Gender Differences and Social Comparison Orientation on the Relationship between

Fear of Missing Out, Social Media Engagement, and Psychological Well-Being

of College Students: A Mediation and Moderation Analysis

By

Garcia, Patricia Lourdes

Oxales, Ma. Cresiadriane

Reyes, Vanessa

Semilla, Rionna Mariel

Ullega, Jenevalyn

Villegas, Shanelle

A Thesis

submitted to

the Faculty of Psychology

Adamson University, Manila

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree

Bachelor of Science in Psychology

Department of Psychology

2022
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Table of Contents

Title Page

Introduction……………………………………………….…………………………………… 4

Background of the Study

Literature Review…………………………………………………………...…….……………10

Fear of Missing Out

Social Media Engagement

Psychological Well-being

Fear of Missing Out and Psychological Well-being

Social Media Engagement and Psychological Well-being

Social Comparison Orientation on Fear of Missing Out, Social media

Engagement and Psychological Well-being

Gender Differences

Synthesis

Purpose and Rationale………………………………………………………….……………. . 36

Scope and Delimitation……………………….…………………………………..………… . 37

Theoretical Framework ………………..……………………………………………….……. .39

Self-evaluation Maintenance Theory

Theory of Compensatory Internet Use

Social Comparison Theory

Conceptual Framework ………………..………………………………………………………45

Hypothesis………………..……………………………………………………………....…… 46

Statement of the Problem…………………………..…….…………………………………….47

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Definition of Terms………………………….……………..…………………………………48

Method………………………….………………………………….…………………………49

Research Design

Site and Participant Selection

Sample

Instrument

Fear of Missing Out Scale

Social Media Engagement Scale

Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale

Psychological Well-being Scale

Procedure

Data Analysis

Preliminary Analysis

Model Fit and Quality

Collinearity, Reliability and Validity Test

Main Analysis

Ethical Considerations

Conflict of Interest

Privacy and Confidentiality

Plagiarism

Research Misconduct

Reference………………………….……………………………….…………………………61
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Introduction

Background of the Study

Most lifetime mental problems begin during youth, and the years in college, as the

concluding stage of adolescence in a broad sense, demand special consideration in this regard.

Undergraduate students' psychological well-being can influence not only their academic and

professional achievement but also the development of society as a whole (Liu et al., 2019).

College is a critical time in a student's life for developing suitable values, worldviews, life

outlooks, and resilience (Ramsay et al., 2015). In certain circumstances, this is considered the

ultimate stage of adolescence. Adolescence is the period of life between childhood and

adulthood. Rather than referring to the 10–19 age group, a definition of adolescence as 10–24

years old aligns more closely with public perceptions of this life stage (Sawyer et al., 2018).

College students' perspectives influence not only their academic performance in school but also

their future adaptation to the profession and society. Due to this, it is important to know what

factors affect the psychological well-being of students in different situations.

College students are at the forefront in terms of mobile phone use, they use their phones

for a great deal of time, either for work or for fun. The prevalence of smartphone addiction

among regular college students has been estimated to be between 24.8 and 27.4%. The students

defended their continued use of mobile phones for leisure, social academic needs and access to

information. Students could feel cut off from real-world social interactions in the digital realm

and long for connections that are different from those they have. Social media can offer a

platform for self-expression and self-presentation in this society; because of that, students are
 5

becoming more cautious about how they will show themselves. With the different problems that

come with adjusting to college life, students may experience additional anguish due to changes

in their social roles and emotional distance from others. Consequently, prolonged use of mobile

phones may prompt students to be overly concerned with the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of

others, and to compare their own achievements with others.

One factor that somehow influences psychological well-being is the use of social media.

A study found that there is a connection between psychological distress and internet addiction

(Elhai et al., 2021). Social media engagement has grown in recent years between 2004 and 2006,

social networking sites saw a surge in popularity due to the creation of social media platforms

such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. These social media platforms have millions of users

and are still constantly growing; 85% of the one million users are undergraduate students

(Karaaslan et al., 2021). Younger generations use social media platforms to stay up to date on the

lives of their friends and relatives, to meet new people, and for entertainment. However, social

media usage would result in people feeling compelled to share the best aspects of themselves

with others, seeking to impress others, having the desire for other people's acceptance, and

having the fear of missing out. An individual with fear of missing out is constantly checking

their phone to keep updated on other people's lives and perceives that others have better

experiences and achievements in life. This way of thinking will result in social comparison

orientation.

Social comparison orientation, which is the propensity to compare oneself to others, is a

very significant personality feature (Yang, 2016). Personality features are reflections of a
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person's distinctive thoughts, feelings, and behavior. However, social comparison orientation can

affect individuals' feelings, characteristics, thoughts and behavior. According to different experts,

social comparison and Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) were linked to positive and negative

psychological consequences (Hampton et al., 2015; Reed, 2020). The frequent use of social

media can provide individuals with entertainment to lessen stress and overcome distance and

time, allowing them to connect and reconnect with their closest friends and relatives (Hampton et

al., 2015).

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) has another benefit on individuals' psychological well-

being. When an individual sees someone else having a great time and living their best life, it

might give them hope that they can do the same, by being inspired by others' achievements it can

help them push to do better. Recent research indicates other benefits of social comparison

orientation such as inspiration or motivation. Moreover, social comparison orientation has

positive effects on psychological health of individuals. Using social media applications could

cause them to have a positive emotional reaction to other people's online self-presentations and

can positively impact a variety of emotions such as sympathy, optimism, and inspiration (Meier

& Schäfer, 2018; Park & Baek, 2018). However, several studies stated that social comparison

orientation has a negative effect on psychological well-being. Social comparison opportunities

increase as social media platforms improve, making them more interactive and addicting. The

excessive use of social media could also result in anxiety and depression in some individuals (Ho

et al., 2017; Oberst et al., 2017). Individuals that scroll through social media and see other

individuals' achievements and experiences in life, might compare themself, which may increase

negative social comparison. Furthermore, they would experience psychological discomfort,

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envy, unsatisfied with their lifestyle and low self-esteem (Oberst et al., 2017; Pontes, 2017).

When they see the posts of other people on social media and idealize other individuals' status in

life (Burnell et al., 2019; Ozimek et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018).

According to one study, social media engagement has a significant impact on

psychological well-being. Social media has had several negative effects on its users over time.

Entirely accurate, social media sites have been and will continue to be useful, especially now that

having a smartphone and internet access is considered a necessity and means of communication.

However, every benefit has a drawback, and one of the difficulties that are frequently associated

with social media engagement is its impact on one's psychological well-being. Some studies look

at the social comparison, fear of missing out, and gender differences. It was claimed that those

variables had a significant association in terms of their influence on mental well-being, which

could have either positive or negative consequences.

The previous study states that age and gender stages are other elements besides social

media that also influence psychological well-being (Huppert, 2009). According to a survey

conducted in the Philippines, 86% of respondents aged 18 to 24 and 14% of those aged 55 and

over use social media applications (Statista Research Development, 2021). As of March 2019,

statisticians concluded that women use social media apps more often than men (Statista Research

Development, 2021). Multiple studies have found that social media usage is strongly linked to

psychological well-being (Robinson & Smith, 2022). Both genders may experience the

sensations of fear, anxiety, and worry and find it challenging to manage their environment,

develop stronger relations with others, and accept themselves (Beyens et al., 2016). It also
 8

indicated certain studies that most individuals in adulthood experience depression more than

older people (Yeung, 2017). However, it was concluded that women are more prone to develop

mental problems because they are likely to have lower psychological well-being than men

(Office for National Statistics, 2017).

