒
Final mass of the gas in the cylinder ⇒

( )
The mass of oxygen used kg
3. Find the number of moles of Helium of molar mass 4 g.
4. A cylinder containing 19 kg of compressed air at a pressure 9.5 times that of the
atmosphere is kept in a store 7 . When it is moved to a workshop where the
temperature is 27 a safety valve on the cylinder operates, releasing some of the air.
If the valve allows air to escape when its pressure exceeds 10 times that of the
atmosphere. Calculate the mass of air that escapes. (0.33 kg)
5. When oxygen is withdrawn from a tank of volume 50 , the reading of pressure gauge
attached to the tank drops from Pa to Pa. If the temperature of
gas remaining in the tank falls from 30 to 10 , calculate the mass of oxygen
withdrawn.
6. A gas of relative molecular mass 32 is contained in a container of volume 0.1 at a
pressure of and a temperature of 300 K. If the gas is assumed to be
ideal, calculate the density of the gas. (1.28 )
7. A cylinder contains 2.0 kg of nitrogen at a pressure of and at a
temperature of 17 . What mass of nitrogen would a cylinder of the same volume
contain at stp? ( kg)
8. Find the molar volume of a gas at 300 K and a pressure of , given that
the molar gas constant is 8.31J . If the volume of a single molecule is
, what fraction of the volume occupied by the gas is empty?
Connected containers of gas
Suppose a bulb A of volume, comtaiming moles of air at a partial pressure, is
connected to bulb C of volume, containing moles of carbon dioxide which is at a partial
pressure, via where H is the atmospheric pressure registered a manometer as
shown below.
Tap Evacuation tap
A C
H inlet tap
h
manometer
When tap is opened gases mix until they reach at some pressure, P. Suppose is the air
pressure after opening the tap in absence of carbon dioxide. The new volume that would be
occupied air after opening, + .
34
From Boyle’s law, ⇒ ( ).
Similarly the new pressure carbon dioxide would exert in absence of air is ( ).
By Dalton’s law of partial pressure, the total pressure,
⇒ ( ) ( ) .
At a given absolute temperature, T, and .
The ratio ⇒ .
From
⇒ ( ) and ( ) .
In a closed system of connected container, some gas may flow out of one container to the
other container when its temperature rises. The total number of moles of the gas in all the
containers remains constant. However, no matter what changes take place in an individual
container. Thus the sum of values of of all containers is constant.
Examples
1. Two gas containers with volumes 100 and 1000 respectively are connected
by a tube of negligible volume, and contain air at a pressure of 1000 mmHg. If the
temperature of both vessels is originally 0 , how much air will pass through the
connecting tube when the temperature of the smaller container is raised to 110 .
Give your answer measured at stp.
Solution
Total volume occupied by the gas . The total number of
moles, . Let P be the new pressure of the container, the final
number of moles . The total number of moles remain
the same. ⇒ ⇒ mmHg.

At stp
⇒
2.
T
P Q
Two cylinders P and Q each of volume 1.5 , are joined in the middle by a closed tap, T,
and placed in a constant temperature bath at 60 as shown in the figures above.
35
P contains vacuum while Q contains air and saturated water vapour. The total pressure
in Q is 200 mmHg. When T is opened, equilibrium is reached, with the water vapour
remaining saturated. If the final pressure in the cylinders is 150 mmHg, calculate the
saturated vapour pressure of water at 60 .
3.
Tap
A B
Two cylinders A and B of volumes V and 3V are separately filled with gas. The cylinders
are connected as shown in figure 1 with the tap closed. The pressures of the gas in A
and B are P and 4P respectively. When that tap is opened the common pressure
becomes 60 Pa. Assuming isothermal conditions, find the value of P. (18.46 Pa)
4.
A B
Two vessels A and B of equal volume, V are connected by a tube of negligible volume
as shown above. The vessels contain a total mass of kg of air and initially
both vessels are at 27 when the pressure is . Vessel A is now cooled
to 0 and vessel B is heated to 100 . Calculate the
(a) mass of gas now in each vessel. kg, . kg)
(b) pressure in the vessel. ( )
5.
A B
The figure above shows two flasks connected by an open pipe. Flask A has three times
the volume of flask B. The system is filled with an ideal gas and allowed to come to
steady state in which flask A is at 300 K and flask B at 600 K. If the mass of gas in A is
m, calculate the mass of the gas in B in terms of m.
External work done by an expanding gas
Consider a fixed mass of a gas enclosed in a vessel by a light frictionless piston occupying a
volume, V at a pressure, P. If the piston is allowed to through a distance , as the gas
expands, its pressure will fall. Thus by assuming that is very small, the pressure, P remains
constant. If A is the area of the piston, the force exerted on it
36
The small work done by the gas, . But where is the small
change in volume. ⇒ . In the limit as . If the gas expands from
to , the total work done, ∫ ( ).
First law of thermodynamics
It states that the total energy in a closed system is constant.
When a gas is warmed so that it expands, the quantity of heat supplied is used to
 increase in internal of the gas.
 Do work against external pressure.
The quantity of heat supplied to the system, where is the increase
internal energy and be the work done in expanding the gas. ⇒ .
Internal energy of the system is the sum is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy
of the molecules of the system. The change in internal energy of a system depends only on
the initial and final states of the system, and not on how the change was brought about. At
constant volume, no work is done . So all the heat supplied is used to raise the
internal energy of the gas. Thus . The internal energy of an ideal gas is proportional
to its temperature change, , no matter how the change has occurred. Thus internal energy
of an ideal gas is independent of its volume but depends only on its temperature.
Ideal (perfect) gas
An ideal gas is one which obeys Boyle’s law and whose internal energy is independent of its
volume.
In practice there is no gas exists, but at room temperature, and under moderate pressures,
many gases approach the ideal closely.
Suppose a gas in vessel is insulated thermally no heat is allowed to enter or leave the system.
When it expands, the work done by the gas is taken from its internal energy. The internal
energy of the gas therefore reduces. Since the internal energy is proportional to gas
temperature, the temperature falls and gas cools.
When the gas is compressed, the work done on the gas is used to increase its internal energy.
Since the internal energy is proportional to gas temperature, the temperature rises.
Molar (specific) heat capacities at constant volume and pressure
Molar heat capacity at constant volume, is the quantity of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 mole of a gas at constant volume by 1 K.
Molar heat capacity at constant pressure, is the quantity of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 mole of a gas at constant pressure by 1 K.
Differences between and
At constant volume, all the heat supplied is used to raise the internal energy which results in
rise in temperature while at constant pressure the heat supplied is used to raise the internal
energy and do external work in expanding against pressure in order to keep the pressure
constant. Therefore, molar heat capacity of an ideal gas at constant pressure is more than
37
that at constant volume; hence to get the same temperature rise, more heat must be
supplied.
Relationship between and
Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a vessel by a frictionless piston. Let be the rise in
temperature, the rise in internal energy, . If the gas expands by , the heat
required to increase its internal energy and do work against external pressure through the
same temperature rise, where is the work done against
external pressure. Thus .
For 1 mole of an ideal gas ⇒ ( ) ( ).
⇒
⇒ .
⇒ .
⇒ or .
Ratio of heat capacities
The internal energy of a gas at a given temperature depends on the number of atoms of its
molecule. For a monatomic gas, the internal energy, . The heat required to increase
the internal energy of 1 kg of the gas at constant volume when warmed through 1K,
The specific heat capacity of a monatomic gas at constant pressure,
.
The ratio
Examples
1. Ten moles of a gas, initially at 27 are heated at constant pressure of
and volume increased from 0.25 to 0.375 . Calculate the
increase in internal energy. [Assume ]
Solution
( )
⇒ K
K
⇒
⇒
J
2. One kilogram of water is converted to steam at a temperature of 100 and a pressure
of Pa. If the density of steam is 0.58 and the specific latent heat of
vaporization of water is , calculate the
(a) external work done.
(b) internal energy.
38
Solution
Volume of 1 kg of steam
Volume of 1 kg of water
Change in volume
⇒ J
3. Nitrogen gas is trapped in container by a movable piston. If the temperature of the gas
is raised from 0 to 50 at a constant pressure of Pa and the total heat
added is J, calculate the work done by the gas. (The molar heat capacity of
nitrogen at constant pressure is 29.1 J , )
4. A sample of a gas is enclosed in a cylinder by a frictionless piston of area 100 .
When the cylinder is heated, 250 J of energy is transferred to the gas which expands
against atmospheric pressure, Pa and pushes the piston 15.0 cm along the
cylinder. Calculate
(a) the external work done by the gas.
(b) the increase in internal energy.
5. An ideal gas of volume 1.0 at stp expands at constant pressure sto a volume of 3.0 .
Calculate the
(a) work done by the gas.
(b) final temperature of the gas.
Changes of pressure, volume and temperature
Gases can be made to contract when cooled and expand when heated. There two changes
that take place in gases. These are isothermal and adiabatic changes.
Isothermal changes
Isothermal changes are changes in volume and pressure that take place at constant
temperature. The pressure, P and volume, V of a given mass of a gas, . Since
temperature, T is constant, , . From ,⇒ . All
the heat energy supplied reappears as work done by the gas during its expansion.
A graph of P against V is a hyperbola, constant representing Boyle’s as shown below.
P E
C
A
F,
D,
B,
V
The curves above are called isothermals for the different temperatures , and . When
the gas expands, it does work in driving the piston. The molecules bombard the piston, and if
the piston moves, they give up their kinetic energy to the piston. This work is done at the
39
expense of internal energy and consequently a fall in temperature occurs unless heat is
supplied. In order to maintain a constant temperature, isothermal expansion occurs under
the conditions;
 The gas must be enclosed in a thin walled vessel.
 The vessel must be highly conducting.
 The vessel must be surrounded by a constant temperature bath.
 The expansion must take place slowly.
Work done during isothermal expansion
The heat absorbed during isothermal expansion is equivalent to mechanical work done. If the
volume changes by at a pressure P, the work done, . In the limit as
. The total work done in expanding from to ∫ . By the ideal gas
equation, . ∫ ( ). But .
( ) ( ) ( ).
During isothermal compression, work is done by a compressing agent. To keep the
temperature constant, heat must be withdrawn from the gas in order to prevent the work
done from increasing the internal energy. This requires same conditions as for expansion.
Reversible isothermal
Reversible isothermal change is one that takes place in a reverse direction at constant
temperature through exactly the same values of pressure and pressure in small changes.
Adiabatic change
Adiabatic change is the change in volume and pressure at constant heat.
During adiabatic expansion or contraction, no heat enters or leaves the gas . From
⇒ . During adiabatic expansion, external work is done at the
expense of internal energy of the gas. This results into cooling of the gas. During adiabatic
compression, all the work done on the compressing agent appears to increase internal energy
which results in rise in temperature.
P E
C
A
G
F,
D,
B,
AB, CD and EF are isothermal curves at temperatures , and respectively. EB is an

adiabatic curve which cuts an isothermal curve, CD at G which has conditions, ( ). The
adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal curve at that point at point G.
40
Suppose a gas at is adiabatically compressed, from to , its temperature rises from

to some value . Along the isothermal for , . Similarly suppose the gas expands
adiabatically from to , its temperature fa lls from to to some value .
Conditions for adiabatic change
 The gas must be enclosed in a thick-walled vessel.
 The vessel must a poor conductor.
 The change must take place rapidly in order to give little time for heat to escape.
If the change occurs slowly, more heat leaks out, since no vessel is a perfect insulator.
Reversible adiabatic
Reversible adiabatic change is one that takes place in a reverse direction at constant heat
through exactly the same values of pressure and pressure in small changes.
Equations for adiabatic change
Consider 1 kg of a gas enclosed in a vessel. Suppose its volume expands from to and
the quantity heat, is supplied to it. The heat supplied is used to increase internal energy
do external work . Thus . An increase in internal energy causes a rise
of temperature, and for one mole of a gas, , and .
⇒ . For reversible adiabatic change, .
⇒ .
⇒ ( ) . Divide by
⇒ ( ) . But
⇒ ( )
In the limit as and ,⇒ ( ) .

Integrating throughout with respect to T and V respectively.
( ) .
( )
⇒ .
( )
⇒ .
( )
⇒ constant.
( ) ( )
Thus
( )
Substituting for T, ( ) constant
( )
constant.
⇒ constant.
⇒
Work done by a gas expanding adiabatically
During adiabatic expansion the work done is at the expense of internal due to change in
temperature. If the volume changes by at a pressure P, the work done, . In the
41
limit as . The total work done in expanding from to ∫ .

But .
⇒ .
∫ * + [ ]. But .
⇒ . But and
( )
⇒ .
Examples
1. An ideal gas at 17 has a pressure Pa is compressed
(a) isothermally compressed,
(b) adiabatically compressed, until its volume is halved. Calculate the final pressure
and temperature, assuming ,
( Pa, 17 ), ( Pa, 110 )
2. A quantity of oxygen is compressed isothermally until its pressure is doubled. It is then
allowed to expand adiabatically until its original value restored. Find the final pressure
in terms of the initial pressure. (0.8 )
(The ratio of molar heat capacities of oxygen is to be taken as 1.40)
3. The density of a gas is 10775 at 27 and Pa pressure and its specific heat
capacity at constant pressure is 846 . Find the ratio of its specific heat
capacity at constant pressure to that at constant volume. (1.29)
4. A gas at temperature of 17 and pressure Pa is compressed isothermally to
half its original volume. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically to its original volume.
(a) Sketch a P-V curve for the above process.
(b) If the specific heat capacity at constant 2100 and at constant volume
is 1500 , find the final temperature of the gas.
5. The specific heat capacity of oxygen at constant volume is 719 and its
density at standard temperature and pressure is 1.429 . Calculate the specific
the specific heat capacity of oxygen at constant pressure.
6. A mass of an ideal gas of volume 200 at 144 K expands adiabatically to a
temperature of 137. Calculate the new volume. ( )
7. The temperature of helium gas at a pressure of Pa increases from 20 to
100 when the gas is compressed adiabatically. Find the final pressure of the gas.
(Take )
8. An ideal gas is trapped in a cylinder by a movable piston. Initially it occupies a volume
of and exerts a pressure of 108kPa. The gas undergoes an isothermal
expansion until its volume is . It is then compressed adiabatically to the
original volume of the gas.
(a) Calculate the final pressure of the gas.
42
(b) Sketch and label the two stages on a P-V diagram.

(The ratio of the principal molar heat capacities of the gas )
9. A gas at a pressure of Pa is compressed adiabatically to half its volume.
Calculate the final pressure of the gas. (Assume the ratio of principal specific heat
capacities )
10. An ideal gas at 27 and at a pressure of Pa is compressed reversibly and
isothermally until its volume halved. It is then expanded reversibly and adiabatically to
twice its original volume. Calculate the final pressure and temperature of the gas if
.
11. A bicycle pump contains air at 290 K. The piston of the pump is slowly pushed in until
the volume of the air enclosed is one fifth of the total volume of the pump. The outlet
is then sealed off and the piston suddenly pulled out to full extension. If no air escapes,
find its temperature immediately after pulling the piston. Take
12. A fire extinguisher is filled with 1.0 kg of compressed nitrogen gas at a pressure of
Pa and a temperature of 20 . If the gas escapes by expanding adiabatically
to a pressure of Pa when the nozzle of the fire extinguisher is opened. Find
(a) the final volume of the gas.
(b) the temperature of the expanded gas.
13. An ideal gas of volume 100 at stp expands adiabatically until its pressure to a
quarter its original value. Find the new volume and temperature if the ratio of the
principal specific heat capacities is 1.4.
14. An ideal gas at a pressure of Pa occupies a volume of at
47.5 . The gas expands adiabatically to a final pressure of Pa. The ration of
specific heat capacity at constant pressure to that at constant volume is 1.40. Calculate
(a) the number of moles of the gas.
(b) final volume of the gas.
(c) final temperature of the gas.
[Universal gas constant, ]
15. A gas initially occupying a volume of 1.0 at 273 K and Pa is compressed
isothermally to a volume of 0.5 . It is then allowed to expand adiabatically to the
original value.
(a) Indicate the prosses on a P-V diagram.
(b) Find the final temperature and pressure.
43
Kinetic theory of gases

Kinetic theory of gases states that gas molecules are always in a continuous random motion.
Assumptions made in kinetic theory
1. Gas molecules have negligible intermolecular force.
2. The volume of the molecules are negligible compared with the volume occupied by the
gas.
3. The molecules are like perfectly elastic spheres.
4. The duration of collision is negligible compared with time between the collisions.
Consider a gas enclosed in a vessel. Since the intermolecular forces are negligible, gas
molecules are free to move in all directions. The movement makes them fill the space
available. During the random movement, they collide with each other and with the walls of
the vessel with a momentum and bounce off with an equal but opposite momentum at right
angles to the walls. The average force exerted on the walls is equal to the average rate of
change of its momentum of the molecules caused by collision. This average force results into
pressure P given by ̅ where is the density of the gas and ̅ is the mean square
speed of the gas molecules.
Derivation of pressure ̅̅̅
z
m u AA x
u
O
y
Suppose a molecule of mass, m moves towards face A with velocity, u.