The intimacy of face-to-face conversations is more faithfully simulated by image-based

communication, which is intrinsically more psychologically gratifying (Pitman & Reich, 2016).

It has been hypothesized that social media use negatively affects adults who are developing a

sense of self-worth, especially those who are more exposed to and more reliant on social

comparisons. However, according to a previous study, social media use in adulthood does not

necessarily harm or interfere with development (Biorsen, 2018). The impact depends on a variety

of factors, such as the user’s needs and personality traits, the development of peer group norms

and changes in those norms, the degree to which social media is integrated into different

contexts, such as education, and the kinds of experiences emerging adults have with using social

media (Biorsen, 2018).

In terms of association factors, the current study has some similarities with previous

studies. The current study distinguishes itself by emphasizing gender differences and aims to

determine the difference between results obtained in a Southern country, specifically the

Philippines, and results obtained in Western countries. Several local studies predict a link

between social media engagement, fear of missing out, and social comparison orientation and

psychological well-being. However, the majority of local studies’ subjects were students in

general, and the relationships between these variables were tested. Due to the inconsistency in
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the results, there is a need for further research into gender differences in social media

engagement, fear of missing out, social media comparison, and who among them experienced

low psychological well-being in the local setting. In lieu of this, the current study hypothesized

that social media engagement and fear of missing out have a direct impact on the psychological

well-being of selected college students. Gender has a moderating effect, and social comparison

orientation has a mediating effect on these variables' relationships.

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Literature Review

This chapter provides a comprehensive and in-depth overview of the current research.

This chapter's related literature covers a wide range of concepts, evidences, suppositions,

findings, and knowledge based relevant to the current study. These studies provide a foundation

as well as the structure for the current study.

Fear of Missing Out

The anxiety or worry associated with missing out on events or things like social

gatherings, activities, the latest rumors or headlines is known as "Fear of Missing Out" or

abbreviated as FoMO. These tendencies may lead to inferiority complexes. The urge to be

constantly online and updated to friends' posts leads FoMO to be an alarming issue, particularly

for young people. Based on statistics, about 56% of individuals experiencing FoMO are ages 18

to 30 and 45% of individuals who experience FoMO can't resist for longer than 12 hours without

checking social media (Ouellette, 2019). A recent study in Turkey investigated Nomophobia, or

the fear of not having a mobile phone. This study correlated Nomophobia with Fear of Missing

Out. Based on their findings, they discovered a positive moderate level of relationship between

Nomophobia and FoMO. This demonstrates that there is a tendency to experience fear of missing

out on communication via mobile phone, which leads to problematic use of social networking

sites (Gezgin et al., 2018). This is relevant to the current study and since, similar to the variable

investigated, Fear of Missing Out, this study confirms that this phenomenon is definitely

alarming among college students, a habit or behavior that is difficult to break, especially given

the trend and norm in society. This study differs from the current study in that it emphasizes

Nomophobia; however, this study validates the issue of Fear of Missing Out.
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Another recent FoMO statistic revealed that the majority of the emotions associated with

FoMO are negative: 39% typically feel envious, 30% reported feeling jealous, 21% reported

feeling sad or disappointed, and only 29% reported feeling good (Hott, 2022). A study of 704

Chinese adolescents emphasized the moderating role of need to belong and the mediating role of

envy between social media addiction and fear of missing out. Envy was found to be a significant

mediator in this study, and it was stronger for adolescents with higher levels of need to belong

(Yin et al., 2021). The mechanisms that moderate the mediated paths between social media

addiction and FoMO were confirmed in this study. This is significant in the current study, this

supports the fact that envy and a need for belonging are linked to FoMO, which is similar to the

current study in terms of social comparison tendencies. There are also differences; the current

study is looking into the emotional aspects of FoMO, such as feeling jealous, sad or

disappointed, and happy or good.

Envy caused by a fear of missing out on social media can be linked to a person's self-

esteem. Envy, which is generally regarded as a form of anxiety, is defined as a constant fear that

others are having pleasurable experiences that one is missing, which may affect an individual's

self-esteem. The main component and internal cognitive tendencies of FoMO is a strong desire

to know what other people are doing or have that is updated or new, so it would encourage

people to engage in social media frequently to avoid missing important information or trends.

This urges the social media users having fear of missing out to desire those things they don’t

have which triggers dissatisfaction in life. A recent study conducted to 277 Italian university

students, which emphasized the mediating role of fear of missing out and self-esteem between

social media and maximization. Based on their findings this study confirmed that individuals

having higher FoMO experience have a tendency to have low self-esteem (Servidio, 2021). This
 12

study is significant in the current study in terms of linking the tendencies of social comparison,

however emphasizing the other factors of the variable Fear of Missing Out which is self-esteem

and envy, which is the difference in the objective of the current study. This study supported the

current study in terms of confirming the alarming tendencies of fear of missing out occurring in

most college students.

Another study argued that Fear of missing out (FoMO) not just affects self-esteem but also

triggers psychological distress and loneliness due to excessive checking on social media.

Adolescents who experienced a lot of psychological distress and loneliness were more likely to

experience strong FoMO due to a lack of social skills (Oberst et al., 2017). A recent study

gathered 552 youths aged 17 to 28 years old during the COVID-19 pandemic investigated

boredom proneness and fear of missing out as mediators between psychological distress and

Internet addiction. According to their findings, the rate of internet addiction in young adults was

28.1%, and boredom proneness and fear of missing out played multiple mediating roles in the

relationship between psychological distress and internet addiction (Liang et al., 2022). Another

factor considered and emphasized in this study was boredom, which leads to psychological

distress and reduces social skills, which is linked to loneliness. There are similarities in terms of

the variable under investigation, which is Fear of Missing Out, but this study differs from the

current study in terms of the moderator and mediator variables under investigation, which are not

social comparison and gender difference used in the current study. A study articulates on the

loneliness tendency of FoMO, which leads to phubbing in most millennials. According to this

study, which included 400 participants from Pakistan, the relationship between loneliness, fear of

missing out, and phubbing behavior among millennials was significantly positive. According to

their findings, fear of missing out has a greater influence on phubbing than loneliness. Phubbing
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is a complex concept that has gained considerable attention in Pakistan (Yaseen et al., 2021).

This shows the variation of the phenomenon differs from country to country, due to this the

current study aimed to fill this gap and conduct it in the Philippines. This study is significant in

the current study considering the other factor of FoMO however, differs in terms of linking it to

phubbing and loneliness. This study is the same in terms of considering the mediation and

moderation factors influencing the Fear of Missing Out.

Fear of Missing Out, according to a social psychologist at the University of Oklahoma

Health Sciences Center, has several signs or tendencies that are underemphasized in most

studies. Overscheduling or attempting to be present everywhere at all times, deciding to

withdraw from others, experiencing being physically tired, feeling sad, anxious, or depressed,

trouble concentrating, and sleeping are all signs of FoMO. Several studies have found that

obsessively checking social media to see what other individuals are doing, experiencing negative

feelings when comparing one's life to what others appear to be doing on social media, and

feeling mentally exhausted from social media are indeed major signs (Temple & Laurence,

2022). The current study aimed to investigate the tendency of comparison due to Fear of Missing

Out, which is assumed to be the major cause of all the signs or tendencies mentioned above, and

which the current study aims to fill this gap.