The incident momentum . On hitting face A, it bounces off with the same velocity u and
same momentum. The change in momentum —( ) The time, t the
molecule moves across the cube to opposite face and back, . By Newton’s second law of
motion, the rate of change of momentum ⁄

force on A. This results into
⁄
pressure, P . For molecules with velocities , ,…, , total pressure on
A, ( ). Let ̅̅̅ be the average (mean) of the squares of the velocities
of the component in the x-direction, ̅̅̅ ⇒ ̅̅̅.

̅̅̅̅
Therefore, . If c is the resultant velocity with components u, v, w in x, y, z
directions, ⇒ ̅ ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅. With a large number of molecules of
varying speed in random motion, the average speed in any one of the three axes is the same.
̅̅̅
Thus ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ⇒ ̅̅̅ ̅ ⇒ where is the number of molecules per
44
unit volume. ⇒ ̅ . The total mass per unit volume is the density of of the
gas. Therefore, ̅.
The root mean square speed is the square root of the average value of the squares of the
molecular speed.
From ̅ ⇒√̅ √ .
Examples
1. Calculate the root mean square value of the speed of air molecules in a container in
which the pressure is Pa and the density of air is . (480 )
2. The density of hydrogen at stp is . Determine its root mean square
speed. (1838.4 )
3. The density of hydrogen at stp is . Determine r.m.s speed at
(a) 0
(b) 27 .
4. A gas is confined in a container of volume 0.1 at a pressure of Pa and a
temperature of 300 K. If the gas is assumed to be ideal, calculate the density of the
gas. (The relative molecular mass of the gas is 32)
Introduction of temperature
Consider a volume, V of gas containing N molecules. The number of molecules per unit
̅̅̅
volume is and density . Therefore, from gas pressure, ̅
⇒ ̅.
For n moles, ⇒ ̅ .
For one mole of a gas, ̅ . Thus the means square speed is proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.
Example
1. Calculate the temperature at which the r.m.s speed of oxygen molecules is twice as
great as their r.m.s speed at 27 . (927 )
2. The masses of hydrogen and oxygen are kg and
respectively. What is the ratio of the r.m.s speed of hydrogen to that of oxygen at the
same temperature? (4:1)
3. The root-mean square speed of the molecules of a gas is 44.72 . Find the
temperature of the gas if its density is and the volume is 42.0 .
Introduction of kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of the gas molecules ̅ . This is the average kinetic energy of
translation of the random motion of the molecule of the gas. Thus ̅ ( ̅)
45
⇒ ̅ . The ratio is a universal constant called Boltzmann’s constant.

Therefore, ̅ .
From for one mole, . Since constant, the
average kinetic energy of translation of a molecule is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas. At the same time, the average molecular kinetic of the gases is the
same.
The random motion of gas molecules whose kinetic energy depends upon the temperature is
called thermal agitation. The kinetic energy of the thermal agitation is called internal energy
of the gas. The internal energy does not dependent on the motion of the gas in bulk but total
kinetic energy of its molecules in random motion.
Example
1. Use the expression for the kinetic pressure of an ideal gas, deduce the ideal equation if
̅ .
2. A balloon of volume is filled helium to a pressure of at
a temperature of 20 . Calculate the;
(a) number of helium atoms in the balloon.
(b) net force acting on the square metre of material of the balloon if the
atmospheric pressure is .
Avogadro’s Hypothesis
Consider two gases, 1 and 2 of and molecules respectively. The total pressure,
̅ ̅ ( ̅ ). For gas 1, the pressure, ( ̅ ) and for gas 2,
( ̅ ).
Since the volumes are equal under the same temperature and pressure, .
Thus ( ̅) ( ̅)⇒ ( ̅) ( ̅ ).
But ̅ ̅ . ( ) ( ). ⇒
Thus equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number
of molecules.
Graham’s law
Graham’s law states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square
root of the density of the gas.
From ̅⇒ ̅ . The root mean square speed of the gas molecules, √ ̅ √ .

Assuming the rate of diffusion is proportional to the root mean square speed and P is
constant, then the rate of diffusion is proportional to .
√
46
Derivation of Dalton’s law of partial pressure

Suppose a volume, V contains , , … molecules of gas 1, gas 2,... which exert pressures ,
, …. respectively. The total number of molecules,
The total pressure, ̅ ̅ ( ̅ )…………..(i)
The individual pressures ( ̅ ) and ( ̅ ). The sum of the individual
pressures, ( ̅) ( ̅) (ii)
In the mixture, the gases are at the same temperature, thus ̅ ̅ ̅.
From (ii), ( ) ̅ ̅ ̅ .
Hence .
Real gas
An ideal gas is one which obeys gas law under all condition. For n-moles of an ideal gas,
. In practice, real gases do not obey gas laws. Van der Waals modified the ideal gas
equation to take account of two assumptions for ideal gas.
Modified assumptions
 The volume of molecules of the gas may not be negligible compared to the volume, V
occupied a real gas.
 The attractive forces between gas molecules may not be negligible.
 The duration of a collision is not negligible compared with time between collisions.
When gas molecules approach very close to each other, they experience repulsive forces
between them. Thus gas molecules possess a diameter and volume implying that they cannot
be compressed indefinitely. The volume of the space inside the container occupied by the gas
molecules is thus not V but ( ) where b is a factor depending on the actual volume of the
molecules.
If the attractive forces between molecules are not negligible, the molecules approaching the
container walls are attracted by the molecules behind them. This reduces the momentum of
the approaching molecules and hence reducing pressure. The observed pressure is thus less
than the ideal gas pressure, where there are no molecular forces by a pressure, . This
pressure defect has to be added to the pressure, P for the ideal gas. The pressure defect
where is a constant and is the density of the gas. Thus the van der Waals’
equation for real gases is given by ( )( ) .
At high pressures, gas molecules are relatively numerous and close together. Both the factor
b and pressure defect become significant (important).
At low pressures, on average the gas molecules are relatively few and far apart. The gas
behaves like an ideal gas and obeys the equation .
47
Isotherms for real gases
Pressure
Gas
Liquid
X
Liquid +
Saturated Unsaturated vapour
vapour
Volume
At high temperatures, the isotherms are similar and correspond to those for an ideal gas. The
gas obeys Boyle’s law, constant. As temperature is lowered, the isotherms change
shape. One curve has a point of inflexion at X called the critical point for a real gas at a
temperature called the critical temperature, . Above the critical temperature such as ,
there is no transition from gas to liquid. So the gas cannot be liquefied however much it is
compressed. Below the critical temperature such as when the gas is compressed, it
liquefies at high pressure. The gas exists as unsaturated vapour at low pressures. At high
pressures some of the vapour condenses. We have a liquid plus saturated vapour. At higher
pressures still, all the vapour condenses.
Critical temperature, is the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied, no matter
how great the pressure may be.
Critical pressure is the minimum pressure that will cause liquefaction of a gas at its critical
temperature.
Specific critical volume is the volume occupied by 1 kg of a gas at its critical temperature and
critical pressure.
Heat transfer
Heat energy flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature. Heat is
transferred by conduction, convection and radiation.
Heat transfer by conduction
Conduction is a process of heat transfer through a substance from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature without bulk movement of the medium.
Mechanism of heat transfer
Good conductor (metal)
Metals contain free electrons, when one end of a metal is heated, the free electron gain
kinetic energy and move faster. As they move, they collide with other electrons and atoms
in the solid lattice, losing their kinetic energy to the atoms. The atoms vibrate with increased
amplitude and collide with the neighbouring atoms and also give up some of their energy.
The process continues until heat is transferred from the hot end to the cold end.
Poor conductor (non-metal)
Since poor conductors have non-mobile electrons which are bound to their atoms in the solid
lattice, less kinetic energy is gained. Little collisions between the electrons and atoms occur
48
when one end is heated. Transfer of heat is only due to vibration of atoms with increased
amplitude, collision of atoms with their neighbours and losing energy to them. In turn the
neighbouring atoms also vibrate with increased amplitude, losing energy to them. In this way
less heat energy is transferred from one end to the other.
Question: Compare the mechanism of heat transfer in poor and good conductors.
Factors affecting the rate of conduction of heat
1. Cross sectional area:
The bigger the cross sectional area, the greater is the rate of conduction of heat.
2. Temperature gradient:
The higher the temperature gradient, the greater is the rate of conduction.
3. Nature of the material:
Different materials have different nature. This is determined by their thermal
conductivities. Metals with higher the thermal conductivities have higher the rate of
heat conduction.
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat transfer normal to a section of material of cross
sectional area 1 m2 in a region of temperature gradient of 1Km-1.
Consider a material of length, x and cross sectional area, A. If the adjacent ends are kept at
( )
temperatures, θ1 and θ2, the quantity of heat flowing per second, is given by
where K is the thermal conductivity and θ1 θ2. The thermal conductivity, K is given by
( ) . The units: Wm-1K-1
Temperature distribution along the length of uniform cross section

Perfectly laggade conductor Unlaggade conductor
Temperature ( ) Temperature ( )
length (m) length (m)
A perfectly (well) lagged conductor
49
When the conductor is well lagged, there is no heat lost to the surroundings from the sides.
The heat flows along the conductor at constant rate. This makes the fall in temperature along
the conductor to be uniform.
Un-lagged conductor
For a fully un-lagged conductor, heat is lost to the surroundings from the side. The rate of
heat flow along the conductor is not the same. The temperature gradient along the entire
length of the conductor decreases from the hot end to the cold end. Hence non-uniform fall
of temperatures occurs.
Heat flow through composite conductors.
Series arrangement
A B
Consider two conductors A and B of thicknesses, x1 and x2 respectively in contact. If the

temperatures at their extreme ends θ1 and θ2 respectively are such that θ1 θ2, then heat
flows from A to B at constant rate provided the composite conductors are well lagged. Let θ
be the temperature at interface, the rate of heat flow through A is equal to the rate of heat
( ) ( )
flow through B. i.e , where K1 and K2 are thermal conductivities of A
and B respectively and A is the cross sectional area.
Parallel arrangement
Consider two conductors A and B both of thicknesses, x in contact and arranged in parallel. If
the temperatures at their extreme ends θ1 and θ2 respectively are such that θ1 θ2, the total
heat per second, which traverse form one side to the other is the sum of the individual rate
( ) ( )
of heat flow through each section of the conductor. i.e , where K1
and K2 are thermal conductivities of A and B respectively and A is the cross sectional area.
Determination of thermal conductivity
Good conductor
50
Cold water
Electrical
heating coil Lagging
The holes contain oil to ensure good thermal contact between thermometers , and the
metal specimen AB. The electrical heating coil is switched on and at the same time cold water
is allowed through the copper coiled tube around the bar at end B at constant rate until
steady state of temperatures is registered by all the thermometers. The steady temperatures,
θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 registered by T1, T2, T3 and T4 respectively are recorded. The mass of warm
water collected out of the pipe per second, m of known specific heat capacity, , is
determined. The average diameter, d of the metal specimen is determined. The length, x
between the thermometers T1 and T2 is measured. The thermal conductivity, K of the
( )
specimen is determined from, ( ).
Poor conductor (glass, paper, etc)
Steam in
Steam chest
Steam out
A
Specimen t Felt
B B
(i) (ii)
The sample specimen is made in form of a thin disc of thickness, and large diameter, d
compared to its thickness. The disc is sandwiched between two metal slabs A and B each
carrying thermometers, T1 and T2 and the experiment set up as shown in (i). Steam is passed
through the steam chest until the thermometers register steady temperatures, θ1 and θ2
which are recorded. The disc is withdrawn and block B is heated directly by the steam chest
until its temperature is about 10 above θ1. The steam chest is removed and the top of the
slab B covered with a thick layer of felt as shown in (i). The temperature, θ of slab B is
recorded at a suitable time intervals until it falls to about 10 below θ2. A cooling curve of θ
of against time is plotted. The slope, S of the graph at θ2 is determined. The mass of slab, B of
known specific heat capacity, is determined.
( )
The thermal conductivity, of the disc is obtained from .
Examples
1. Explain the temperature distribution along
(a) a perfectly lagged metal bar.
(b) an lagged metal bar.
51
2. A composite metal bar of uniform cross section is made up of length of 25 cm of

copper, 10 cm of nickel and 15 cm of aluminium, each being in perfect thermal
contact with their adjacent parts. The copper end of the composite bar is maintained
at 100 . The whole bar is lagged so that it may be assumed that no heat losses occur
at the sides. Find the rate at which heat is conducted. [Assume; thermal conductivities
of copper 385Wm-1K-1]
3. A brick wall of area 10m2 and thickness 0.1m has glass window in it of area 1m2 and
thickness, m. The temperature difference of the inside and the outside
surface is 10K. Thermal conductivity of glass is 1.1Wm-1K-1 and that of the brick wall
is 0.1Wm-1K-1. Determine the rate at which heat is conducted away. ( W)
4. A wall is constructed using two types of bricks. The temperatures of the inner and
outer surfaces of the wall are 29 and 21 respectively. The value of thermal
conductivity for the inner brick is 0.4 Wm-1K-1 and that of the outer is 0.8Wm-1K-1.
(a) Explain why in the steady state the rate of thermal energy transfer is the same
in both layers.
(b) If the each layer is 12.0 cm thick, find the temperature at the interface between
the layers.
5. An aluminium plate has thickness of 5 cm. The upper and lower surfaces are
maintained at temperatures 120 and 20 respectively. If the thermal conductivity
of aluminium is , calculate the
(a) rate of heat flow per across the two surfaces.
(b) temperature mid-way between the surfaces.
6. One end of a perfectly lagged metal bar of length 0.10 m and cross sectional area
is maintaine at 100 while the other end is in contact with ice.
Calculate the rate at which the ice melts. (Thermal conductivity of the metal is
)
7. A wall of a building consists of two brick layers each of thickness 10.0 cm and
between which there is a layer of air of thickness 2.0 cm. Find the rate of heat flow
through one of the wall if the inner and outer temperatures of the building are
25 and 15 respectively. (Thermal conductivities of brick and air are respectively
and )
8. A wall consists of two layers of thickness and and thermal conductities and
respectively. If the surfaces of the walls are maintained at temperatures and
respectively,
(a) show that the rate of heat transfer through the wall is
( )
where A is area of the surface of the wall.
(b) State the assumption made in (a)
52
(c) A cooking utensil of thickness 3 mm is to be made from two layers, one of

aluminium and the other of brass. If one layer is to be 2 mm and the other
1 mm, determine which combination allows a higher rate of flow of heat.
(Thermal conductivities of aluminiumand brass are and
respectively.)
9. A metal boiler is 1.5 cm thick. Find the difference in temperature between the inner
and outer surfaces if 40 kg of water evaporate from the boiler per metre squared per
hour. [Specific latent heat of vaporization of water 2268kJ Thermal
conductivity of the metal of the boiler ]
10. A double glazed window has two glass sheets each of thickness 4.0 mm, separated
by a layer of air of thickness 1.5 mm. If the two inner air-glass surfaces have steady
temperatures of 20 and 4 respectively, find the.
(i) temperatures of the outer air-glass surfaces.
(ii) amount of heat that flows across an area of the window of 2 in 2 hours.
(Conductivity of glass and that of air )
11. A cylindrical iron vessel with a base of diameter 15 cm and thickness 0.30 cm has its
base coated with a thin film of soot of thickness 0.10 cm. It is then filled with water
at 100 and placed on a large block of ice at 0 . Calculate the initial rate at which
the ice will melt. (Conductivity of soot )
12. A wall 6m 3m consist of two layers A and B of bricks of thermal conductivities
and respectively. The thickness of each layer is
15.0cm. The inner surface of layer A is at a temperature 20 while the outer layer
of B is at a temperature of 10 . Calculate the
(a) temperature of the interface of A and B.
(b) rate of heat flow through the wall.
13. The external wall of a house consists of two layers of bricks separated by an air
cavity. The outer face of the wall is at a temperature of 45 while the inside of a
house is at 20 . If the thickness of each brick layer is 15 cm and of air curvity is
5 cm, calculate the temperatures of the walls in contact with air in the curvity.
14. A window of height 1.0 m and width 1.5 m contain a double glazed unit consisting of
two single glass panes, each of thickness 4.0 mm separated by an air gap 2.0 mm.
Calculate the rate at which heat is conducted through the window if the
temperatures of external surfaces of glass are 20 and 30 respectively.
(Thermal conductivities of glass and air and
respectively.)
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat energy from a region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature by the bulk movement of the heated medium.
53
The movement of the medium is due to changes in density. The heated medium expands and
its density reduces. The medium thus rises and replaced by the cold one.
Experiment to demonstrate convection in
Liquids
Coloured water current