FoMO triggers individuals to use online platforms excessively by keeping them

constantly connected however leads to negative behavior (Cao et al., 2018; Stead & Bibby,

2017). People with high levels of FoMO enjoy being in contact with others and are attentive to

smartphone notifications, whereas those with low levels of FoMO are more inclined to reject this

temptation (Rozgonjuk et al., 2019). As a result, even though FoMO may increase people's

motivation to improve linked in technology use, this is obscure given that different studies have
 14

either overemphasized or underemphasized the impact of technology use. FoMO would also

result in an increase in smartphone usage duration, as well as the fear of isolation in its absence

(Chai et al., 2019; Schmidt et al., 2018). Fear of Missing Out is a concerning issue that is

common among people who regularly engage in social media engagement, and they must be

thoroughly investigated. The current study aims to investigate FoMO thoroughly and to fill a

research gap by emphasizing the major factors influencing the reason why individuals have

social media addiction tendencies.

Social Media Engagement

People are concerned about the negative things that teens can do on social media due to

how quickly it innovates and develops. For constant online connectivity, social media has

emerged as an important aspect of daily life around the world. Social media use is a 21st-century

phenomenon that is rapidly expanding. In the present era, individuals do whatever it takes to stay

up to date on social media to browse profiles and new updates. The lives of teenagers are

constantly mediated. As a result of their constant internet use, digital media users who lack self-

control suffer a variety of negative consequences in their social, psychological and emotional

aspects (Tomczyk, 2021). Nowadays, social networking is more about who we are than what we

do.

Social media are now considered as a way of life (Nazarail & Kasim, 2021; Sheela &

Murthy, 2021). Technology has become an essential part of life for those who were born after

2000, trying to make life without it inconceivable (Baltaci & Ersoz, 2022). Meanwhile, social

media use now covers a number of platforms. Most adolescents are more likely to use YouTube,

which is the most popular online platform among teens according to the Center's new survey,
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with 95% of active teens using it. TikTok comes in second (67%), followed by Instagram and

Snapchat (Vogels et al., 2022). However, most previous studies concentrated solely on one

popular social networking site, Facebook, in terms of emphasizing social media addiction and

engagement duration (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017). A study emphasizes the impact of Instagram on

social comparison and self-esteem based on the general population. This is conducted in

Singapore through an online survey. According to their findings, Instagram use did not

significantly increase social anxiety. Instead, social comparison and self-esteem are intermediate

outcomes of Instagram use that serve as mediators (Jiang & Ngien, 2020). This study is

significantly related to the current study in terms of emphasizing psychological well-being

however, this study focused on the negative side which is on the distress psychologically. This

study only focused on the Instagram application usage however in the current study it

investigates social media in general and did not mention a specific application. This study

supports the current study in confirming the significant relationship of social media, social

comparison as mediator and its impact on the psychological aspect of an individual. Another

study argued the comparison of Facebook and Instagram use affecting the psychological well-

being of 135 social media users in the University Ethics Committee. Based on their findings,

overall, there was a significant main effect of social media platforms on Problematic Social

Media Use, with Instagram users scoring significantly higher than Facebook users. However,

there was no significant difference in depressive symptoms, loneliness, or self-esteem between

Facebook and Instagram users (Limniou et al., 2022). This study is relative to the current study

in terms of investigating social media applications that are widely used in student social media

users. This confirms that there was no difference in terms of the platform type, all social media
 16

applications affect the psychological well-being of an individual, specifically loneliness, self-

esteem, or other symptoms that are related to depression.

The psychological and social factors lead to high levels of engagement, since millions of

people use social media tools every day (Baltaci & Ersoz, 2022). Previous studies investigated

the benefits of social media platform use, and claimed that it improves self-esteem, social

support and connection, relationship management, and practical benefits (Phua et al., 2017;

Piwek & Joinson, 2016). However, the disadvantages of excessive internet or social media use

are far more prevalent, affecting a person's psychological health. According to the Pew Research

Center survey of U.S. adults was conducted, roughly 64% believe social media has a mostly

negative impact. Only one out of every ten Americans believes social media sites have a mostly

positive impact on how things are going (Auxier, 2020). There is a connection between

psychological distress and internet addiction, according to earlier studies (Elhai et al., 2021).

Studies on the use and misuse of social media usually adopt a confirmatory technique,

whereby empirical studies concentrate on psychological risk factors that have previously been

shown to contribute to the emergence or maintenance of addiction problems (Griffith & Kuss,

2017). Negative psychosocial media use, especially addiction, can cause symptoms that are

similar to those of drug addiction, such as withdrawal, conflict, and loss of control (Blackwell et

al., 2017; Bloemen & De Coninck, 2020; De Calheiros Velozo & Stauder, 2018; Elhai et al.,

2017; Kuss & Griffiths, 2017; Durak, 2019). The influence of social media on many adolescents'

current lives is enormous. The number of Instagram likes or Facebook friends they have

determines their social status or self-worth. These articles evaluate the connection between the

frequency and duration of use with which adolescents engage on social media and their

psychological well-being. The number of people utilizing social media has grown in the previous
 17

ten years. Globally, 3.78 billion people use social media today, and by 2025, that number is

expected to rise to 4.41 billion (Dixon, 2022). The phrase "social media engagement" refers to a

broad range of behaviors that indicate and quantify how many audiences engage with the

content. Likes, comments, and shares on Facebook or Instagram are pertained and emphasized in

terms of Social Media Engagement. In today's era, the number of likes, comments and shares on

social media posts are essential as it can be considered as fame or how popular an individual is.

Social media usage has significantly increased in recent years (Kemp, 2021; Leong et al., 2019).

Teenagers' lifestyles are increasingly being regulated. Digital media users who lack self-control

face a number of negative consequences in their social, psychological, and biological life as a

result of their constant internet use (Tomczyk, 2021). Due to the everyday usage of social media

tools by millions of people, studies have increased on investigating the psycho-social factors that

contribute to increased social media engagement. Social media refers to websites and other

online tools that allow people to share their knowledge, opinions, and interests. Engagement is

defined as any interaction by a peer with one's own social media content that demonstrates

interest in what the individual posts and possibly a desire to share or provide feedback. It can

refer to a variety of actions, such as a Facebook share or an Instagram like. Young students

frequently use social media to communicate with their immediate family and friends via

applications (Baltaci & Ersoz, 2022).

Social connectivity, mental health, sleep quality, peer influence, and family roles have all

been researched in relation to social media engagement (Allen et al., 2014; Bloemen & de

Coninck, 2020; Kelly et al., 2018; Woods & Scott, 2016). A study conducted to 300 Hong Kong

University students, this study investigates the link between social media use, sleep quality, and

psychological distress. According to their findings, the intensity of Internet Gaming and Social
 18

Media Addiction was linked with psychological distress and sleep disruption. Furthermore, the

frequency of Internet Gaming and Social Media Addiction have associations with various

psychological distress. However, the severity of Social Media Addiction was much more

associated with poor sleep (Wong et al., 2020).

Adolescent engagement on social media and the desire to keep a strong grip on their

online presence and post regular updates about their personal life have increased as a result of the

expanding usage of social media (Baltaci & Ersoz, 2022). These studies are relevant to the

current study in terms of identifying the various social media applications that are widely used

not only among college students but also in the general population, as well as the severity of their

effects on psychological well-being. Previous research has identified psychological distress

affecting people's well-being as a result of social media use, which supports the current study's

main goal. These studies conclusively demonstrate that people's use of social media varies by

country and has a different impact on their psychological well-being depending on the content

they are exposed to, with both positive and negative effects visible.

Psychological Well-being

Psychological well-being is an important aspect of mental health and can be defined as

hedonic or enjoyment, pleasure, and eudaimonic or meaning, fulfillment, and happiness, as well

as resilience or coping, emotion regulation, and healthy problem solving (Tang et al., 2019). In a

reviewed study, the following variables were utilized to assess users' psychological well-being:

life satisfaction, interpersonal trust, autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life purpose,

environmental mastery, and positive relatedness. However, there are some negative aspects, such
 19

as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and low self-esteem; these are few, but they are prevalent and

evident based on previous findings (Erfani & Abedin, 2018).

A recent study of 210 college students in Central India found that age, physical health,

personality, life experiences, socioeconomic status, and culture all have an impact on

psychological well-being (PWB). This study concluded that people over the age of 20 had better

PWB in all dimensions than people under the age of 20. However, this study suggested the need

for additional research to delve deeper into the concepts and relationships between age and

PWB, as well as to examine the impact that social changes have on age groups and PWB. This

differs from the current study in that this study focuses on age, whereas the current study focuses

on gender differences; however, both of these studies are similar in terms of the variable being

investigated, which is the psychological well-being of college students (Sharma et al., 2022).

As individuals transition from adolescents to young adults, college students have more

freedom to make decisions about life issues than individuals did in high school. Nonetheless, the

college environment has been demonstrated to be stressful. College students are particularly

susceptible to stress (Dyson & Renk, 2006). Chronic stressor exposure may jeopardize those

well-being and is related to the increasing prevalence of mental health problems among students

(Zhang & Zheng, 2017; Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; Zheng et al., 2015). Another study, gathered

from 131 students at Hong Kong Community College, conducted to evaluate the first-year

psychological well-being development. This study investigated which psychological well-being

constructs are more critical in predicting students' first-year academic performance and, finally,

determined the interplay among psychological well-being of first-year academic performance.

This study found that students' psychological well-being (PWB), including all six underlying

constructs, decreased significantly during their first year. This study discovered that among all
 20

six PWB constructs, the change in Purpose in Life played a relatively more important role in

predicting students' first-year Grade - point average (GPA). Furthermore, based on this study the

Purpose in Life acted as a partial mediator in modulating the academic performance development

process between the pre-college and college environments (Lo & Ip, 2021). This study

emphasizes six underlying constructs of psychological well-being: autonomy, environmental

mastery, personal growth, positive relationships with others, life purpose, and self-acceptance

(Ryff, 1989). The scale used in this study differs from the scale used in the current study in that it

emphasizes happiness and life satisfaction, mental and physical health, meaning and purpose,

character and virtue, and close social relationships. This is due to the current study's main

objective, which is to investigate college students' satisfaction as a result of the current study's

mediating variable, social comparison, as well as to emphasize social media engagement and fear

of missing out in relation to the constructs of social relationship, meaning and purpose. This

study is similar to the current study in terms of the investigated variables, which are

psychological well-being and college students; however, academic performance is not

emphasized in the current study; however, this may be an underlying factor, due to peers

conforming tendencies in terms of social comparison in social media engagement. Due to the

stress and pressure that college students face, this can be considered an outside factor that leads

students to escape thru social media engagement, which can lead to addiction if used on a regular

basis or may depend on how the media contents impacts the perception of the user.

A study conducted to 120 participants, have found a negative relationship between

anxiety and psychological well-being. This means that the more anxious someone is, the worse

their psychological well-being is, and the less anxious they are, the better their psychological

well-being is (Nagaraj, 2017). Self-esteem positively predicts both psychological and subjective
 21

well-being. According to the study, 38% of psychological well-being and 25% of subjective

well-being were caused by self-esteem and loneliness. The American Psychological Association

says that having good self-esteem is important for mental health and well-being. High self-

esteem is important, it helps an individual develop coping skills, deal with adversity, and put the

negative into context (Vanbuskirk, 2021)

Anxiety and low self-esteem are not the only factors influencing college students'

psychological well-being; discrimination, social inequality, gender inequality, and conflict all

have an impact on an individual's psychological well-being (Rieck & Lundin, 2021). Individuals'

PWB can be influenced positively or negatively by environmental or social factors. A study was

conducted to determine the relationship between psychological and environmental factors and

the well-being of undergraduate university students in Australia. This study took into account

financial resources, physical security, the opportunity to use new skills, externally generated

goals, variety, environmental clarity, interpersonal contact, and valued social position. The study,

which was conducted to 163 students, discovered that one's perception of safety was also a

significant predictor of well-being, which may be relevant when considering environmental

change to improve students' well-being. Even after personality and environmental influences

were considered, neuroticism significantly predicted negative affect, whereas psychological

inflexibility accounted for unique variance in life satisfaction and negative affect (Mazzucchelli

& Purcell, 2015). This study is similar to the current study in terms of the variable being

investigated, which is psychological well-being; however, there are differences in that

environmental factors are considered and emphasized in this study, which produced significant

results.
 22

This is critical to protect and maintain an individual's psychological well-being, which

includes self-esteem, anxiety, life satisfaction, and so on, in order to be healthy. It is clear how

vulnerable a person's psychological health is, and how it affects users and what they are exposed

to determines this. The current study aims to look into the impact and relationship between

FoMO, Social Media Engagement, and Psychological Well-Being. Previous research has found

similarities in how physical and social environmental factors affect psychological well-being,

with the majority of findings indicating a link to self-esteem, anxiety, and life satisfaction. These

can be traced back to social comparison through social media engagement and the desire to not

be left out. The current study differs from previous studies in that it aims to identify gender

differences in psychological well-being among Filipinos, with a focus on social media

engagement factors and fear of missing out tendencies. Based on various significant findings,

previous studies are useful in confirming the current study in terms of viewing the issue of social

media in relation to the psychological well-being of college students while taking other

environmental factors into account. Previous studies enable the formation and development of

the current study in order to further explore research graphs and provide readers with in-depth

knowledge.

Nowadays, social media is currently used by teenagers to meet developmental

requirements like “intimacy, self-expression, and identity-exploration.”(Khan et al., 2016).

Adolescents now have widespread access to personal computers, internet and various social

media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter (Khan et al., 2020). A growing

amount of teenagers’ interaction with others (O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011). Aside from

that FoMO is regarded as a form of problematic social media use and is connected to a variety of

unpleasant life events and emotions of adolescents.

 23

Through the internal process of self-definition and the exterior process of receiving

validation from others, social media can have a significant impact on how teenagers define

themselves and how they desire to achieve their goals with the influence of others (Valkenburg

& Peter, 2011). There is a complex interaction between social media and adolescent

psychosocial development wherein social media was shown to have possible negative effects

related to self-comparison, individuals’ psychological well-being, excessive and problematic use

of social media (Senekal et al., 2022). Individuals are exposed to a wealth of information about

what other people have been getting up to. As a result, people or adolescents are confused and

always left wondering if they are doing enough or if their lives are going in the right direction

since there is a compulsive behavior that they need to cultivate social connections.

Fear of Missing Out and Psychological Well-being

Fear of missing out (FoMO) is a typical anxiety that one might miss out on a pleasurable

experience. They are characterized as individuals who want to stay in touch with others and be

informed of what other people are doing (Liftiah et al., 2016). A person with a fear of missing

out often checks their phones before going to sleep, right after waking up, and even while

driving. The urge to continue checking their social media accounts in different situations all the

time, base their decisions on advice from their friends on social media, and frequently make poor

choices out of a fear of missing an opportunity (Abel et al., 2016). An electroencephalogram

(EEG), which records brain activity during a visual task, was used in a recent study while

exposed to exclusion and inclusion of social media images. The purpose of this study was to take

a gander further into neurobiological correlation to fear of missing out. According to the findings

of this study, FoMO was positively correlated with attachment style needs for approval and with
 24

the right middle temporal gyrus (BA21) only during inclusion conditions. The findings support

the notion that fear of missing out is associated with a higher sensitivity to social inclusive

experiences rather than social exclusion and a need to belong (Lai et al., 2016). These studies

support that current study in terms of investigating the psychological aspect further specifically

on the connection of Fear of Missing Out on how it affects the neurobiological of an individual.