Water
Potassium permanganate crystals

Heat
Crystals of potassium permanganate (or cloured compound) are dropped centrally into a flask
of water using a long funnel as shown. The flask is then heated from bottom and a purple
coloured water current is observed to rises upwards and circulates down the sides of the
flask.
Experiment to demonstrate convection in air
Cold smoke Hot smoke
A B
Smoke fumes
Source of Heat
A rectangular box with a glass window is set up with two chimneys A and B. A short burning
candle is placed under the chimney, B and the glass window is closed. The nearby air is
warmed and expands causing its density to reduce. The less dense warm air rises up through
chimney B and then replaced by cold denser air from chimney, A. A convectional current of
brown smoke is set up in the direction of air.
Land and sea breeze
Land breeze: At night, air flows from land towards sea because land cools faster than sea due
to its smaller heat capacity. This implies the hot less dense air above sea rises and is replaced
by cool denser air from land. A warm breeze is experienced by the observer on land.
Sea breeze: During day, air flows from sea towards land because of its smaller heat capacity,
it heats faster than sea. The warm less dense air above land rises and replaced by the cool
denser air from the sea. A cool breeze is experienced by the observer on land.
At night it is much colder in a valley than on top of the hills because hot air being lighter, it
rises which denser cold air settles at the bottom of a hill.
Radiation
Radiation is the process by which heat energy is transferred from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature through vacuum.
Heat is transferred from the sun to the earth by radiation.
Ultra violet and infrared radiations
54
Ultraviolate radiation is one whose radiant energy is beyond violet in the electromagnetic
spectrum while infra-red radiation is one whose radiant energy is just before red in the
electromagnetic spectrum. They are both electromagnetic waves..
Properties of heat radiation (infrared)
1. It travels at a speed of in vacuum.
2. It is less refracted than red light.
3. It has photographic effect.
4. It gives sensation of warmth when it falls on the human skin. Thus causes
temperature rise.
5. It is absorbed by glass and transmitted by rocks.
6. It has all the properties of electromagnetic waves.
Uses of infrared radiation
1. It is used for treatment of muscular complaints.
2. It is used to dry paint on car during manufacturing.
3. It is used in remote control for television and video recorder.
Properties of ultraviolet radiation
1. It travels at a speed of in vacuum.
2. It causes ionization of air molecules.
3. It causes fluorescence of screen.
4. It affects photographic film.
5. It has photo electric effect.
6. It causes sun burn on the skin of human being.
7. It is refracted more than infrared radiation.
8. It has all the properties of electromagnetic waves.
Uses of ultraviolet radiation
1. They are used to stimulate the formation of vitamin D which is necessary for the
assimilation of calcium and prevent rickets.
2. When absorbed by green plants, it facilitates photosynthesis.
Question: Explain how a welder can protect his eyes from damage?
Detection of heat radiations (infrared)
Use of thermopile
Incident radiation
A A-Hot junction
A B
B mV B-Cold junction
A
Highly polished
Shield to prevent radiations from reaching junction B
Heat radiation is directed onto a blackened junction A. It is absorbed by the junction A

causing its temperature to rise above that of B. The temperature difference between the A
55
and B causes a thermo-electric e.m.f to be generated. The emf generated ismeasured by mV

which deflects as a result.
Bolometer
Incident heat radiation

P
Zig-zag blackened metal strip
G
R Q
A zig-zag blackened metal strip together with standard resistors P and Q are connected to the
Wheatstone bridge as shown above. The potential divider R is adjusted until the centre zero
galvanometer shows no deflection. The resistance of the potential divider, R is noted. The
initial resistance of the metal strip, is calculated from . Heat radiations are now
directed onto the Bolometer and potential divider adjusted until the centre zero shows no
deflection. The new value of the resistance of the Bolometer is determined. It is noted
that is greater than . Since resistance has increased the bolometer has detected the
radiation.
Factors affecting the rate of radiation
Temperature of the emitting surface: An increase in surface temperature of the object
increases its rate at which heat radiation is emitted.
Surface area: A material with large surface area emits or absorbs more radiant energy than
one with a small surface area.
The nature of the surface: A shiny white surface reflects all visible radiations which fall on it.
A coloured surface absorbs radiation of some frequencies and reflects others.
Emission and absorption of heat radiation
Good emitters of heater radiations are also good absorbers. Dull black surfaces are good
absorbers (or bad reflectors) and good emitters of heat radiations. Shiny silvered surfaces are
poor absorbers (or good reflectors) and poor emitters of heat radiations. For a given
temperature the energy radiated or absorbed by a dull black and rough surface is greater
than that for a highly polished and silvered surface.
Experiment to compare absorbers of heat radiations
S x D
A B
A and B are two identical metal strips attached to the metal plates S and D respectively. Plate
S is highly polished while plate D is painted dull black. The plates are placed vertically apart at
an equal distances, x from a cube containing hot water. Metal strip A falls off before B. Hence
dull black surface is a better absorber of heat than the polished one.
Experiment to compare emitters of heat radiations
56
mV
A cubical metal tank whose sides have a variety of finishes, dull black, dull white and higly
polished is filled with water. The water is kept boiling by a constant supply of heat. A
thermopile which is fitted with a highly polished conical mouth piece is made to face various
finishes at equal distance and each time the deflection of the galvanometer is noted. It is
noted that greatest deflection is obtained when the thermopile faces a dull black surface of
the cube and least when it is facing the highly polished surface. The highly polished surface is
therefore the worst radiator of all, and the dull black is the best.
Black body
A black body is one which absorbs all radiations of every wavelength incident on it, reflects
and transmits none.
How a black body can be realized in practice
Empty tin
A small hole is punched on the lid of an empty tin. The inside of the tin is blackened with soot.
When the radiation is made incident into the tin, the radiation suffers multiple reflections
inside as shown above. At each reflection, a smaller percentage of the incident radiations is
absorbed. Eventually all the radiations are retained inside the container. The hole of the
enclosure is therefore a black body since it absorbs all the incident radiations falling on it.
Thus any space which is almost enclosed approximates to a black body.
When the enclosure is heated to certain temperature, it emits radiations and when these
radiations are examined, they are found to be infrared, light and ultraviolet. The relative
intensities of the emitted radiations entirely depend of the surface temperature of the black
body.
Distribution of intensities in black body radiation
Intensity
Violet Red
Visible light 57
Each of the above curves gives the relative intensities of the different wavelengths for a given
temperature of the body. As temperature rises, the intensity of every wavelength increases,
but the intensities of the shorter wavelengths increase rapidly. Thus the radiations become
less red and more nearly white. The maximum wavelength decreases as temperature
increases. At each temperature, there is maximum intensity for a particular wavelength.
Examples
1. (a) What is a black body radiator?
(b) Draw a diagram of a simple laboratory form of a black body radiator.
(c) Sketch roughly the energy distribution among the wavelengths of
(i) a black body radiator.
(ii) a non-black body radiator and state the main differences.
2. Explain why a body at 1000 K is ‘red hot’ whereas at 2000 K is ‘white hot’.
Laws of black body radiation
1. For a given temperature, the wavelength corresponding to the peak at which
maximum energy is radiated, is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature. That is ⇒ where k is constant whose value is
. This is also known as Wien’s displacement law.
2. The total energy radiated per metre squared per second at a given temperature, T is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Let P be the total energy per second (or power) radiated by a black body of surface
area, A at an absolute temperature, T, then ⇒ , where
is a constant called stefan’s constant.
For non-black body Stefan’s law can be applied in the form where is the
emissivity of the body and has value between 0 and 1.
Example
1. Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted by a black body at 6000 K.
(Wien’s displacement constant )( )
2. A cube of side 0.1 cm has a grey surface that emit 50% of the radiation
emitted by a black body at the same temperature. If the cube temperature is
700 , calculate the power radoiated by the cube. (15.25 W)
3. A tungsten filament of an electric lamp has a length of 0.5 m and diameter
m. The power rating of the filament lamp is 60 W. Assuming the
radiation from the filament is equivalent to 80% that of a perfect black body
radiator at the same temperature, estimate the the steady temperature of
the filament. ( Stefan’s constant, ) (1933 K)
4. The silica cylinder of a radiant wall heater is 0.6 cm long and has a radius of 5 mm. If
it is rated at 1.5 kW estimate its temperature when operating when operating. State
58
two assumptions you have made in making your estimates. (Stefan’s constant
)
5. (a) What is the ratio of the energy per second radiated by the filament of a lamp at
2500 K to that radiated at 2000 K, assuming the filament is a black body
radiator.
(b) The filament of a particular lamp can be considered as a 90% black body
radiator. Calculate the energy per second radiated when its temperature is
2000 K if the surface area is .( )
6. (a) Sketch graphs showing the distribution of energy in the spectrum of black body
radiation at three temperatures, indicating which curve corresponds to the
highest temperature.
(b) Describe how the graphs in (a) can be used to illustrate Stefan’s law.
7. The element of an electric fire, with output of 1.0kW, is a cylinder 25 cm long and
1.5 cm in diameter. Calculate its temperature when in use, if it behaves as a black
body. (The Stefan’s constant )
Estimation of temperature of the sun
Suppose T is the absolute temperature of the sun, since the sun is considered to be a perfect
black body, the total power radiated by the sun is given by . Since the sun is
assumed to be a sphere, its surface area, where is its radius, .
The power radiated by the sun falls on the earth surface which is a distance from the sun.
Solar constant
Solar constant is the solar power of the radiation from the sun arriving on a unit area of the
earth.
Solar constant ( )
Examples
1. The solar constant of the sun of radius km and km from the earth is
1400 . Estimate the temperature of the sun.
(stefan’s constant is ) (58027.4K)
2. Consider the sun to be a sphere of radius m whose surface temperature
is 5900 K.
(a) Find the solar power incident on an area of 1 at the top of the earth’s
atmosphere if this is a distance of m from the sun. Assume that
the sun radiates as a block body.
(b) Explain why the solar power incident on 1 of the earth’s surface is less
than the calculated value in (a) above.
Estimating the temperature of the earth
Consider a radiation from the sun is incident on earth surface of radius, . The effective area
on which the radiation falls is .
59
Sun rays
The power received by the earth solar constant ⇒ ( )

Since the earth is considered to be a spherical black body, it radiates all the energy absorbed
at a surface temperature, with power, . For equilibrium,
( ) ⇒ ( ) ⇒ ( ) .
Examples
1. Estimate the temperature of the earth assuming it is in radiating equilibrium with
the sun of radius m of solar surface temperature 6000 K. Given that the
distance of the sun from the earth is m. (290K)
2. The sun is a black body of surface temperature about 6000 K. If the sun’s radius is
, calculate the energy per second radiated from its surface.
The earth is about from the sun. Assume that all the radiations from
the sun falls on a sphere of this radius, estimate the energy per second per metre
squared received by the earth. (Stefan’s constant )
3. The solar power received at normal incidence on the surface of the earth is
. Assume that the earth and the sun are uniform spheres and act as
black bodies, and that the atmospheric absorption can be neglected. (Take the radius
of the sun to be m, the radius of the earth’s orbit around the sun to be
m, Stefan-Boltzmann constant to be , and speed of
light in vacuum to be ). Calculate the
(a) power output per square metre of the sun’s surface. ( )
(b) surface temperature of the sun.
(c) rate of loss of mass of the sun due to conversion of mass to energy.
(d) the mean surface temperature of the earth, assuming that it intercepts solar
energy as a disc and re-radiates it uniformly from the whole of its spherical
surface.
4. If each square cm of the sun’s surface radiates energy at a rate
and Stefan’s constant is , calculate the temperature of the sun’s
surface.
5. A roof measures 20 m 50 m and is a blackened. If the temperature of the sun’s
surface is 6000 K, Stefan’s constant is , the radius of the sun
is and the distance of the sun from the earth is m, calculate
how much solar energy is incident on the roof per minute, assuming that half is lost
in passing through the earth’s atmosphere, the roof being normal to the sun rays.
60
6. A metal sphere of 1 cm diameter, whose surface acts as a black body, is placed at the
focus of a concave mirror with aperture of diameter 60 cm directed towards the sun.
If the solar radiation falling normally on the earth’s surface is at the rate of
0.14 watt , Stefan’s constant and the mean temperature
of the surroundings is 27 , calculate the maximum temperature which the sphere
could theory attain, stating any assumptions you make.
Pyrometer
These are used to measure temperature of a body by the radiation that body emits. These
bodies are of very high temperature above 1000
Total radiation pyrometer

Blackened tube
Blackened metal disc
Eyepiece
Hot body
Gold plate mirror

Thermocouple G
Radiations from a hot body pass through the hole. They are incident on the reflecting concave
surface and reflected towards the blackened metal. The radiations are absorbed so that the
blackened metal is heated. The thermocouple connected to it develops an e.m.f and the
galvanometer gives a deflection. The galvanometer is calibrated by facing the pyrometer on
molten gold and the temperatures can be directly read from the galvanometer.
Optical radiation pyrometer
F Eyepiece
Hot source
Red filter
Telescope
A
The filament is placed at the principal focus of the objective lens of the telescope. A hot
body whose temperature is to be determined is focused using the objective lens of the
telescope until its image lies in the same plane as that of the filament. The visible light
emitted is viewed through the red filter against the background formed by the image of
the hot body. If the image of filament appears brighter on a dark background, the filament
hotter than the hot body and if it appears dark on a bright background, the filament is less
bright than the hot body. The filament current is adjusted until the filament image merges
into that of the hot body. Since the two are at the same temperature, the ammeter
61
calibrated to read temperature gives the temperature of the hot body. Such a pyrometer
can read temperatures up to 3000 .
Prevost’s theory of heat exchange
It states that when a body is at the same temperature as that of its surroundings its rate of
emission of radiation to the surroundings is equal to its rate of absorption of radiation from
the surroundings.
Hot body in an enclosure
To vacuum
B A
Consider a small body A at a temperature of which is suspended by a non-conducting
thread inside a box whose walls are at a constant temperature, . The box is then evatuated
so that the exchange of heat occurs only by radiation.
If , the temperature of A falls until it also equat to . But if , it rises to . In
either case the body acquires the temperature of B. The two bodies A and B are said to be in
thermodynamic equilibrium and energy exchange continue at a rate depending on
temperature.
A black body of surface area, A at a temperature, in an enclosure radiates energy at a rate,
. Since the body is in temperature equilibrium, by Prevost’s theory, the energy per
second radiated by the body must be equal to the energy per secod it absorbs. Thus the
power absorbed from the surrounding, .
Suppose the body is now heated or cooled until it reaches a constant temperature, T, the
body loses heat by emission, but also gains energy from the enclosure. Thus the net loss or
gain of energy per second, ( ). If , then can be neglected and
.
Examples
1. A blackened solid copper sphere of radius 2 cm is placed in an evacuated enclosure
whose walls are kept at 100 . Find the rate at which energy must be supplied to the
sphere to keep its temperature constant at 127 . (1.78 W)
2. A metal sphere with a black surface and radius 30 cm is cooled to and placed
inside an enclosure at a temperature of 27 . Calculate the initial rate of temperature
rise in temperature of the sphere, assuming the sphere is a black body. (Assuming
density of metal , specific heat capacity of metal and
Stefan’s constant, ) (0.012 )
Solution: ( )
3. (a) Explain what is meant by Stefan’s constant.
(b) A sphere of radius 2.00 cm with a black surface is cooled and then suspended in
a large evacuated enclosure the black walls of which are maintained at 27 . If
the rate of change of thermal energy is 1.85 when its temperature is
, calculate the value of the Stefan’s constant.
62
4. A metal sphere of radius 1.5 cm is suspended within an evacuated enclosure whose