This indicates that the reason behind the urge of a social media user to check their phone from

time to time due to Fear of Missing Out is also due to the need to belong. This study is similar on

the current study in terms of the variables explored which are Fear of Missing Out and

Psychological well-being however differed in terms of the objective, this study only focused on

the neurobiological while the current study aimed to emphasize the moderator and the mediator

variables which is social comparison and gender difference.

Experts say that the fear of missing out is a kind of bad social media attachment that is

linked to a lot of bad events and feelings in life. A study investigated the attachment insecurity

and social media fear of missing out, conducted to 264 adults. According to the findings of this

study, high levels of attachment anxiety foresee elevated levels of FoMO, and this link is found

to be partially mediated by uncertainty intolerance. These findings imply that anxiously attached

people are more vulnerable to FoMO due to their inability to tolerate uncertainty (Alfasi, 2021).

This supports the current study in terms of confirming the reason behind the urge of Fear of

Missing Out which is attachment anxiety which can be related to well-being psychologically.

There are similarities in regard to emphasizing the variable FoMO, however, there are

differences in terms of the objective of the study, the current study aims to focus on the

moderator and mediator variables and the current study did not include uncertainty intolerance

and attachment anxiety. This study is relative to the current study due to confirming that FoMO
 25

is linked to the well-being of an individual. Furthermore, being dependent on social media might

make individuals have trouble in doing their everyday tasks (Blackwell et al., 2017).

Another study found that people with FoMO are more likely to give in to psychological

pressures to connect and keep relationships, which makes social media use a must (Beyens et al.,

2016). Despite the instant and intended connections with peers via social media, most teens and

young adults are feeling lonelier and more detached than ever (Hogan, 2018). A study disputed

the prediction of FoMO and loneliness as a result of social media usage. Based on the findings

from 150 Generation Z engineering students, FoMO was linked to Agreeableness, Neuroticism,

and Extraversion. This study discovered that loneliness is related to how respondents typically

feel after using social media, with more than 40% of them experiencing negative or mixed

emotions after viewing social media platforms (Brazil & Rys, 2020).

FoMO can make people compare their own experiences to those of others given that they

don't want to miss out on the fun things other people are doing (Reed, 2020). Seeing people on

social media enjoying their day traveling to other countries and going to parties can cause them

to compare their own experiences to those of others. The fear of missing out and social

comparison causes individuals to feel negative emotions that decrease perceived social support,

decrease self-esteem, and increase dissatisfaction with their lives (Dou, 2021; Acitelli et al.,

2014; Deniz, 2021). They want to have better experiences compared to others and feel inferior to

those left out of trends and lonely. On the other hand, fear of missing out can cause some

individuals to have constant need for personal validation and rewarding appraisals of distorted

sense of self (Burrow & Rainone, 2017). When uploading content on social media, people with

FoMO want reassurance or acceptance from their friends and peers. In other words, when social

media users want to belong to a group of people but do not obtain the positive feedback they
 26

seek, they develop low self-esteem and engage in social comparison. This related literature

provided further significant information about the relationship between fear of missing out and

social comparison orientation and their effects on psychological well-being.

Social Media Engagement and Psychological Well-being

People's daily activities have recently become entwined with social media; many of them

spend hours each day on Messenger, Instagram, Facebook, and other common social media

platforms. As a result, many researchers and scholars investigate the role of social media and

apps on various aspects of people's lives (Bartosik-Purgat, 2017). People are social beings who

require the company of others to progress in life. Thus, while being socially connected with

others can alleviate stress, anxiety, and sadness, a lack of social connection can seriously impact

someone's mental health (Mohamad & Juanir, 2018). Social Media has both beneficial and

detrimental effects.

The advantages and cons of social media on mental health are now being debated

(Berryman, 2018). The amount and quality of social ties influence mental health, health

behavior, physical health, and mortality risk. The Displaced Behavior Theory may assist to

understand why social media and mental health are linked. Sedentary activities such as social

media use, according to the theory, leave significantly less time for face-to-face social

connection, both of which have been shown to be protective against mental diseases (Coyne,

2020). Social theories, in contrast, have revealed how social media exposure impacts mental

well-being by influencing how people interpret, maintain, and participate in their social

networking sites. Numerous studies on the impact of digital technologies have been conducted,

and it has been proposed that prolonged use of social media platforms such as Facebook may be
 27

connected with unfavorable signs and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress (Berryman,

2018). Furthermore, social media may put a lot of pressure on people to create the stereotypes

that others want to see and to be as famous as others.

Another concern related with teenage social media use is social comparison. On social

media, people commonly participate in selective self-presentation, resulting in a stream of

messages and photographs that are often deliberately prepared to depict users in a favorable way.

This may cause some young people to make negative social comparisons about their own

accomplishments, talents, or looks. Higher levels of online social comparison have been linked

to depressive symptoms in adolescence, and appearance-specific comparisons on social media

may increase the likelihood of disordered eating and body image problems (Fardouly, 2016).

Social media users share negative events with others, exacerbating the severity of negative

emotions. Due to the new phenomenon of social media, little study has been conducted to

evaluate the long-term effects, positive or bad, of its use. Numerous studies, however, have

discovered a substantial correlation between excessive social media usage and an increased risk

of sadness, anxiety, loneliness, self-harm, and even suicide thinking.

This research study will clarify the claim that excessive social media use has a negative

impact on users' psychological well-being. Social media usage has increased significantly in

recent years (Leong et al., 2019; Kemp, 2020). The term "social media" describes the websites

and online technologies that enable user interactions by allowing people to share information,

ideas, and interests (Swar & Hameed, 2017). Social media is used by people for a variety of

purposes, including communication, entertainment, and information seeking. Notably, teens and

young adults are investing more time in social media, e-games, texting, and online networking

sites (Twenge & Campbell, 2019). As a result, there are more worries about the potential harmful
 28

effects of social media addiction, particularly on psychological well-being (Swar & Hameed,

2017; Kircaburun et al., 2020; Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2016; Ostic et al., 2021; Choi &

Noh, 2019; Chatterjee, 2020).

Social media is a relatively new field of study that is fast expanding and gaining

prominence. Due to this phenomenon, there are several unknown and unanticipated beneficial

responses linked with it. According to recent research, utilizing social media platforms might

have a negative impact on the psychological health of its users. However, the extent to which

social media use affects the general population has yet to be identified. The current study found

similarities and relation from previous studies which are useful and provides evidence to support

the current study investigation. The current study focuses on social media engagements and its

impact on psychological well-being; these previous studies are beneficial in demonstrating that

social media has significant effects on the general population of frequent users, whether

positively or negatively.

Social Comparison Orientation on Fear of Missing Out, Social Media Engagement and

Psychological Well-being

Social comparison orientation is the propensity to evaluate oneself against others and

their achievements, experiences, and circumstances. In other words, an individual compares

themselves to other people. A relatively new topic of research that has received significant

attention in recent years is the application of social comparison orientation to the context of

social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram. Numerous studies have discovered that

many social media users do in fact compare themselves to others while engaging with other
 29

people’s social media, such as viewing their profile (Chae, 2017). It is due to people's tendency

to show themselves as their idealized image (Appel et al., 2016).