walls are at 320 K. The emissivity of the metal is 0.40. Calculate the power required to
maintain the sphere at a temperature of 320 K, if heat conduction along the supports
is negligible.
5. A perfectly black sphere maintained at a temperature of 373 K in an enclosure at 0K
radiates heat at a rate of 200 W. At what rate will the black sphere radiated in the
following cases?
(a) Its radius is doubled.
(b) The temperature of the sphere is raised to 746 K; other factors remain
unchanged.
(c) The temperature of the enclosure is raised to 300 K; other factors remain
unchanged.
5. (a) An un-lagged thin walled copper pipe of diameter 2.0 cm carries water at a
temperature of 40 K above that of the surrounding air. Estimate the power loss per
unit length of the pipe if the temperature of the surroundings is 300 K and the
Stefan’s constant is .
(b) State two assumptions you have made in (a) above.
Action of a green house
The short wavelength radiations from the sun passes through the glass of the greenhouse is
absorbed by plants and soil. This results into increase in temperature that leads to warming
up. The plants and soils re-radiate long wavelength infrared radiations which cannot
penetrate the glass. The infrared radiations are trapped by the greenhouse leading higher
temperature inside the greenhouses.
Water vapour, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the lower layer exhibt the same
selective absorption effect and prevent the penetration of infrared radiations emitted by the
earth from escaping. Continuous accumulation of these radiations with time leads to higher
earth temperature and may lead to global warming.
63
The structure of an atom

th
In the 19 century, J.J. Thomson suggested that an atom was a neutral particle made of
positive charges with lumps of negative charges within it.
In 1906, Rutherford proposed a classical experiment to investigate the structure of the atom
which Geiger and Marsden carried out a few years later.
Classical scattering experiment
A fast moving alpha particle was emitted from a radioactive source and directed onto a very
thin sheet of gold foil in a vacuum chamber. The alpha particles were scattered received on
the screen of a detector some distance beyond the foil in the vacuum chamber. The detector
was moved around the foil and the number of scintillations produced per second at each
position was measured.
Observations
Incident beam +
+ + Atomic nucleus
of -particle +
1. Intense scintillations were observed showing that most of the -particles passed
through the gold foil un-deflected. This means that the alpha particles had not
suffered any collision with the gold nucleus and this implies that most of the space
of the gold foil is empty.
2. The scintillations detected reduced as the detector moved towards the centre of the
gold foil showing that some alpha particles were scattered through small angles less
than 90 due to less repulsion by the small positive charge of the nucleus.
3. As the detector was moved to the centre of the gold foil, no scintillation were
detected showing that very few alpha particles that were very close to centre of the
atom were deflected through large angles greater than 90 . This implies that the
chances of head on collision were limited to very few alpha-particles that were very
close to the nucleus.
Rutherford’s atomic modal
64
1. An atom has a small central core in small volume called the nucleus where almost
the entire mass and all the positive charge is concentrated.
2. The remaining part of the atom consists of electrons which move in spherical
volumes around the nucleus at relatively large distances and the electron cloud
accounts for the volume of the atom.
Distance of closest approach
+ + Atomic nucleus
-particle
Consider an alpha particle of mass, travelling head-on with velocity, towards the nucleus
of an atom of atomic number Z. At the distance of closest approach, , to the nucleus it is
momentarily at rest before it is repelled back. All its kinetic energy, is lost and changed to
electrostatic potential energy, .
( )( )
Hence . But and ⇒ .
⇒ where .
Example
1. A beam of alpha particles of mass kg is travelling at a speed of
towards a gold foil nucleus of atomic number 79. Find the distance of
closest approach. ( m)
2. In ahead-on collision between an alpha particle and gold nucleus of atomic number
79, the minimum distance of approach is m. Calculate the energy of the
alpha particle in MeV. (4.55MeV)
3. A beam of alpha particles of energy 50MeV is incident normal to a gold foil of atomic
number 79. Calculate the closest distance of approach by the alpha particles to the
nucleus of the gold.( m)
4. A beam of alpha particles of energy 4.2MeV is incident normally to a gold foil of atomic
number 79. What is the closest distance of approach by the alpha particles to the
gold nucleus? ( m)
5. An alpha particle is travelling head-on towards a gold nucleus of atomic number 79. If
its distance of closest approach is m, calculate the energy of the alpha
particle in MeV. (6.5MeV)
6. Find the distance of closest approach of alpha particles with an initial energy of
5.0MeV which make a head-on collision with a gold nucleus of atomic number 79.
( m)
65
Failures of Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model

1. The failed to explain the stability of the atom. Since the orbiting electron is
constantly changing its direction with steady velocity it accelerates. According to
classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, when an electron accelerates it emits
electromagnetic radiations. When this occurs it loses its energy, slows down and
spiral into the nucleus. A reduction in orbital radius implies that the atom would
cease to exist and become unstable. Yet experimental observations indicate that an
atom is a stable structure.
2. Since each electron moves in a circular orbit which is centred on the nucleus, an atom
should emit a continuous energy spectrum. This is contrary to the observed fact that
hydrogen atom emits line spectrum.
Bohr’s postulates (proposals)
1. The angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of where h is the
Planck’s constant. That is .
2. An electron in its circular orbit around the nucleus and while in this orbit it does not
emit energy radiation.
Postulate 1 implies since angular momentum does not have continuous range of values, an
electron can have only certain orbital radii in which the electron is allowed to have certain
values of the energy (energy levels). Therefore electron should not continuously emit
radiations. Since the electron remains in its allowed energy level (ground state), Bohr’s
atomic modal predicts the existence of energy levels.
Postulate 2 implies that an electron can jump from an orbit in which its energy is to one
which is closer to the nucleus of lower energy, . In so doing, the electron gives up energy
difference of the two levels by emitting an electromagnetic wave of frequency, f given by
where is the Planck’s constant.
This justifies the prediction of Bohr’s modal for the accurate values of wavelengths of the
radiation emitted by hydrogen atom.
The Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom
-e
r F
e
+
nucleus
Consider an electron of charge –e and mass, m revolving around a central hydrogen nucleus
of charge +e with velocity . The inward electrostatic force of attraction of the electron by
the nucleus, . If the electron was at rest it would fall into the nucleus due the
inwards attraction. To keep the electron in stable orbit, he assumed that the electron must be
provided with inward centripetal force . For a stable orbit, . Multiplying
both side of the equation,
66
⇒( ) .
By Bohr’s first postulate, where
⇒( )
⇒ . Thus is the orbital radius of the nth orbit.
Energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom

The energy of the orbiting electron is partly kinetic and partly potential. The kinetic energy
. The work done to the electron from a pint a distance, r from the nucleus
to infinity against the attraction of the nucleus, . The potential energy of the
electron ( ) . The minus arises since the electron is attracted by the
nucleus. The total energy, ⇒ .

Note that depends on the radius of its orbit. Thus the total energy of the electron in nth
orbit of an atom is given by . But .
⇒ .
Thus each Bohr orbit has definite energy and each orbit is regarded as a possible state of
the system. The state with has the lowest possible (most negative) energy because
work has to be done to remove electron to infinity (where energy is zero). Increasing values
of , associated with increasing values of E (less negative).
NB:
1. The energy is always negative. This is because since the electron is bound to the
atom, work has to be done to remove an electron to infinity, where it is considered to
have zero energy.
2. Increasing values of orbital radii are associated with increasing values of n (energy
levels) and increasing values of energies (less negative).
Difficulties encountered in Bohr’s theory for hydrogen atom
1. An accelerated charge should radiate and lose energy. So the electron orbit
should shrink as a result of loss of energy until the electron spirals into the nucleus.
2. Any radius of the orbit is possible.
Failures of Bohr’s atomic model
Bohr’s atomic model explains successfully the spectra of simpler atom which contain only one
electron. It fails when it is applied to more complex atoms. Secondly, It involves arbitrary
assumptions that the allowed values of angular momenta are integral multiple of . Since
electrons can be regarded as waves and that the allowed values of angular momenta were
67
consistent with the allowed orbits being exactly the right size to accommodate stationary
electron waves. Therefore electrons are no longer considered to move in definite orbits but
exist as an electron cloud throughout the volume of the atom. The concept of discrete energy
levels and transitions between them give rise to emission or absorption of radiations. The
existence of discrete of energy levels is a natural consequence of the theory. Therefore there
is no need to make any arbitrary assumption.
Energy levels
The energies of the electrons in an atom can have only certain values. These values are called
energy levels of the atom. All atoms of a given element have the same set of energy levels
which are characteristic of the element. The energy levels of an atom are usually represented
as a series of horizontal lines which are characterized by quantum numbers,
as shown below.
Energy in eV Energy level
The lowest energy level corresponding to is called the ground state. The energy level
corresponding has zero energy. If the electron is raised to this level, it becomes free of
the atom. An atom that has lost an electron is said to be ionized. The energy required to do
this is called ionization energy.
Ionization energy is the energy required completely removed an electron from an atom
against the attraction of its nucleus.
The origin of spectrum
If an electron is in its lowest energy level, the atom is said to be stable and will not emit any
radiation. If the atom absorbs energy in some way, the electron in a given energy level may
be promoted into one of higher energy level. The atom is now unstable and it is said to be
excited. After a short time interval the electron ‘falls’ back into the lowest energy level by
emitting the originally absorbed energy in form of electromagnetic wave. The atom returns to
its stable ground state. The energy required to completely remove an en electron from the
hydrogen atom called ionization energy is given by, ( )
( ) ( )
⇒ ( ) ( )
J eV.
The corresponding p.d, is the ionization potential.
The origin of various possible line of the spectrum of hydrogen atom can be shown
graphically by marking energies of the various orbits as shown below.
Energy, eV
68 0
0.55
0.85
The transition of an electron from one state to another is indicated by arrows. The line
spectrum fall into three distinct group or series, named after its discover. That is electron
transition into t , Lyman series (ultra-violet light) , for , , Balmer series (visible
light) and for , , Paschen series (infra-red light). The atom is said to be excited. The first
excited state is . The excitation energy required to lift the electron from to
is given by
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
J eV.
The corresponding p.d, V is the excitation potential. From this excited state, the
electron can go back to the ground state by emitting a radiation of frequency f and energy,
⇒ Hz. The corresponding wavelength of
the emitted radiation, m. This wavelength lies in the

ultraviolet region. The emitted radiation is seen as a line in the spectrum of hydrogen. To get
a hydrogen ion, the electron must be completely removed from the atom. That is, the
electron must be lifted from the state to the state .
Emission and absorption spectra
Emission spectra are classified into line, band and continuous spectra.
Line spectrum
A line spectrum is a discontinuous line produced by excited atoms and ions as they fall back
to a lower energy level. It is obtained from atoms in gases such as hydrogen in a gas discharge
tube at low pressure. When the metal electrodes at the end of the tube are connected to a
high voltage, the gas is heated to a high temperature and a discharge is obtained between
them. Some electrons gain sufficient energy to excite the atoms to a higher energy level and
become unstable. An electron may fall to a lower energy level through definite stages. Each
electron transition involves emission of excess energy as electromagnetic radiation of definite
wavelength. The visible line spectrum of hydrogen shows the change in energy. Each line has
a particular frequency of wavelength given by the energy change, . The fact that the
lines are separated is the experimental evidence of discrete or quantized energy levels of the
atom.
Band spectrum
Band spectrum is obtained from atoms of gases such as carbon dioxide in a gas discharge
tube. Each band consists of a series of lines very close together at the sharp edges. These are
69
due to allowed discrete energy changes in the vibrational energy. The fine lines in a given
band are due to still smaller allowed discrete energy changes in the rotational energy of
molecules. Molecules release energy when they are in their excited state in order to attain
stability.
Continuous spectrum
A continuous spectrum is one in which all wavelength are found over a wide range. The
spectrum of the sun is an example of a continuous spectrum. Such spectra are also obtained
from solids and liquids. In solids, the atoms are close together, and the energy changes in a
particular atom are influenced by neighbouring atoms to such extent that radiations of all
different wavelength are emitted. In gases, the atoms are relatively far apart, and each atom
is uninfluenced another. The radiations emitted are of wavelengths which result from energy
changes in the atom due to high temperature of the gas and line spectrum is obtained. When
the temperature reduces and pressure applied so that the liquid state is approached, the line
spectrum of the gas is observed broaden out considerably.
Emission spectra
Emission line spectrum is produced by excited atoms and ions as they fall back to a lower
energy level. When gas atoms are heated to a high temperature some of their electrons gain
sufficient energy to excite the atoms to a higher energy level and become unstable. When an
electron fall back to a lower energy level through definite stages and each electron transition
involves emission of excess energy as electromagnetic radiation of definite wavelength for a
given material. These are emission spectra.
Absorption spectra
Absorption spectrum is produced when certain wavelength of the continuous spectra are
missing. The missing wavelengths have been absorbed in form photon energy by the atoms
during an inelastic collision. When the photon energy is just sufficient to raise electrons to
higher energy levels, the atoms become excited and unstable. Fewer possible electron
transitions to lower energy levels give rise to absorption spectra with fewer lines.
Absorption spectra of the sun
The sun emits continuous spectrum of photon, hf. Vaporized elements in the outer cooler
parts of the sun’s atmosphere absorb those photons which have the same frequency to excite
them. The sun’s spectrum is now darker at wavelength characteristic of the elements in the
sun’s atmosphere. Since the absorption spectra are always characteristic of the absorbing
element, these elements can be identified from their absorption spectra.
X-rays
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelength of about m emitted by a
metal target when hit by energetic electrons.
Properties of X-rays
1. They travel in straight lines at a velocity of light.
2. They cannot be deflected by electric fields.
70
3. They cannot be deflected by magnetic fields.

4. They carry no charge.
5. The can be reflected but only for very large angle of incidence.
6. They can be diffracted.
7. The refractive indices of all materials are very close to one so they cannot be
refracted when they pass from one material to another.
8. They ionise the gas through which they pass.
9. They affect photographic plate (film).
10. They can produce fluorescence.
11. They can cause photoelectric emission.
Uses of X-rays
Medical uses
1. They are used to detect dental abnormalities and diseases
2. They are used to detect and locate bone fractures and malformations.
3. They are used to destroy cancer cells and tumours.
4. They are used to locate unusual objects swallowed in human body.
Industrial uses
1. They are used to locate internal imperfections in welded joints and castings.
2. They are used to detect covered paintings in art.
3. They are used to determine the structure of complex organic atoms.
The crystal under investigations is exposed to X-rays. The regularly arranged atoms
within the crystal act as diffraction grating. The diffraction patterns displayed on a
photographic plate reveals detailed information about the crystal structure.
X-ray tube
Vacuum High p.d Electron beam
+
Filament heater
Low p.d
Cooling fins Glass tube

Anode Cathode
Metal target
Lead shield X-rays
Electron emitted by thermionicially from the cathode at low p.d. The emitted electrons are
focused and accelerated by a high p.d towards the anode. On striking the metal target, they
are decelerated rapidly and less than 1% of their kinetic energy is coverted into X-rays and
the rest is converted into heat energy in the anode. The heat generated at the metal target is
cooled by the cooling fins.
In large X-ray tubes cooling is achieved by circulating oil behind the anode.
Modern X-ray tube
71
A modern x-ray tube is connected directly from an output of a step-up transformer. This
because the glass tube of X-ray tube has too little gas to cause ionization. When alternating
current from a transformer is applied, the emitted electrons are focused and accelerated
towards the metal target. During the first half cycle of alternating current, the target is
positive and current flows. During the next half cycle, the target is negative and no current
flow. Thus the tube acts as its own rectifier, providing pulses of direct current between the
target and filament.
Production of X-rays in an X-ray tube
When energetic electron strikes the metal target, it penetrates and dislodgesa electron from
the innermost shell of the atom of the metal target. This creates a vacancy in the innermost
shell making the atom unstable. An electron from higher energy level falls to coccupy the
vacancy left in the lower energy level. This electron transition is accompanied emission of an
X-ray photon of definite frequency which is characteristic of electronic structure of the metal
atoms.
Special feature of X-ray tube
1. The target is made from high melting point tangesten which can withstand the high
heat generated at the anode before it melts.
2. The tube is highly evacuated in order to mininze possible ionisation due to collision
of gas atoms with electrons.
3. The intensity of X-ray beam is increased by increasing the number of electrons hitting
the target per second. This is achieved by increasing the filament current. It is also
increased by increasing the p.d between the cathode and the anode. This makes
more energy available for X-ray production.
4. The penetrating power (or quantity) of X-rays beam increases with the p.d across the
tube. X-rays with lower penetrating power are called soft X-rays while X-rays with high
penetrating power are called hard X-rays.
Efficiency of X-ray tube
Efficiency, .
The current that is passed through the tube is given by,
⇒ .
The number of electrons per second striking the target, .

If the tube is 1% efficient and it is supplied with 3000W of electrical power, then X-ray energy
produced each second is 1% of 3000 W 30 W. The heat generated per second is 3000 30
2970W which must be removed by the cooling system.
Frequency and wavelength of the X-rays
72
If electrons are accelerated to a velocity by a potential difference, V and then allowed to

collide with a metal target, the frequency f of the X-rays emitted is given by the equation
m ⇒ . Its wavelength .
Examples
1. An X-ray tube operated at a direct p.d of 40 kV and produces heat at the target at
the rate of 720W. Assuming 0.5% of the energy of the incident radiation is converted
into X-rays radiations. Calculate
(a) the number of electrons per second striking the target.
(b) the velocity of the incident radiation.
Solution
(a) ⇒ electrons
per second.
(b) The kinetic energy of electron beam, k.e m eV.
⇒ √ √ m .
2. An x-ray tube works at a d.c potential difference of 50kV. Only 0.4% of energy of
cathode ray is converted into x-ray radiation and heat is generated in the target at
a rate of 600W. Estimate
(a) the current passed into the tube.
(b) the velocity of the electrons striking the target.
Solution
(a) A.
(b) ⇒ √ √
3. An x-ray tube is operated at 10kV and anode current of15.0 mA

(a) Estimate the number of electrons hitting the anode per second.
(b) Calculate the rate of production of heat at the anode stating any assumptions
made.
Solution
electrons per second.
4. An X-ray tube has an electrone beam curerrent of 1.5mA and an accelerating
voltage of 50 KV.
(a) How many electrons per second hit the target?
(b) If 99% of the incident radiation is transferred to thermal energy in the target,
at what rate must it be cooled in order to stay at constant temperature?
(c) What is the minimum wavelength of X-rays emitted by this X-ray tube.
Solution
73
(a) ⇒ electrons per second

(b) Rate of cooling Rate of heat production
( )
W
(c) m
5. Explain briefly why a modern x-ray tube can be connected directly from the
output of a step-up transformer.
6. Calculate the wavelength of X-rays emitted when electrons accelerated through 30kV
strike a target. ( m)
7. The voltage of a certain X-ray tube is 45kV. Only 0.5% of the electron beam is
converted to X-rays, and the rate of heat production in the anode is 500 W.
(a) Calculate the current passing through the tube, and (0.0111A)
(b) Calculate the velocity of the electrons. ( )
6. What is the minimum potential difference between the cathode and anode of an
X-ray tube if the tube is to produce X-rays of wavelength 0.05nm? (24.8kV)
7. Calculate the frequency and wavelength of the highest-energy X-ray emitted by an
X-ray tube operating at the following voltages
(a) 10kV (b) 25kV (c) 150kV (c) 200kV
8. In an X-ray tube the current through the tube is 1.0 mA and the accelerating
potential is 15kV. Calculate
(a) the number of electrons striking the anode per second. ( )
(b) the speed of electrons on striking the anode assuming they leave the cathode
with zero speed. (7.3 )
(c) the rate at which cooling fluid, entering at 10 , must circulate through the
anode if the anode temperature is to be maintained at . Neglect any of
kinetic of electrons which is converted to x-rays. ( kg )
( 1.6 , kg and s.h.c J )
9. An X-ray tube is operating at a potential of 125000 V and 10 mA.
(a) If only 1% of the electrical power is converted to X-rays, at what rate is the
target being heated per second? (1238 W)
(b) If the target has a mass of 0.3 kg and is made of material with s.h.c
150 J , at what average rate would the temperature rise if there were
no thermal losses? (27.5 K )
11. A potential difference between the target and cathode of an X-ray tube is 50kV and
the current in the tube is 20mA. Only 1% of the total energy supplied is emitted as
X-radiation.
(a) What is the maximum frequency of the emited radiation? ( Hz)
74
(b) At what rate must heat be removed from the target in order to keep it at a
steady teperature? (1000J )
X-ray diffraction
Conditions for X-ray diffraction
1. The wavelength of X-rays must be of the same order as the inter-planer spacing.
2. A parallel beam of X-rays must be incident on the planes.
Bragg’s law
Incident X-ray beam
Reflected X-ray beam
When a monochromatic beam of parallel X-rays incident onto a single plane in a crystal of a
plane separation, d, it interracts with the atoms and penetrates the crystal. Each atom
scatters a fraction of the incident beam and it is reflected as a parallel beam. The X-rays
scattered from various planes interfere constructively in those directions for which the
scattered rays are parallel, otherwise destructive interference occurs. The path difference
where . Implying the path difference
. For constructive interference, the path difference between the X-rays reflected from
the consecutive planes is equal to an integral multiple of the wavelength Therefore,
⇒ is the order of the diffractional image where the beam is most
intense. The greatest diffractional image is obtained when . Thus many orders are
obtained when the wavelength of the X-ray beam smaller compared to 2d. For wavelength
greater than 2d, no diffractional image would be obtained.
Examples
1. An X-ray beam is incident on a thin film of atomic spacing m at a
glancing angle of 8.8 and forms a first oder diffraction image on a photographic
plate. Find the velocity of an electron beam required to produce the X-ray beam.
Solution
m
75
√ √ .
2. A beam of X-rays of wavelength m is incident on a sodium chloride crystal
of interplaner separation m. Calculate the first order diffraction angle.
(8.59 )
3. A beam of X-rays of wavelength 0.3nm is incident on a crystal, and gives a first order
maximum when the glancing angle is 9 . Find the atomic spacing. (0.96nm)
4. A beam of X-rays of wavelength 0.15nm is incident on the face of a crystal of
calcite. The smallest angle at which there is a strongly reflected beam is 15 to the
cleavage face. Calculate the distance between successive layers of the crystal
lattice. (0.28nm)
Scattering of X-rays by cubic crystal
Consider a unit cell of sodium chloride of atomic spacing , density and molecular mass M.
The mass and volume, V of one molecule are given by and . Since one
mole of sodium chloride has two atoms, the volume associated with one atom is
. Thus the interatomic spacing ( ).

Example
1. Find the interatomic spacing of a cubic unit cell of sodiam chloride crsytal of
density . Given that the relative atomic mass of sodium and
chlorine is 23g and 35.5 g respectively.
Solution
( ) ( ) m
2. A monochromatic beam of X-ray of wavelength of wavelength m is
incident on a set of cubic plane of potassium chloride crystal. The first order
diffraction maxima is observed at a glancing angle of 18.8 . Find the
(a) interaplanar spacing of potassium chloride.
(b) density of potassium chloride.
Solution
(a) m.
(b) ( )
.
So diffraction of X-ray by crystal provides an evidence that the interatomic
spacing is of the same order as the wavelength of X-rays.
76
4. X-rays of wavelength are diffracted from a set of rubidium chloride. The

first diffraction maximum occurs at 8.8 . Calculate the interatomic spacing.
( m)
X-ray radiation spectra

Line spectrum
X-ray intensity
Continuous spectrum
0
0 Wavelength
Minimum wavelength
X-ray spectra consists of very intense emission at few discrete wavelengths called line
spectrum which are characteristic of the metal target superimosed on a background of
continuous radiation covering a wide range of wavelength from minimum wavelength which
depends on the operating voltage of the tube to longer wavelength.
Line spectrum (characteristic spectra)
When energetic electrons bombard the metal target in an X-ray tube, they may eject
electrons from the innermost energy levels (shells) of the target. This puts the atoms in an
excited state due to etra energy gained and hence unstable. An electron in the outer shell
may move into the vacancy created in the innermost shell of target atoms. In so doing, an X-
ray spectra of high energy due the difference in energies of the energy levels involved is
emitted. This leads to X-ray line spectrum whose energy, where f is the frequency of
the spectra anf h is the plunck’s constant. The wavelengths are characteristic of the target
material which are indipendent of the operating voltage.
Background continuous spectra
The background continuous spectra is as a result of multiple collisions of energetic electrons
with the target atoms and being decelerated. At each collision X-rays of different wavelengths
are emitted quantum is equal to the energy lost in the deceleration. An electron may lose any
fraction of its energy during the process. The most energetic X-rays with minimum
wavelength are as a result of bombarding electrons losing all their energy at once. Since the
energy of elctrons depends on the operating voltage the minimum wavelength also depends
on operating voltage. This gives rise to a continuous spectrum covering arange of
wavelengths from minimum to longer wavelength whose intensities are less.
77
Cut off wavelength of X-ray spectra

During direct collisions of electrons with metal target, all the energy of the incident electron
beam is absorbed by the target. The kinetic energies of the bombarding electrons is thus lost
at once and most energetic X-rays with minimum wavelength are produced. This is the cut off
wavelength.
Examples
1. An X-ray tube of wavelength m is required for the study of its diffraction in a
crystal. Find the least accelerating voltage to be applied to the X-ray tube in order to
produce these X-rays. (12375V)
2. Ab X-ray tube is operated at 50kV and 20mA. If 1% of the total energy supplied is
emitted as X-rays. Calculate the
(a) maximum frequency of emitted radiation.(1.21 Hz)
(b) rate at which heat must be removed from the target in order to keep it at a
steady temperature. (ans 990W)
3. An X-ray tube which is 1% efficient produces X-ray energy at a rate of 20 . Calculate
the current in the tube if the operating p.d is 50kV. (0.04A)
4. The most energyetic X-rays produced by aperticular X-ray tube have a wavelength of
2.1 m. What is the operating p.d of the tube. ( V)
5. Calculate the minimum wavelength of X-rays emitted by X-ray tube operating with an
accelerating voltage of 65KV.
6. What is the accelerating voltage would be needed to generate an X-ray spectrum with
a minimum wavelength of 2.5 m.
7. Calculate the minimum wavelength emitted from an X-ray tube in which the
accelerating voltage is 80kV.(1.5 m)
Photoelectric emission
Photoelectric effect is the process by which electrons are emitted by a clean metal surface
held at a negative potential in vacuum and exposed to electromagnetic radiation of high
enough energy for a given metal.
Experiment to demonstrate photoelectric effect
Clean zinc plate Ultra violet light
A clean zinc plate is attached to the cap of a negatively charged insulated gold leaf
electroscope. Ultraviolet radiation is directed onto the zinc plate. The leaf of electroscope is
observed to collapse.
78
This shows that both zinc and the electroscope have lost charge which was proved to be
electrons.
Explanation of the experimental observations
Ultraviolet light has a high frequency for zinc plate. The surface electrons are capable of
absorbing enough energy which enables them to break through the surface. For negatively
charged zinc plate, the emitted are repelled further. This leaves the metal surface with net
positive charge. The positive charges attract the negative charges on the leaf and move
toward a zinc plate to replace the lost electrons. The magnitude of charge on the leaf and the
plate decreases and the leaf slowly falls.
For positively charged zinc plate, the emitted electrons are attracted back by the zinc plate
and leaf divergence remains unchanged.
For uncharged zinc plate, electrons from the leaf move upwards to replace the lost electrons.
The leaf is left with excess positive charge leading to leaf divergence.
With infrared radiations, its frequency is below certain minimum frequency for zinc to emit
electrons. Thus no emission occurs because the energy absorbed is less than the minimum
energy required to cause emission. Hence no effect on leaf divergence is seen.
Laws of photoelectric emission
1. The number of electrons emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of the
incident radiation.
2. The photoelectrons have kinetic energies ranging from zero to maximum which
increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation.
3. For a given metal, electrons are emitted only when if the frequency of the incident
radiation is above the threshold frequency for the metal.
4. The time between the irradiation and emission of electrons is negligible.
Wave theory (classical theory) and photoelectric emission
According to wave theory, the radiation energy is uniformly distributed over the whole wave
front. This implies the incident energy of the radiation is shared equally by the surface
electrons. Increasing the intensity of the incident radiation increases its energy per second
reaching the metal surface and more energy per second is absorbed by the surface electrons.
Thus the number of electrons emitted per second increases. Hence law 1 is explained by the
wave theory.
Failures of wave theory
Wave theory fails to explain the variation of kinetic energy. Since according to wave theory,
increasing intensity would mean more energy and hence grater values of maximum kinetic
energy would be absorbed by the electrons. But according to law 2, maximum kinetic energy
depends on frequency of the incident radiation but not intensity.
Wave theory also fails to explain the existence of threshold frequency (law 3) since it predicts
continuous absorption and accumulation of energy. This means that radiation of high enough
frequency should cause emission even when the frequency is below the minimum value.
79
However, experimental observations show that even if the intensity if so high, no emissions
occur for low frequency radiations. Hence the theory fails to account for the threshold
frequency.
Wave theory also fails to account for instantaneous emission (law 4). Since the radiations
energy is uniformly distributed over the whole wave front, an electron absorbs only a fraction
of the total energy. The absorbed energy would be extremely very small for an electron to
escape the attraction of neighbouring nucleus. So there should be a time lag between the
start of radiation and the emission. Yet no such time is observed.
Photon
A photon is a packet of energy that is carried by an electromagnetic radiation.
Quantum theory
According to quantum theory, the radiation is emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts
(packets) of energy called quanta. The energy of each quantum, E is given by where h
is the planck’s constant Js and f is the frequency of the radiation.
Quantum theory and photoelectric emission
Since the radiations are emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts called quanta, hf when a
single quantum (photon) interacts with an electron in the metal surface, it gives all or none of
its energy. This implies that only one electron absorbs the energy of one photon. Therefore,
the number of photoelectrons is proportional to the number of incident photon. Of the
photon energy, part is used to overcome the attraction of the electron by the metal surface
and the rest appears as kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. The minimum energy
required to emit an electron, is the work function for the metal. The frequency,
is the threshold frequency for the metal. Therefore, below this frequency no photo
emission occurs. This is because electrons would not absorb energy gradually up to since
photons are indivisible. So photon of less energy than this is rejected and so, no emission
occurs. The corresponding wavelength, is minimum above which no emission.
is the speed of the electromagnetic radiation. The difference
is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron.
Einstein’s equation of photoelectric emission
If a quantum particle of energy hf is incident on a metal surface of work function, , the
maximum kinetic energy of the liberated electron . If is the maximum
speed of the emitted electrons of mass, , . This is the Einstein’s
equation. ⇒ ( ) ( )
Examples
1. Sodium has a work function of 2.0 eV. Calculate the
(a) maximum energy and speed of the emitted electron when sodium is
illuminated light of wavelength 150nm. ( J, )
80
(b) threshold frequency for sodium. ( Hz)

2. When light of wavelength 450nm falls on a certain metal, electrons of kinetic
energy 0.76eV are emitted. Find the threshold frequency for the metal.
( Hz)
3. Ultraviolet of wavelength m is incident on a metal of work function 3.5eV.
Calculate the maximum velocity of the liberated electrons.( )
4. Sodium has a work function of 2.3eV. Calculate
(a) its threshold frequency. ( Hz)
(b) the maximum velocity of the photo electrons produced when illuminated by
light of wavelength m. ( )
5. Violet light of wavelength 0.4 m is incident on a metal surface of threshold
wavelength 0.65 m. Find the maximum speed of the emitted electrons.
( )
6. Calcium has a wave function of 2.7eV.
(a) What is the threshold frequency of calcium? ( Hz)
(b) What is the maximum wavelength that will cause emission of the electrons
from calcium? ( m)
7. Gold has a work function of 4.9eV. Calculate the
(a) maximum kinetic energy in joules of the electrons emitted when gold is
illuminated with ultraviolet radiation of frequency of Hz.
( J)
(b) What is the energy when expressed in eV? (2.1eV)
8. Calculate the maximum speed of the photoelectrons emitted by caesium surface with
light of wavelength 484nm if the work function of caesium is J.
9. The work function of zinc is 4.24eV. What is maximum wavelength of light that will
cause electrons to be emitted from the zinc surface?
10. A metal surface with a work function of 4.0eV is illuminated by light of wavelength
200nm. What is the maximum velocity of the photoelectrons produced?
11. The visible spectrum runs from about 400nm to 700nm. Calculate the range of
energies present in visible photons.
Stopping potential
Stopping potential is the value of the negative potential difference which just stops an
electron from reaching the anode at negative potential with maximum kinetic energy.
Let be the stopping potential, the maximum kinetic energy, .
Experiment to verify Einstein’s equation, determine Planck’s constant and stoppping
ptential
Filter
Anode
Incident light
Cathode
Evacuated glass tube
A 81
V
The anode is made negative with respect to cathode.