People who are likely to experience negative feelings toward other social media users

who appear to be more successful than they are. Comparing oneself to others or following other

people’s idealized images could create a self-discrepancy that can negatively affect one’s

psychological well-being. Those with low self-esteem and mental health issues such as

depression, anxiety, or stress are more likely to have a high social comparison orientation (Lee,

2020). People who have low self-esteem are motivated to use social media to look for social

acceptance, so they engage with social media platforms more, which can develop a fear of

missing out. People with a high fear of missing out use social media more extensively (Beyens et

al., 2016). If a person compares themselves to their peers and has negative feelings about the

comparison, their fear of missing out increases (Reed, 2020). Due to the tendency that a person

has to keep up with other people’s idealized image, an individual has this urge to be required to

be online most of the time, waiting for that person to post.

When people compare themselves with someone they believe to be superior, this is

known as upward social comparison. It is said that upward social comparison has a long-term

negative effect on people's self-esteem and well-being in the form of FoMO, which has been

linked to both anxiety and depression. According to research, upward social comparison on

mobile social media can harm people's mental health as well, increasing their likelihood of

depression (Wang et al., 202). Envy plays a role in mediating the relationship between

depressive symptoms and upward social comparisons on social media. Reducing envy will

reduce the negative effects of upward social comparison (Li, 2021). Another study found that

upward social comparison causes a person to feel a negative emotion called malicious envy
 30

which results in these three behavior responses: discontinuance intention, degrading of others via

malicious comments and, posting of favorable comments (Park et al., 2021).

Browsing on social media platforms such as Instagram causes lower levels of body

appreciation which leads to the person having persistently unfavorable thoughts and feelings

about their body or body dissatisfaction (Pedalino & Camerini, 2022). This is due to individuals

particularly in young females which was being observed showing how other people critique

someone else's weight or physical appearance. They then learn what kind of body image results

in popularity and attractiveness. If an individual did not fit that image, that person is expecting or

afraid of negative comments under their post. Upward social comparison contributes to this. It

drives a person to compare themselves to others, especially people who are more popular and

attractive than them, which results in them feeling that they are not enough. Images of attractive

and thin celebrities are linked to higher levels of body dissatisfaction, as are edited or

manipulated pictures (Brown & Tiggermann, 2016; Kleemans et al., 2018). Other than that, a

person may compare themselves with the number of likes, comments, or followers. Given that it

equates to a person being appreciated by other people, and the number of likes equals a person

being attractive. On social media, people commonly highlight their positive qualities in an effort

to gain positive attention. Positive online self-presentation may raise adolescents’ and young

adults' self-esteem through their apparent online popularity, but with time, popularity online is

inversely correlated with self-esteem due to increased dependence on social approval (Meeus et

al., 2019).

Social comparison tendencies, which are prevalent on social media platforms, can result

in unpleasant feelings that are detrimental to psychological well-being, self-esteem, and

perceived social support. The tendency to compare oneself to others has a significant effect on
 31

psychological health. Other studies, however, focus on the positive impacts of social comparison

orientation on psychological well-being. A person's social comparison orientation on social

media platforms like Instagram could cause them to have a positive emotional reaction to other

people's online self-presentations such as benign envy (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). They discovered

that positive emotions such as sympathy, optimism, and inspiration may be influenced by social

comparison orientation (Park & Baek, 2018). According to these findings, the type of emotions

elicited by social comparison and the users' social comparison orientation which emphasized

ability or opinion to determine whether social comparison effects on psychological well-being on

social media are positive or negative. The articles mentioned in the studies above will help

researchers know if some studies about social comparison orientation do cause people to have a

greater fear of missing out, spend more time on social media, and have deteriorating mental

health.

Gender Differences

The aim of recent studies was to explain gender differences in social media activity.

Compared to men, women are more likely than men to use their smartphones to maintain close

personal interactions with their loved ones. Posting pictures and their recorded daily events on

social media could be a way for young females to build social relationships. Furthermore,

females often share their positive emotions and current issues on social media more than males

(Gao et al., 2020). When examining how social media use affects people's behavior, some

researchers additionally include gender differences. Their study showed that men’s and women’s

behaviors vary depending on how they use social media applications. Moreover, a study

regarding the differences in social media use by gender states that young individuals use social
 32

media in different ways based on their gender. Women use social media for communication and

information, whereas men use it mostly for enjoyment. The two genders utilize social media in

distinctly different ways (Krasnova et al., 2017).

Fear of missing out (FoMO) is widespread anxiety that one may miss out on something

that others may find enjoyable. Few experts have investigated the association between gender

differences and the fear of missing out. They concluded that women at a young age were

experiencing greater fear of missing out compared to males (Beyens et al., 2016; Elhai et al.,

2018; Stead & Bibby, 2017). Young women desire to stay continually connected with what

others are doing, which can lead them to envy (Weinstein, 2017). They think that others have

had better experiences than them. Moreover, a person who experiences fear of missing out has an

issue regarding their self-identity; they tend to keep up with the trend to gain attention on social

media rather than sharing the activities that they think make them happy and promote self-

acceptance.

In terms of social comparison tendencies between the two genders, women are said to be

more inclined to compare themselves on the level of physical attractiveness based on online

photos. Comparing one's appearance to others is a significant socio-cultural issue that affects

women's body image. Different situations may call for these comparisons such as through

magazines, social media or in person (Fardouly, 2018). Idealized body photos that are posted on

social media lowers body satisfaction which is a result of social comparison orientation

(Pedalino & Camerini, 2022). Even though women tend to compare themselves to others, they

are more likely to be sensitive to, empathize with, and respond to others' feelings than men.
 33

Gender is a significant social predictor of health (Manandhar et al., 2018). One essential

component of mental health is psychological well-being. Many studies have been conducted

about gender differences in psychological well-being. In fact, a study conducted globally states

that there are differences between men and women in various health indices. Studies on the

disparities in well-being between men and women have not produced consistent findings

(Ferguson & Gunnel, 2016). Few gender differences in psychological well-being were found in

the results, despite the fact that women reported feeling both positive and negative emotions

more frequently and intensely than males. Women, on the other hand, are found to be more

likely than men to suffer from internalizing diseases such as anxiety and depression. According

to research, happiness and overall life satisfaction levels are comparable between men and

women. Disparities in psychological well-being support the idea that men scored higher on

psychological well-being tests compared to women. Gender differences in mental health are

important given that modern society tries to give everyone the tools they need to reach self-

actualization and use their full potential.

Gender Differences and Psychological Well-being

Gender is a significant social determinant of health and gender-based analysis is essential

to enhance both the health and the quality of healthcare for both men and women. According to

research done globally, some health indicators have shown disparities between men and women

(Manandhar et al., 2018). Similar disparities between men and women can be observed in mental

health. Typically, internalizing disorders like depression are more prevalent in women than in

men. Men experience externalizing disorders more commonly than women do, and they also

have greater rates of anti-social and substance use problems (Keyes, 2006).
 34

On the other hand, research on the gaps in well-being between men and women has not

consistently produced the expected outcomes (Ferguson & Gunnel, 2016). Few gender

differences in psychological well-being were found in the results even though women reported

feeling both good and negative emotions more frequently and intensely than males (Ryan, 2014).

Whilst research has shown that men and women differ in some aspects of psychological well-

being, such variations typically depend on other factors such as age, culture, or the roles that the

people play (Gomez-Baya et al., 2018).

Synthesis

Fear of missing out (FoMO) is an anxiety or worry associated with missing out on things

like social gatherings, activities, or the latest rumors or headlines. FoMO has been linked to a

number of bad behaviors, such as compulsive social media use and phubbing. FoMO increases

the compulsive use of the Internet by young people experiencing psychological discomfort in an

effort to meet their inner demands. Studies have shown that the self-regulation issue, which

results from people not being able to meet social and personal demands, can make people suffer

FoMO.