The cathode is illumintated by light of known frequency, f from the filter so that
photoelectrons emitted experiences a retarding potential. The p.d, V is varied until the
current recorded by the microameter, A is zero. The voltmeter reading is noted. is the
stopping potential. The maximum kinetic energy, is calculated from, where
e is the electronic charge. The experiement is repeated with light of other frequencies. The
resulta are tabulated. A graph of against f is plotted. A straight line graph which does
not pass through the origin is obtained as shown below.
0 0 f
C
This verifies Einstein’s equation where h is the planck’s constant and
is the threshold frequency determined by noting the f-intercept.
The slope, s of the graph is determined. The planck’s constant, . The intercept C on the
-axis is determined. The work function
The experiment is repeated using different metals to replace the cathode and in each case a
graph of against f are plotted on the same axes. Straight line graphs are obtained and
the respective threshold frequencies are obtained from the f-intercepts. It is noted that
different metal surfaces have different thresholds.
Application of photoelectric effect
It occurs in photocells and photomultiplier tubes to increase the intensity of light on images
taken in poor light by cameras.
Uses of photocell
1. They are used to operate controls in electronic devices such as televisions and
computers.
2. They to operate burglar alarms. A photocell is fixed on one side of a door and a
source of light on the other side. As an intruder approaches the door, the light beam
is interrupted causing a change in current in the pho starts the motor that ring the
alarm.
3. They are used to switch on and off the automatic switches of street light.
4. They are used to record day light in meteorology.
82
5. They are used to count objects in photoelectric counters and sort out different
objects in photoelectric sorters.
Types of photocells
 Photo-emissive cells.
 Photo-voltaic cells.
 Photoconductive cells.
Photo-emissive cells
Anode
Ultraviolet-Light Cathode
Photo electric effect is used in photocells used to detect ultraviolet light. When ultraviolet
radiation is directed onto the cathode, the electrons escaping from the cathode surface are
accelerated to the anode. A current flows through an external circuit which is registered bt
the microameter. When an intruder intercepts the incoming radiations, the alarm is set off.
Photo-voltaic cell
Au Cu
O G
Photoelectric effect is used in photo-voltaic cell to generate current. The copper disc whose
one side is oxidized is coated with a film of gold and exposed to light. An emf is generated
causing current flow through an external circuit which is registered by the galvanometer.
When an intruder intercepts the incoming radiation, the alarm is set off.
Photo-conductctive cells
Ultraviolet light Cadmium sulphide
Ultraviolet light is directed onto the cadmium sulphide and its resistance changes. The
photoelectrons emitted cause current flow through the external circuit recorded by the
micro-ammeter.
Photomultiplier
Dynodes
+100 V +300 V
Photoelectron
Single photon of light

83 +200 V
A single photon of light hitting the first electrode causes the emission of a photoelectron. This
is accelerated towards the first of a series of secondary elecrodes called dynodes where
further electrons are released for each electron impact on a dynode. Hence producing as
many as electrons from a single photon when the process is continued.
Examples
1. A 100mW beam of light of wavelength m falls on a caesium surface of a
photocell.
(a) How many photons strike the caesium per second?
(b) If 80% of the photons emit photoelectrons, find the resulting photocurrent.
(c) Calculate the kinetic energy of each photoelectron if the work function of
ceaesium is 2.15eV.
Solution
(a) Power number of photoelectron per second energy of one photon
0.1 .
⇒ photons per second.

(b) Photocurrent, electronic charge per second of ne
Therefore, A.
(c)
J
2. Sodium has a work function of 2.3eV. Calculate the stopping potential when light of
wavelength m falls on it. ( V)
3. Gold of work function 4.9eV is illuminated with ultraviolet light of frequency
Hz. What is the stopping potential for these electrons? (2.1V)
4. Calcualte the stopping potential for a platinum surface irradiated with ultraviolet light
of wavelength m. Given that the work function of platinum is 6.3eV.
(4.0125V)
5. Light energy of wavelength 500nm from the sun strikes the earth surface at a rate of
about 1000 . Find the number of photons arriving per per second on the
erth’s surface. ( photons per per second)
6. A metal surface with work function 2.86eV is illuminated with light of wavelength
400nm. What will be the measured stopping potential for the electrons? (0.23V)
7. The work function of a metal surface is 4.0eV. What is the maximum velocity of the
photoelectrons when illuminated by light of wavelength 200nm. ( )
84
8. The work function of caesium surfcace is 1.35eV. A photo cell contains caesium
surface that is illuminated with light of wavelength 400nm. What p.d must be
applied to the cell to just prevent a current through it? (174375V)
9. When light of wavelength m is incident on sodium metal, electrons of
maximum kinetic energy are emitted. Calculate the maximum kinetic
energy of electrons that will be emitted by sodium metal when illuminated by light
of wavelength m( J)
Electrons
An atom consists of charged particles called electrons and protons. Studies by Thomson on
electrical discharges through gases at low pressure established that the atom has a structure.
Mechanism of electric conduction in gases
( ) (+)
V
Cathode Anode
When a p.d, V is applied across anode and cathode, an electric field is set up between them.
As the p.d is increased, the emitted electrons are accelerated to a high speed. When the p.d
is high enough, the electrons strike the gas atoms with sufficient kinetic energy and knock off
electrons out of them. The positive ions move towards the cathode while the electrons move
towards the anode. As the electrons move, they cause further ionization to form more ion
pair. A point is reached at which the current is uncontrollably high and the gas breaks down.
At the same time the excited atoms emit light of only certain wavelengths characteristic of
the electronic structure of the atoms. Thus each gas gives a distinct colour in the gas
discharge.
Variation of current with p.d across a gas discharge tube
C
A B
O V
When V is small along OA, the positive ions and electrons produced have low velocities. The
ions recombine with the electrons and less current is produced. The current flows is
proportional to the p.d applied. Hence Ohm’s law is obeyed. Between A and B, all the ions
produced in one second by the external electric field are collected by the electrodes. The
ions’ drift velocities are sufficiently high to prevent recombination. This leads to a constant
saturation current to flow. The saturation current is proportional to the external ionizing
field. Between B and C, as the p.d is increased further the primary ions are accelerated to a
high kinetic energy. The electrons produced by collisions with the neutral gas atoms cause
85
further ionization. The rapid multiplication of ions and electrons results into rapid increase in
current flow.
Observations during electrical discharge through a gas
(-) (+) (-)
High tension High tension (+)
N F P
C A C A
At about 10mmHG At about 2mmHG
The cathode, C and anode, A are maintained at a high tension voltage with the air inside the
tube. Initially when the tube is at 1 atmosphere no discharge takes place and nothing is
observed. When the pressure is gradually reduced to about 100 mmHg, the first discharge
occurs. Thin long streamers of luminous ultraviolet rays are observed between C and A.
(-) (+) (-)
High tension High tension (+)
N F P
C A C A
At about 10mmHG At about 2mmHG

As the pressure reduces to about 10 mmHg, the discharge becomes a steady glow and a
discharge of blue wavy streamers is observed. When the gas pressure is reduced to about
5mmHg, the discharge changes to pink and widens to fill the whole tube until when the bright
discharge is divided into parts; a long positive pink column (P) and a short blue negative glow
(N) separated by a dark region called the Faraday’s dark space (F) at about 2mmHg. Still at
lower pressure of 1 mmHg, the Faraday dark space becomes bigger and the negative glow
moves away from the cathode and another dark space called Crooke’s dark space (C) appears
between the cathode and negative glow. The positive column is divided into equally spaced
layers called striations (S).
(-) (+)
High tension
C N F S
Cathode Anode
About 1mmHg
When the tube is evacuated further to a pressure of about 0.01mmHg, the Crooke’s dark
space widens to fill the whole tube. The striations and negative glow become faint and the
tube itself begins to glow with a faint greenish light which are streams of visible particles
emitted from the cathode. The entire tube fluoresces.
Positive glow
86
As the electrons move across the tube, they collide with atoms. Some atoms get ionized while
others get excited and jump to higher energy levels. As the excited atoms return to their
ground state, they emit light. The positive glow forms the biggest part of the tube. As
pressure is reduced, the positive glow shrinks because there are fewer gas atoms and their
mean distance between the collisions is increased.
Negative glow
Ionization by collisions of electrons with neutral gas atoms occurs. Light is emitted in
exchange for electrical energy lost when some ion pairs recombine.
Faraday’s dark space
Electrons which have been slowed down by collisions are accelerated further towards the
anode. This creates a positive space of charge due to slower and more massive positive ions.
Crooke’s dark space
As the pressure in the tube is lowered, electrons from the cathode are rapidly accelerated by
the p.d between cathode and anode. They do not cause any ionization until they have gained
sufficient energy from the electric field. This accounts for the cathode dark space.
Application of gas discharge tubes
1. They are used to provide light.
2. They are as advertising sign tubes and traffic lights.
Fluorescent lamp
The walls of the lamp are coated with fluorescent salts. The discharge tube is filled with
mercury vapour at low pressure. Mercury atoms emit radiations which lie in the ultraviolet
region. The salts absorb the ultraviolet radiations giving off visible light.
Displaying light
Different gases have different colours. They are used to display coloured light in advertising
signs. Argon filled tubes give pale blue discharge while neon filled tubes give out red
discharge.
Thermionic emission
Thermionic emission is the process by which surface electrons escape from a metal surface
when heated to a high temperature.
Mechanism of thermionic emission
Metals contain free electrons which move within the lattice experiencing attractive forces
exerted on them by atomic nuclei. These forces are not strong enough to bind them to
particular atoms. When the metal is heated, the surface temperature of the metal is raised
and the energies of the electrons increase. This increases their thermal velocities. When they
gain sufficient energy, their chance of escaping from the inward attraction by the positive
nuclei also increases. At high temperatures, they boil off and escape from the surface. This is
known as thermionic emission.
Work function of a metal
87
Work function of a metal is the minimum amount of energy that is needed to take a free
electron out of the metal against attractive forces of the surrounding positive ions.
The work function of a metal increases with temperature. It is measured in electron volt (eV).
Electron volt
An electron volt is the energy gained by a charge equal to that on an electron moving
through a p.d of 1V. That is 1eV V .
Example
1. The work function of ceasium, sodium and beryllium are 1.9eV, 2.0eV and 3.9eV
respectively. Find the minimum energy required to remove an electron from each
metal.
Solution
For ceasium, 1.9eV .
For sodium, 2.0eV .
For beryllium 3.9eV .
Kinetic energy of an electron
Consider an electron of mass, m and charge, e emitted from the cathode and accelerated
towards the anode when an accelerating p.d, is applied between cathode the anode. If the
electron starts from rest and moves through vacuum, it loses electrical energy and
gains kinetic energy where is the speed.
Since the gain in kinetic energy comes from the loss of electrical energy,
⇒ ⇒ √ .
Examples
1. An electron of mass kg and charge C is accelerated
toward the anode. Find the electronic speed when an accelerating potential of
(a) 5000 V ( )
(b) 10,000 V is applied.( )
2. Calculate the velocity of electrons accelerated by a potential of 1500V. Given that
electronic charge is C and electronic mass is kg.
Answer
3. An electron of charge, e and mass, m is emitted from a hot cathode and then
accelerated by an electric field towards the anode. If the potential difference
between the cathode and anode is V, show that the speed of the electron, is given
by √ .
4. An electron is liberated from a hot filament and attracted by the anode of potential
1200 V positive with respect to the filament. With what speed will the electron strike
the anode. ( )
Cathode rays
88
Cathode rays are streams of fast moving electrons emitted from the cathode.
Production of cathode rays in a cathode ray tube
Cathode Anode
Fluorescent screen
Low p.d
Filament heater High p.d

Stream of electron beam
The cathode is heated by the filament heater at a low p.d. The free cathode electrons gain
kinetic energy as a result of increasing temperature. These electrons escape the attraction of
the positive ions thermionically. The emitted electrons are attracted and accelerated towards
the anode which is kept at high positive potential relative to the cathode. The anode has a
hole that allows electrons to pass through as a stream of electrons received on a fluorescent
screen as a spot of bright light. These are the cathode rays.
Disadvantages of gas discharge tube in production of cathode rays
1. X-rays may be produced and are dangerous to handle.
2. A gas is needed at a very low pressure which may not be easy to achieve practically.
3. Very high p.d is needed across the tube which may not be safe to handle.
Properties of cathode rays
1. They travel in straight line.
2. They cause fluorescence in certain salts coated on the screen.
3. They are deflected by electric field towards a positively charged plate.
4. They are deflected by magnetic field according to Fleming’s left hand rule.
5. They carry a negative charge,
6. They possess kinetic energy.
7. They produce X-rays when they strike heavy metals.
Experiment to show that cathode rays travel in straight lines
Maltese cross
Low p.d Shadow

+
Filament heater
High p.d
Electrons are emitted from the heated cathode. The emitted electrons are accelerated by the
anode and directed towards a maltese cross placed in the centre of the evacuated glass tube.
A sharp image of the cross is casted on the screen at the end of the tube. This shows that
cathode rays have been obstracted by the cross showing that the rays travel in a straight line.
Uses of cathode rays
1. Cathode rays are used to display pictures in a cathode ray oscilloscope.
89
2. They are used to produce light in a gas discharge tube.

3. They are used to produce X-rays when they strike the metal target.
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Cathode Grid Y-plates X-plates
Fluorescent screen
Low p.d
Filament heater Vacuum

Anode
Electron gun Deflecting system

When cathode is heated, the electrons are emitted thermionically. The electrons are
attracted, accelerated and focused by the anodes onto the fluorescent screen. The number of
electrons reaching the anode per second is controlled by the grid which is kept at negative
potential with respect to the cathode. Thus the brightness of the spot is controlled. The Y-
plates deflects the electron beam vertically while the X-plates deflect the beam horizontally.
The graphite coating of the sides of the tube shields off the electrons from external fields and
conducts stray electrons to the earth. When the time base is switched on a saw toothed
voltage is automatically applied to the X-plates.
Uses of Cathode ray oscilloscope
1. It is used to measure the frequency of alternating current and voltage.
2. It is used to measure the peak voltage and the root means square value of alternating
voltage.
3. It is used to measure the phase difference and small time intervals.
4. It is used to display waveforms of different signals from different sources.
Special features of a cathode ray oscilloscope
1. Electron gun consists of cathode, grid and anode. Cathode emits electrons when
heated by the filament. The grid controls the number of electrons reaching anode
per second. The anodes at different positive potentials accelerate and focus
electron towards the screen.
2. The deflecting system consists of horizontal Y-plates and vertical X-plates. The Y-
plates deflect the electron beam vertically while the X-plates deflect it horizontally.
3. The time base is an integrated circuit which when switched on an internally
generated saw-toothed voltage is automatically applied to the X-plates as shown
below.
Beam being swept
Fly-back
P.d across to the right
X-plates
Time
90
When the time base is switched on the voltage sweeps the spot on the screen at a constant
speed from left to right and then flicks the spot back to the left and start a new sweep. The
time taken for the spot to move from right to left sweep is called fly-back time.
Measurement alternating voltage
With earthed time base off, an a.c whose root mean square value, V is required is applied to
Y-plates and the length of the vertical line displayed on the screen is centred. The length of
the vertical trace, is measured. A voltage of known peak value, is applied to the Y-plates.
The corresponding trace length, of the vertical trace measured. The y-sensitivity, .
The peak voltage, is calculated and the root mean square value .
√
Measurement of frequency of the alternating voltage

A calibrated time base is switched on and a signal whose frequency, f is required is applied to
the Y-plates. The horizontal distance, for one cycle is measured. The time base control
gives the time per cm, for the spot to move horizontally. The period, is calculated.
The frequency, .
Measurement of phase angle
The internal time base is switched off, two input signals of the same frequencies are applied
with one applied to X-plates and the other to the Y-plates. An ellipse is generated on the
screen of the C.R.O. The trace is centred and the peak vertical displacement at the point
where the ellipse cuts the y-axis from the centre is measured. The peak vertical displacement
of the ellipse is measured.
If the horizontal displacement of the ellipse, where, is the amplitude in the
x-direction then its vertical displacement, ( ) where is the phase angle.
At , ⇒ . At this point, . Hence the phase angle,
( ).
Advantages of a cathode ray oscilloscope over moving coil meters
1. Since it has a high resistance it draws little current and makes an excellent voltmeter.
2. It can be used to measure both d.c and a.c voltages whereas moving coil meters
measure only d.c voltage unless rectified.
3. It has no coil to burn out.
4. It gives instantaneous response.
Example
1. A C.R.O has its y-sensitive set at 0.5V . A sinusoidal input voltage is suitably
applied to produce a trace. If its peak-to-peak length is 50 mm. Find the root mean
square value of the alternating p.d. (0.884V)
2. A C.R.O has its y-sensitivity set to 10V . A sinusoidal input voltage is suitably
applied to give a steady trace with time base switched on so that the electron beam
91
takes 0.01 s to traverse the screen. If the trace seen has a peak-to-peak height of
4.0 cm and contains two complete cycles, find the
(a) root mean square of the input voltage. (14.14V)
(b) frequency of the input signal. (2000Hz)
Motion of electron beam in electric field
+ PK
V t W
d T h a
h e v
- Q el
e T
r h e
Consider an electron of charge, e and e
m mass, m entering n
horizontally mid-way between
r g
horizontal plates P and Q a distance,o d apart with velocity, u. If V is the p.d between the
m m t
plates, an electric field intensity, e
is set up between
o the plate. h
This field acts on the electron and causes
t ,
an upwardmelectrostatic force, . Therefore
e e λ
the electron experiences an upward acceleration . Since the field is vertical, the
r t
horizontal force is zero. Thus the horizontal velocity,e u remains constant. After time, t, the
horizontal displacement of the electron ⇒ r .
The vertical displacement ( )( ) . Since constant, k, the

displacement . This shows that path of the electron is a parabola. When the electron
just passes the end of the plates, ⇒ or
Beyond the plates, the beam moves in a straight line. The time for which the electron is in
between the plates is . The component of velocity gained in the direction of the field
during this time is given by ( ) . Hence the angle at which the beam
emerges from the field is obtained from . The speed of the
beam as it emerges out of the field √ . Since the energy due to the horizontal
motion is un altered, the energy of the electron increases by .
Examples
92
1. A beam of electrons moving horizontally at enters mid-way between

two parallel plates. If the plates are 5 cm long and 2 cm apart, find the p.d between
the plates so that the beam is deflected to graze the edge of the lower plate.
Solution
( )
⇒ ( )
.⇒ V
2. A beam of electrons is accelerated through a p.d of 500 V and then enters a
uniform electric field of intensity , created between two parallel plates
m long. Calculate
(a) the speed at which the electrons enter the field.
(b) the time that each electron spends in the field.
(c) the angle through which the electrons have been deflected the time they
emerge from the field.
Solution
(a) √ ⇒ √ .
(b) s
(c) ( )
⇒
3. Given that a particle of charge, q and mass, m are accelerated by a p.d, V and enters an
electric field of intensity, E between parallel plates of separation, d. Obtain an
expression for the angle, through which the particles will have been deflected by the
time they leave the plates.
4. A beam of electrons is accelerated through a potential difference of 1.98 kV and
directed mid-way between two horizontal plates of length 4.8 cm and separated by a
distance of 2.0 cm. The potential difference applied across the plates is 80.0V.
(a) Calculate the speed of the electrons as they enter the region between the
plates.
(b) Explain the motion of the electrons between the plates.
(c) Find the speed of the electrons as they emerge from the region between the
plates.
5. A narrow beam of electrons, accelerated by a potential difference of 250 V, passes
between two parallel metal plates 0.030 m long and 0.005 m apart in an evacuated
tube, and strikes a fluorescent screen 0.175 m from the centre of the plates. A p.d of
10 V is established between the plates. What is the deflection produced on the screen.
6. Two parallel plates are placed 3.0 cm apart in an evacuated tube and a potential
difference of 240 V is applied across them. If there is an electron of charge of
C and mass kg at rest in the region between the plates,
calculate
(a) the force experienced by the electron. ( N)
93
(b) the velocity acquired by the electron. ( )

7. An electron starts from rest and moves in an electric field of intensity .
Find the
(a) force on the electron.
(b) acceleration of the electron.
(c) velocity acquired in moving through a p.d of 90V.
8. A beam of electron each of mass, m, and charge, e is directed horizontally with a
speed into an electric field between two horizontal plates separated by a distance,
d.
(a) If the p.d between the plates is V, show that the deflection, of the beam is
given by ( ) where x is the horizontal distance travelled.
(b) Explain the path of the electron beam as it emerges out of the electric field.
Motion of electron beam in magnetic field
Consider an electron of charge, e and mass, m moving with a speed which enters a uniform
magnetic field of flux density, B acting perpendicular to the direction of the motion. Since the
motion of electron beam constitutes the flow of current in opposite direction, the beam
experiences a magnetic force perpendicular to both B and according to Fleming’s
left hand rule. Since the magnitude of the force remains constant, the beam deflects and
describes a circular path of radius, r. The magnetic force provides the centripetal force,
. For equilibrium . Therefore, the radius .
The velocity of the electron beam, . For circular motion, where is
the frequency. Thus ⇒ .
If the velocity of the electron beam reduces due to collision, its momentum decreases.
The radius of the path decreases and the electron tends to spiral.
As the beam leaves the region of the magnetic field, it travels in a straight line with the same
velocity. If the electron is accelerated by a potential, into the region of uniform magnetic
field, the gain in kinetic energy is equal to loss in electrical energy. Thus
⇒ ( ) ⇒ . The ratio of charge to mass of electron, .

Thus specific charge of is the electronic charge on 1 kg of an electron.
Examples
94
1. An electron emitted from a hot cathode is accelerated by a p.d of 1000 V and enters at
right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density T. Determine the
radius of the path.
Solution
√ √
m.
2. An electron gun operating at 2000 V is used to shoot electrons into a magnetic field of
flux density T. The initial direction of the beam is at right angles to the field.
(a) Calculate the ratio of charge to mass of an electron if the beam forms a circle
of diameter 160 mm.
(b) Describe the path of the beam if its initial direction is change to to the
field.
Solution
(a) From
⇒ √ √ m.
(b) The electron spiral round the field. The component of velocity does
not change because the magnetic force is always at right angles to the field. The
perpendicular component is the speed at which the electron ‘circles’
in the field. This is exactly half the value of the speed when the direction was at
right angles.
6. Electrons, accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 3000 V, enters a
region of uniform magnetic field, the direction of the field being at right angles to the
motion of the electrons. If the flux density is 0.010 T, calculate the radius of the
electron’s orbit. (0.00185 m)
7. An electron beam of specific charge travelling at is
subjected to a magnetic field of flux density T normal to its velocity.
Determine the radius of the circle traced by the beam. (0.227 m)
8. An electron with specific charge is rotated in a circular orbit when it
enters a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.5T. Find the number of revolutions
per second.
9. An electron is moving in a circular path at in a a uniform magnetic field
of flux density T. Find the radius of the path. (0.085 m)
10. A beam of electrons of charge C and kg travelling with speed
in an evacuated tube is mad to move in a circular path of radius
0.048 m by a uniform magnetic field of flux density T. Calculate the kinetic
energy of an electron in a beam in electron-volts.
Motion of electron in crossed uniform electric and magnetic field
95
B
d V
Consider an electron of charge, e projected horizontally with a velocity, at right angle to

both electric field of intensity, E and magnetic field of flux density B which are perpendicular
to each other. The electron experiences both electrostatic force and magnetic force
in opposite direction. The electron passes un-deflected implying
⇒ If the electron is accelerated from the cathode by an accelerating p.d, , the
velocity √ ⇒√ ⇒ ⇒ .
If a p.d V is applied between the plates of separation, d, and the specific charge,
.
Example
1. In a cathode ray tube a potential difference of 3000 V is maintained between the
electrodes 2 cm part. A magnetic field of flux density of T at right angles to
the electric field gives no deflection of the electron beam which received an initial
acceleration by a potential difference of 10000 V. Calculate the specific charge of the
electron. ( )
2. An electron accelerated by a p.d of 1000V passes through a uniform electric field of
intensity E crossed with a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.3 T. If the electron
emerges un-deflected, calculate the electric field intensity. ( )
Experiment to determine the specific charge of an electron by J.J Thomson’s method
Cathode Anode
Fluorescent screen
+
Low p.d B
O
E
-
Filament heater -
C
Electrons are emitted from a hot cathode and accelerated by applying a high voltage,
between the cathode and the anode. In absence of both electric and magnetic field the beam
is received at the centre, O of the screen. The position, O on the screen is noted. The
accelerating voltage, is recorded. A magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction
of the beam (into the paper) by passing current a pair of coils of known number of turns, N
placed on either side of the tube connected in series. The current in the coil is varied until the
beam deflects to point C on the screen. The current through the coils is measured. The
magnitude of the magnetic flux density B is calculated from . An electric field is
96
applied perpendicular to the magnetic field by applied a p.d, V between the plates of known
plate separation, d. The p.d is adjusted until the beam is brought back to position O on the
screen. The p.d, V between the plates is measured. The electric field intensity, is
calculated. The specific charge, is calculated from .

Example
1. In an experiment to determine the specific charge of an electron using Thomson’s
method, electrons from the hot cathode are accelerated by a potential difference of
1.5kV between the cathode and anode. Electrons coming out of the hole in the anode
are made to enter a region of crossed electric and magnetic fields both perpendicular
to the direction of electron motion. Two parallel plates 2.0 cm apart having a potential
difference 400V between them provide the electric field. When a magnetic field of flux
density T is applied perpendicular to the field, the beam passes un
deflected. Find the specific charge of the electron. ( )
2. A beam of cathode rays is directed mid-way between two parallel metal plates of
length 4.0 cm and separation 1.0 cm. The beam is deflected through 10.0 cm on a
fluorescent screen placed 20.0 cm beyond the nearest edge of the plates when a p.d of
200 V is applied across the plates.
Theory of Milkan’s oil drop experiment
Milkan’s oil drop experiment is used to determine the charge on an oil drop. Suppose an oil
drop of density and radius r is charge with charge q and allowed to fall through air of
density and coefficient of viscosity η under gravity. When the resultant force on the drop is
zero, the drop either moves with terminal velocity or remains stationary.
In absence of electric field, it falls with terminal velocity of , it experiences an upthrust
and a viscous force against its weight .
Upthrust +viscous force
Terminal velocity,
Weight
Since the resultant force is zero, weight upthrust Viscous force.
( )
( ) ⇒ √ .
( )
When an electric field of intensity, E is applied such that drop rise upwards at a new terminal
velocity reduces to , the direction of viscous forces changes.
Upthrust + Electric force
97Terminal velocity,
Weight +Viscous force

.
( ) .
.
( ).
(√ ( )
)( ).
(√ ( )
)( ).
If the electric field is applied such that drop remains stationary, . The quantity of
charge on the drop, (√ ( )

) . At room temperature and pressure, the density of
air is negligible compared to the density of oil drop. The upthrust on the drop is ignored. Thus
the quantity of charge on the drop, (√ ) .
Determination of charge on an oil drop by Milkan’s experiment
Oil spray
H A
Intense light X-ray
B
Constant temperature bath
A and B are metal plates of known plate separation, d. Oil of known coefficient of viscosity
and density is sprayed into hole H of metal plate, A. The oil is then exposed to X-rays so that
it acquires a charge whose magnitude, q is required. A suitable oil drop is selected,
illuminated by intense light and then observed as it moves using a short focusing travelling
microscope. With no p.d applied between the plates A and B, its terminal velocity is
determined by measuring the distance through which it falls in time, t. A p.d, V is then
applied between the plates so that the selected oil drop rises upwards and the new terminal
velocity, of the drop is determined. The raduis, of the oil drop calculated from
√( (
), where
)
is the acceleration due to gravity and is the density of air. The
quantity of charge, q is calculated from q ( )

Precautions taken in Milkan’s experiment
98
1. The oil used is non-volatile at low vapour pressure in order to reduce problems
associated with evaporation so that the size and mass does not change appreciably.
2. A constant- temperature enclosure is used to surround the apparatus in order
 to eliminate convectional currents.
 to shield off the apparatus from droughts so that the drop under investigation
does not drift sideways.
 to keep the viscosity and density of air and oil constant.
Quantization of charge
This is the existence of charges expressed as an integral multiple of electronic charge of
C. Electric charges can never exist in fraction of this amount.
Measurements on a number of oil drops have shown that the value of the charge on a given
drop is an integral multiple of electronic charge. That is where ….
Example
1. (a) Calculate the radius of a drop of oil of density 900 which falls with terminal
velocity of through a viscous air of negligible density and viscosity
.( )
(b) If the drop has a charge of -3e, what p.d must be applied between two plates 5 mm
apart for the drop to be held stationary between them. (1668.4V)
2. In Milkan’s experiment, it is found that a charged droplet of mass just
remains stationary when a p.d between the plates, which are 12 mm apart is 150V. If
the droplet suddenly gains an extra charge, calculate the
(a) number of electrons on the drop. (9)
(b) initial acceleration of the droplet. (1.11 )
(c) voltage needed to bring the droplet to rest again.
3. In the determination of electron charge by Milkan’s method, a p.d of 1.5kV is applied
between horizontal metal plates, 12 mm apart. With electric field switched off, a drop
of oil of mass kg is observed to fall with a constant velocity
between the two plates. When a p.d of 1.5kV is applied across the
plates, the drop rises with constant velocity of . Find the number of
electronic charges on the drop. (6)
(Assume that air resistance is proportional to velocity of the drop and neglect air
buoyancy)
4. In a Milkan type apparatus, the horizontal plates are 1.5 cm apart. With electric field
switched off, an oil drop is observed to fall with a steady velocity of .
When the field is switched on the upper plate being positive, the drop just remains
stationary when the p.d between the plates is 1500V.
(a) Calculate the radius of the drop. ( )
99
(b) How many electron charge does it carry? (8)