The use of social media is a 21st-century phenomenon that is constantly growing. About

7 out of 10 people in the U.S. use social media to communicate with others, get news, exchange

information, and have fun. Digital media users who lack self-control experience a number of

negative consequences. Adolescents are substantially more likely to use Snapchat and Instagram

than Facebook. Negative psychosocial media use, especially addiction, can cause symptoms that

are similar to those of drug addiction (Blackwell et al., 2017; Bloemen & De Coninck, 2020).
 35

Psychological well-being is an important aspect of mental health and can be defined as

hedonic or enjoyment, pleasure, and eudaimonic or meaning, fulfillment, and happiness. There

are some negative aspects, such as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and low self-esteem. To be

healthy, it is critical to protect and maintain an individual's psychological well-being, which

includes self-esteem, anxiety, life satisfaction, and so on. It is clear how vulnerable a person's

health is, and it depends on how it affects users and what they are exposed to.

Fear of missing out (FoMO) is a typical anxiety that one might miss out on a pleasurable

experience. People with FoMO are more likely to give in to psychological pressures to connect

and keep relationships. They are often active on social media instead of making memories with

their family. FoMO can make people compare their own experiences to those of others due to the

fear that they don't want to miss out on the fun things other people are doing. The fear of missing

out and social comparison causes individuals to feel negative emotions that decrease perceived

social support and decrease self-esteem.

Excessive social media use has a negative impact on users' psychological well-being.

Teenagers and young adults are investing more time in social media, e-games, texting, and

online networking sites. As a result, there are more worries about the potential harmful effects of

social media addiction. Social isolation, anxiety, loneliness, and depression have all been linked

to social media use. There are consequently more studies highlighting social media as a new

communication channel. Traditional media routinely report research findings revealing the

possible adverse impacts of social media on mental health and well-being. Mental health
 36

problems can be caused by stress, anxiety, and depression. The current study will examine how

using social media might hurt or help the mental health of its users.

Social comparison orientation is the propensity to evaluate oneself against others and

their achievements, experiences, and circumstances. Comparing oneself to others or following

other people's idealized images could create a self-discrepancy that can negatively affect one's

psychological well-being. Those with low self-esteem and mental health issues are more likely to

have a high social comparison orientation.

Women are more likely than men to use their smartphones to maintain close personal

interactions with their loved ones. Posting pictures and their recorded daily events on social

media could be a way for young females to build social relationships. Women use social media

for communication and information, whereas men use it mostly for enjoyment. Fear of missing

out (FoMO) is widespread anxiety that one may miss out on something that others find

enjoyable. Few experts have investigated the association between gender differences and FoMO.

Women at a young age are more concerned with missing out compared to men. Gender is a

significant social predictor of health (Manandhar et al., 2018). A study conducted globally states

that there are differences between men and women in various health indices. Women are found

to be more likely than men to suffer from internalizing diseases such as anxiety and depression.

Purpose and Rationale

 37

Social media engagement is now a part of the daily routine of individuals due to its

convenience of accessibility and advantages. On the other hand, it cannot deny that social media

engagement has a negative impact on one's well-being. Improper social media use can result in

psychological issues such as social isolation, social anxiety, depression, and fear of missing out.

With that in mind, the researchers aimed to emphasize the effects of social media engagement on

psychological well-being.

The majority of the studies cited in the literature review section were conducted in Western

countries. There are previous statistics in the local setting, however there is a dearth of how

gender differences and social comparison orientation moderate and mediate the relationships of

the three variables, which are fear of missing out, social media engagement, and psychological

well-being. The current study aims to fill the gap on the inconsistency of who is far more

vulnerable to low psychological well-being due to FoMO and Social Media Engagement, it is

still questionable if it is female or male. Given these gaps in the literature, the current study

aimed to further study the gender differences and social comparison orientation moderate and

mediate analysis to be carried out in the local setting specifically Manila, Philippines. This study

intends:

1. To determine if fear of missing out and social media engagement influence the

psychological well-being.

2. To analyze the mediating effect of social comparison orientation on the relationship

between fear of missing out, social media engagement and psychological well-being.

3. To determine if sex has a moderating effect on the relationship between fear of missing

out, social media engagement and psychological well-being.

 38

Scope and Delimitation

This study focuses on the relationship of social media engagement to social comparison

orientation, fear of missing out (FoMO) and its effect on psychological well-being. Moreover,

the current study aims to determine how each gender differs in experiencing the consequences of

social media engagement in terms of social media comparison, fear of missing out, and

psychological well-being. The study will be conducted in Adamson University campus located at

Malate, Manila, Philippines with college students as participants. The data will be collected from

January to March 2023. Only college students who are studying in Adamson University will be

invited to participate in the study. They can belong to any college level and course, with the age

bracket of 17 to 24 years old. The current study utilizes a cross-sectional study specifically in a

qualitative research approach.

This research will only be conducted from August to March 2023. Therefore, the effects

of social media engagement on the participant, such as social comparison orientation, fear of

missing out, and psychological well-being may be better or worse depending on what they have

experienced in those times. The study will only cover the consequences of social media

engagement of Adamson University students. There are no other age groups apart from the usual

age of college students, which are 17 to 24. This study only sought to gain responses from

Adamson University students for a more generalized population. Therefore, only obtaining

responses from Adamson college students, who are mostly Filipino.

 39

The majority of studies mainly studied psychological well-being, social comparison

orientation, and fear of missing out separately. In the current study, the researchers intended to

simultaneously explore the mediating role and moderating effects on these three factors.

However, it stipulates that social media addiction and depression would not be covered in the

study.
 40

Theoretical Framework

This section introduces several theories that will support the current study regarding

Gender Differences and Social Comparison Orientation on the Relationship between Fear of

Missing Out, Social Media Engagement, and Psychological Well-Being of College Students: A

Mediation and Moderation Analysis.

Social Comparison Theory

According to the social comparison theory, self-worth is determined by comparison with

others. Social media is deeply ingrained in the culture of young people who have grown up in the

digital age, and constructing an ideal online version of themselves seems to be their standard.

Social media is frequently referred to as a "blooper reel" of one's life, as photos are edited,

cropped, and touched up before being uploaded to present an idyllic image (Pantic, 2014).

People seldom post unfiltered content depicting any kind of setbacks. As a result, many people

believe they must live up to impossible beauty, fitness and financial standards. In their media-

driven world, college students are heavily influenced by such content, and this pressure can

result in unhealthy depressive thoughts and even serious psychological issues such as eating

disorders.

Social comparison is the robber of joy since it provides individuals with a standard for

what other people find desirable and prevents them from being satisfied with their own lives. A

person tends to compare themselves to others, whether in terms of academic success, outward

appearance or the experiences of other individuals, which causes them to have emotional

problems like anxiety and loneliness (Prihadi, et al., 2019). Individual motivation, based on
 41

SCT, is also influenced by two types of social comparison: upward and downward (Coyne et.al,

2022). A highly motivated individual would actively seek self-improvement and tend to engage

in upward social comparison, while in downward comparison, An individual becomes motivated

when they compare themselves to someone who is significantly more inactive than they are to

feel better about themselves. Previous research has found that users of social media platforms

such as Facebook may be inclined to perceive other users as better off than they are and to

engage in upward social comparisons (Latif et al., 2021).