(c) If the p.d between the two plates remains uncharged, with what velocity will
the drop move when it has collected two more electrons as a result of ionizing
radiation?
(oil density , viscosity of air )( )
5. An oil droplet of mass kg is balanced and held stationary when an
electric field is applied between two plates. If the lower plate is earthed and the upper
plate is kept at a potential of +750V and the spacing of the plates is 5.0 mm. Calculate
the charge on the droplet. ( C)
6. Oil droplets are introduced into the space between two flat horizontal plates 5.00 mm
apart. The plate voltage is then adjusted to 780V so that one of the droplets is held
stationary. The plate voltage is then switched off and the selected droplet is observed
to fall a measured distance of 1.50 mm in 11.2 s. If the density of oil used is 900
and the viscosity of air at 20 is , calculate
(a) mass of the droplet. ( kg)
(b) charge on the droplet. ( C)
6. An oil drop of mass kg falls vertically with uniform velocity through air
between two horizontal plates separated by 5 mm.
(a) Explain why the drop comes to rest when a p.d of 904 V is applied to the
plates.
(b) Calculate the charge on the drop. ( C)
7. In a Milkan’s oil drop experiment, a charged oil drop of density 880 is held
stationary between two parallel plates 6.0 mm apart held at a potential difference of
103 V. When the electric field is switched off, the drop is observed to fall a distance of
2.0 mm in 35.7 s.
(a) What is the radius of the drop? ( )
(b) Estimate the charge of the drop. ( C)
(c) How many excess electrons does it carry? (5)
(Viscosity of air is , density of air is )
8. A charged oil drop is held stationary between two horizontal plates of a capacitor
when a field of 576kV is applied between them. When the field is removed the
drop falls freely with a steady velocity fo .
(a) Calculate the radius of the drop. ( )
(b) Calculate the charge on the drop. ( C)
Given that viscosity of air and the difference between the
densities of oil and air
9. An oil drop of mass kg is held stationary when an electric field is applied
between the two horizontal plates. If the drop carries 6 electric charges each of charge
C, Calculate the electric field intensity.
100
10. In a Milkan’s oil drop experiment, an oil drop of density is allowed to fall
through air of density of viscosity and negligible density between
horizontal plates 10 mm apart. The drop is observed to fall steadily through a distance
of 2.50 mm in 22.0 s when no field is applied between the plates. When a p.d of 613 V
is applied between the plates, the drop remains stationary between two horizontal
plates. Calculate the magnitude of the charge on the drop.
11. Two horizontal conducting plates are 5.0 mm apart. A small oil drop of mass
kg is held stationary between the two plates by applying a p.d of 2500 V
across them, the upper plate positive with respect to the lower plate. How many
excess electrons are on the drop?
12. In Milkan’s oil drop experiment, a single charged drop was found to fall under gravity
at a terminal velocity of 0.0040 and to rise at 0.0120 when a field of
was suitably applied. Calculate the electronic charge given that the
radius of the drop is and the viscosity of the gas under the conditions of
the experiment is . ( )
Positive rays
Positive ray are streams of positive ions moving in opposite direction to cathode rays.
Production of positive rays
Cathode
Anode
Faint glow
Positive rays
High voltage
rays
A high voltage is applied between anode and cathode. Electrons are emitted thermionically
from the cathode. The emitted ellectrons are accelerated towards the anode. As they move,
the collide with gas atoms, knocking off some elctrons from the gas atoms. The positive ions
are produced and move slowly towards the cathode due to electric field between anode and
cathode. As they pass through a hole pierced through the cathode, they cause faint glow
Properties of positive rays
1. They are massive compared to cathode rays and hence less deflected by both
magnetic and electric fields.
2. They are positively charge and travel in opposite direction to cathode rays.
3. They have a range of velocities because they are produced at various points along the
discharge tube.
4. They have photographic effect when they fall on a photographic plate.
5. They cause less ionization of gas molecules
Theory of Thomson’s experiment
B E
101
Ion beam O
Suppose a positive ion of charge, q and mass, m is directed normally through a vertical
uniform magnetic field of flux density, B and vertical uniform electric field of intensity E with
velocity, it experiences both magnetic force, and electric force . The
magnetic force is responsible for the horizontal acceleration, while the electric force
is responsible for vertical acceleration . If of the plate the ions takes a time
just before they leave the fields. By this time it would have travelled both horizontal and
vertical distances and where and .
φ C φ
φ
A
The electric field causes the rays to emerge from the plate at an angle to the incident
direction is obtained from . If the screen is at a horizontal distance, from the
middle of the plates, the deflection of the ion beam on the screen is . But
⇒ ………………………………(i)
The magnetic field deflects the beam into a circular arc AC of radius, .
If is the angle made by the emergent beam with the x-direction of the incident beam, for
small angles in radians, .
When the ion reaches the screen, the horizontal deflection x from O is given by
⇒ ⇒ .
Substituting into (i), we obtain ⇒ ( ) ………(ii)

( )
From (ii), it follows that the ions with the same charge-mass ratio although moving with
different velocities, all lie on a parabola of the form where ( ) is a
constant.
The unified atomic mass unit (u)
The unified atomic mass unit is the one twelfth of the mass of the carbon atom
Avogadro’s number ( ) is the number of molecules in one mole of carbon. The number of
molecules in one of carbon is a constant called Avogadro’s number. Since
carbon is monoatomic, there are atoms of carbon. atoms have a
102
mass of 12g kg. One atom of carbon has amass of . But

of the mass of carbon-12 ( ) kg.
Discovery of the neutron
According to Rutherford and Bohr model, the mass of any atom is nearly equal to the mass of
its nucleus which contains positively charged particles called protons. The number of protons
called the atomic number (Z) is equal to the number of electrons.
It should be noted that the atomic mass for lighter nuclei is approximately twice the mass of
protons. For example, helium has atomic mass of 4.0026u and it has an atomic number of
2.01565u which is nearly half the measured mass of helium. This suggests that the extra mass
( ) of the nucleus of helium atom is for other particles
called neutrons. Atomic number is also called mass number. Mass number (A) also called
nucleon number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons. If an element
with chemical symbol X has mass number, A and atomic number Z, it is described the
notation .
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass
number. Since the atomic number is numerically equal to the number of electrons in an
atom, isotopes have the same number of electrons. Therefore, they have the same chemical
properties and cannot be distinguished by chemical method.
Bainbridge mass spectrometer
1. It is used to determine the specific charge of an ion.
2. It is used to distinguish between isotopes.
Determining the specific charge of ions by Bainbridge mass spectrometer
Positive ion from the source
Velocity
Photographic plate
selector
Evacuated deflection
chamber
A stream of ions from the source are directed into a velocity selector with crossed electric
field of known intensity, E and magnetic field of known flux density applied
perpendicularly to each other at the same time. Ions of the same charge q pass through the
velocity selector undeflected with same velocity, . The selected ions enter a deflection
chamber where only magnetic field of known flux density is applied perpendicularly. The
ions experince a centripetal force and move along a circular path of raduis, r. When the
ions strike the photographic plate, the radius of the circle described, r is determined. Since
103
the centripetal force on the ions is provided by magnetic force due to , , where
m is the mass of the ions. The charge to mass ratio, is the specific charge which is
determined from .
Distinguishing isotopes by Bainbridge mass spectrometer

Positive ion from the source
Velocity Photographic plate

selector
Evacuated deflection
chamber
A stream of ions from the source are directed into a velocity selector with crossed electric
field of known intensity, E and magnetic field of known flux density applied
perpendicularly to each other at the same time. The ions of the same charge q pass through
the velocity selector undeflected with same velocity, . The selected ions enter a
deflection chamber where only magnetic field of known flux density is applied
perpendicularly. The ions experience a centripetal force provided by magnetic force
due to , ⇒ . Since is constant, where m is the ionic mass.

The radii and are measured and found to be different showing that they have different
mass and specific charges. Hence the ions are isotopic.
Exapmles
1. In a mass spectrometer,an ion X of mass number 24 and charge +e and ion Y of mass
number 22 and charge +2e both enters the magnetic field with the same speed. The
radius of the path of X is 0.25m.Calculate the radius of the path of Y. (0.11m)
2. A beam of posssitive ions is accelerated through a p.d of 1 v into aregion of
uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.2T.While in amagnetic field it moves in of
radius 2.3cm. Derive an expression for the charge to mass of the ions, and calculate its
value. (9.5 )
3. A beam of singly ionised carbon atom is directed into aregion where a magnetic and
electric field are acting perpendicularly both to each other and to the beam. The
fields have intensities 0.10T and 1.0 N respectively.
(a) If the beam is able to pass undeviated through this region, what is the velocity
of the ions.
104
(b) The beam then enter a region where amagnetic field alone is acting. As a result
the beam describes an arc of radius 0.75m. Calculate the flux density of this
magnetic field.(mass of carbon atom=2.0 kg;e=1.6 C)
4. (a) Describe and give the theory of a mass spectrometer for measuring the charge
to mass ratio of positive ions.
(b) The mass of singly charged neon isotope is 3.3 kg. A beam of
these ions enters a uniform transverse magnetic field of 0.3T and describes a
circular orbit of radius 0.22 m. What is:
(i) the velocity of the ion?
(ii) the p.d which has been used to accelerate them to this velocity?
(The electronic charge C)
Nuclear energy
Inside a nucleus of an atom, the protons repel each other due to electrostatic force of
repulsion. When neutrons and protons come together in the nucleus, there is an increase in
potential energy due to these lectrostatic forces, but a greater decrease in potential energy
due the nuclear forces of the nucleons. Therefore, there is a net decrease in potential energy
of all the nulceons. When the nucleons come together in a nucleus, the loss of energy which
released as nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy is the energy released as a result of change in mass of the reactants in a
nuclear reactor. The energy released E is given by the Einstein’s relation where
is the mass destroyed and c is the speed of light in vacuum.
If kg, ( ) J.
A change of mass by , releases J.
MeV.
Mass defect
The total mass of all separated nucleons is always greater than the mass of the nucleus in
which they are together. This is because the nucleons in the nucleus have gained some
nuclear potential energy coming from a change of mass in all the separated individual
nucleons.
Mass defect is the difference in mass of constituent nucleons and nuclues of an element. Let
be the nucleus of an element X,
mass defect (mass of n mass of Z) – mass of the nucleus .
Examples
1. Find the mass defect of a helium nucleus of mass 4.0015u. Given that the mass of
a proton is 1.0073u and mass of a neutron is 1.0087u.
Solution
mass defect (mass of 2neutrons mass of 2protons) – mass of .
mass defect ( ) ( )
105
2. The mass of is 58.93488u. Find the mass defect of given that the mass of a
proton is 1.00728u and mass of a neutron is 1.00867u.
Solution
mass defect (mass of 33neutrons mass of 26protons) – mass of .
mass defect ( ) ( )
Binding energy
Binding energy is the energy required to split the nucleus of an element into its consitiuent
nucleons.
When nucleons combine to form a nucleus the total energy of the system remains constant
although the mas may not. In a nucleus, the nucleons are bound together with some
potential energy called the binding energy which comes at the expens of the increase in total
mass of the system. Since energy is conserved, a decrease in mass or the energy of the
system, means that energy must be released in combining the nucleons together in the
nucleus. The same energy must be given out to a nucleus if it is desired to break the nucleus
into its parts. For the case of a helium, the energy released would be
MeV.
For iron the energy released would be MeV.
Examples
1. The mass of is 55.9349u. Find the binding energy of given that the mass of a
proton is 1.00728u, mass of is u and mass of a neutron is
1.008665u.
Solution
mass defect (mass of 30n mass of 26p mass of 26 e) – mass of .
mass defect ( ) ( ) ( )
Binding energy mass deffect

Binding energy MeV
Binding energy per nucleon
Binding energy per nucleon is the binding energy divided by the total number of nucleons.
For helium, since there are four nucleon, the binding energy per nucleon
MeV, for , the binding enery per nucleon MeV and for
, the binding energy per nucleon MeV.
When the binding energy per nucleon is computed for all nuclei and a graph of binding
energy of each nucleus plotted against mass number, A appears as follows.
Fusion Fission
Binding energy
per nucleon
106
56 Nucleon number
Binding energy per nucleon increases with increasing nucleon number. The nuclides in the
middle of the middle of the graph have highest binding energy per nucleon. The nuclides in
the middle are most stable since they require more energy to disintegrate. The nuclides with
higher nucleon number have less binding energy per nucleon. These nuclides are unstable
since they require less energy to disintegrate. Since lighter nuclei are more stable than
heavier ones, they require higher binding energy per nucleon for lighter nuclei to combine to
form a heavier nucleus. Thus nuclear fussion takes place in this region. During the process,
the resulting mass of the nucleus is less than that of the combining nuclei. The mass defect
that results accounts for the energy released. Since nuclides with higher mass number are
unstable, they require less binding energy to disintegrate. Thus nuclear fission takes place in
this region. During nuclear fission, heavy nucleus split into two lighter nuclei. The resulting
mass of the nucleus is less than that of the combining nuclei. The mass defect that results
accounts for the energy released.
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process where two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus
accompanied by the release of energy.
The process requires extremely high temperature so that the small nclei acquire kinetic
energy necessary to overcome electrostatic repulsion between them. Nuclear fusion occurs in
the sun where the temperature are very high.
Consider the union of two deuteriums each of mass 2.015u to form a helium nucleus
of mass 3.017u and a neutron of mass 1.009u.
→
The mass defect (mass of the two deuteriums ) – (mass of mass of neutron)
mass defect ( ) ( )
Binding energy mass deffect J
Nuclear fusion is important in the production nuclear energy and production of atomic
bombs. The energy released is used to provide kinetic energy of the product fragments.
Example
1. When a deuterium fuses with a nucleus of tritium to give a helium nucleus and
a neutron as shown by the equation; → , J of
energy is released.
Nuclear fission
1. During the fission of uranium U-235, 200 MeV of energy is released. Calculate the
energy in joules, released when 1.5 kg of uranium takes part in a bomb explosion.
107

A Level Phy Heat and Modern

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Level Phy Heat and Modern

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

mbiddeabdul@gmail.

The unknown temperature, θ is determined from, ( ) .

To meter bridge/Wheatstone bridge

Platinum resistance in the circuit

Copper wire Iron

From Newton’s law of cooling, ( ).

Since , A, m and c are constants for a given body, .

Determining the specific heat capacity of a solid

The mass, of calorimeter of known specific heat capacity, is determined. Water of

continued when the temperature is falling up to time, of cooling such that . A

2. 21.0 g of liquid at 60 is mixed into 100 g of water at 12.5 which is already in a

. The average specific heat capacity, .

Liquid under test

( ) [ ]( ). The specific latent heat of fusion, L is

(a) specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

3. An electrical heater of 2 kW is used to heat 0.5 kg of water in a kettle of heat

Warm water out Condenser

Effect of volume on saturated vapour pressure

Experiment to determine saturated vapour pressure

Liquid Air reservoir

Experiment to verify Boyle’s law

Similarly after n strokes, the pressure is reduced to ( ) ……………………….(2)

2. A car tyre has a volume of and contains air at an excess pressure of

Thermometer Open limb

Gas expand Gas heated at

At (a) the gas occupies a volume, at a pressure and an absolute temperature, .

For one mole of a particular gas occupying a volume, at an absolute temperature, T

Thus equation (4) becomes ………(9)

Final mass of the gas in the cylinder ⇒

From Boyle’s law, ⇒ ( ).

the same. ⇒ ⇒ mmHg.

AB, CD and EF are isothermal curves at temperatures , and respectively. EB is an

Suppose a gas at is adiabatically compressed, from to , its temperature rises from

In the limit as and ,⇒ ( ) .

limit as . The total work done in expanding from to ∫ .

(b) Sketch and label the two stages on a P-V diagram.

Kinetic theory of gases

Suppose a molecule of mass, m moves towards face A with velocity, u.

motion, the rate of change of momentum ⁄

of the component in the x-direction, ̅̅̅ ⇒ ̅̅̅.

translation of the random motion of the molecule of the gas. Thus ̅ ( ̅)

⇒ ̅ . The ratio is a universal constant called Boltzmann’s constant.

From ̅⇒ ̅ . The root mean square speed of the gas molecules, √ ̅ √ .

Derivation of Dalton’s law of partial pressure

The individual pressures ( ̅ ) and ( ̅ ). The sum of the individual

Isotherms for real gases

( ) . The units: Wm-1K-1

Temperature distribution along the length of uniform cross section

length (m) length (m)

A perfectly (well) lagged conductor

Consider two conductors A and B of thicknesses, x1 and x2 respectively in contact. If the

2. A composite metal bar of uniform cross section is made up of length of 25 cm of

(b) State the assumption made in (a)

(c) A cooking utensil of thickness 3 mm is to be made from two layers, one of

Coloured water current

Potassium permanganate crystals

Heat radiation is directed onto a blackened junction A. It is absorbed by the junction A

and B causes a thermo-electric e.m.f to be generated. The emf generated ismeasured by mV

Incident heat radiation

The power received by the earth solar constant ⇒ ( )

Total radiation pyrometer

Gold plate mirror

4. A metal sphere of radius 1.5 cm is suspended within an evacuated enclosure whose