Additionally, experts also stated that there is a relationship between social comparison in

its upward form with FoMO and psychological well-being. Social media provide a conducive

setting for upward social comparison, which might result in jealousy and unfavorable emotions

(Krasnova et al., 2013). People who make bad self-evaluations after reading other people's self-

presentations on social media may feel less content with their life and report more negative

effects. Researchers also discovered correlations between FoMO and obsessive behavior,

mediated social comparison, and psychological health (Classen, 2018; Oberst et.al., 2017),

Moreover, others see FOMO as a drive to be connected to monitor what other people are doing.

Increased compulsive social media usage will enable people to compare more, which will raise

anxiety and sadness among college students.

People have many different methods of judging themselves, but one of the most common

ways is through social comparison or evaluating oneself to others. People use these comparisons

with others to determine how well they can describe their skills, personality traits, and attitudes.

If an individual's comparisons are ineffective, an individual tends to demand their existing skill
 42

set. Consider the potential effects of social comparison on self-belief, confidence, motivation,

and attitude as an individual compares themselves to others. Be on the lookout for any

unfavorable emotions that may surface as a result of this process.

Self-evaluation Maintenance Theory

Self-evaluation theory or SEM, states that when someone performs better than us, an

individual has tendencies to feel threatened, especially if they are close to us. The SEM theory

identifies two opposing processes: a comparison process in which other people’s

accomplishments pose a threat, have the potential to alter one's sense of self, and have

detrimental effects on interpersonal relationships; and a reflection process in which successful

performance has favorable personal and relational outcomes (Tesser, 1988).

Using social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram has made staying in touch

with others much more convenient than before. The convenience of having social media at

fingertips has sparked a lot of discussion about the issue of the fear of missing out. Fear of

missing out and social media seem to go hand in hand these days (Reed, 2020). However, when

social media is associated with the fear of missing out, it negatively impacts people’s

psychological well-being (Savitri, 2019). An individual has this tendency to feel that they are

required to stay connected with others, to share the best aspects of life, impress others, satisfy a

craving for approval, and tendencies to socially compare to others. The self-evaluation

maintenance theory proves that we feel threatened when someone does better than us, especially

when they are close to us.

 43

Theory of Compensatory Internet Use

TCIU is a recent theory that has been widely applied in the context of social media (Elhai

et al., 2017; Tandon et al., 2021). The uniqueness of TCIU is its emphasis on psychopathology as

a motivational force behind problematic internet or social media use (Elhai et al., 2017).

According to the TCIU, individuals may be prompted to overuse of social media to cope with or

compensate for a purported lack of social needs being fulfilled, as well as negative emotions or

stressors related to their life conditions (Wang et al., 2018; Wolniewicz et al., 2019). The current

study uses TCIU to theorize that users of social media have tendency to compensate for the

dissatisfaction on their needs, which is a form of anxiety and thus a negative emotion, will be

urged to expand their use of social media in order to deal with it and receive compensation for it

(Tandon et al., 2021).

The current study subjectively presumes that such users would obsessively follow the

social media profiles of others or stalk other profiles. They may also be prone to comparing

events in their own lives with the profiles they visit, specifically engaging in social comparison

in order to avoid FoMO by ensuring participation in important events shared by other members

of their social group. The current study proposition is backed up by previous research, which

suggests that people are more likely to use social forms of technology such as smartphones and

social media to cope with perceived negativity and unmet social needs (Wang et al., 2018).

Moreover, studies have shown that, aside from FoMO, As a result, researchers presume that

TCIU is an appropriate theory to serve as the theoretical foundation for the current research.

However, some scholars consider the explicit focus of TCIU on psychopathology and negative
 44

emotions as a precursor to problematic social media and technology used to be a weakness

(Wolniewicz et al., 2019). Prior research has shown that digital social interaction and behaviors

such as social comparison with a positive-oriented motive such as self-improvement could often

translate into negative effects on psychological well-being as well (Latif et al., 2021; Cramer et

al., 2016; Malik et al., 2020).

Psychosocial Development Theory (Erik Erikson)

The epigenetic concept served as the foundation for Erikson's theories. According to this

theory, humans develop in a series of steps that take place over time and within the framework of

a broader community. From infancy to maturity, Erikson argued that personality develops via

eight stages of psychosocial development in a set order. The person goes through a psychological

crisis at each level, which may or may not affect how their personality develops. The focus of

psychosocial theories is on how people see themselves, interact with others, and make

connections with their social environment. Psychosocial theories focus on the pattern changes in

ego development that occur throughout a person's life, including self-understanding, identity

formation, social interactions, and worldview. The psychosocial theories contend that continual

interactions between people and their social settings are what lead to development.

Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory emphasizes the identity versus confusion crises that

occur during the teen years, between the ages of 12 and 18. The establishment of a sense of

personal identity that will influence a person's conduct and development for the rest of their life

must occur during this stage. Teenagers may experience confusion or insecurity about who they

are as individuals and how they fit into society as they make the transition from childhood to

adulthood. Teenagers may experiment with numerous roles, activities, and behaviors as they try
 45

to develop a sense of self. This is crucial, in Erikson's opinion, for the process of creating a solid

identity and a feeling of purpose in life. Teenagers must develop a sense of self and their own

unique identities. Failure develops role confusion and a weak sense of identity, whereas success

fosters the ability to be able to be true to one’s self (Cherry, 2022). Thus, college students may

utilize the internet to get away from the challenges they face on a daily basis as a result of their

self-identity uncertainty, as well as to examine their personal values, beliefs, and aspirations if

they are experiencing self-identity confusion (Hsieh et al., 2019). While intimacy vs. isolation

main difficulty at this point revolves around developing close, loving relationships with other

individuals (McLeod, 2018). It occurs between the ages of 18 to 40 years old. This may lead to

FoMO because one may feel like they must stay connected via social media to maintain a

relationship with other people. Furthermore, FoMO may also hinder a person’s romantic

relationship with other people because couples may spend more time creating an "image" of who

they are rather than concentrating on the relationship itself as a result of social media, which can

lead to unhealthy comparison and irrational expectations about what relationships should be like

(Moore, 2022). The psychological well-being suffers the most in these circumstances because

they may experience mood swings, loneliness, inferiority complex, low self-worth, severe social

anxiety, depression and negativity which is a result of FoMO (Birla, 2018).

 46

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1. Moderation of Gender Difference and Mediation of Social Comparison between the

relationship of FoMO, SME and PWB

In the current study, Figure 1 represents an outline of the mediating and moderating

analysis flow as well as the examined relationships from one variable to another. Beginning with

the independent variables, which are social media engagement and fear of missing out. Several

studies have tried to seek the mediating effect of fear of missing out (FoMO); however, in the

current study, FoMO is considered one of the major influences and has a significant relationship

with the dependent variable of the current study. The current study thoroughly investigates

hypotheses that individuals' tendency to compare in social media with the presence of urge and

trigger fear of missing out by engaging and looking at photos or posts on other people's profiles

has a negative or positive effect on the psychological well-being of college students. The

objective of this study was to confirm and define the significant negative or positive effects on

psychological well-being. The current research is attempting to identify this phenomenon, which
 47

is not age-related. Rather, investigate gender differences that moderate this phenomenon. Several

studies have been unable to thoroughly analyze and did not emphasize gender differences in the

relationship between fear of missing out, social media engagement, and an individual's

psychological well-being, resulting in contradictory claims, which the current study aims to fill

these gaps.

Hypothesis

Three research hypotheses were formulated to guide the study:

Ha1. Fear of missing out and Social Media Engagement have influenced Psychological Well-

being.

Ha2. Social Comparison Orientation mediates the relationship between Fear of Missing Out,

Social Media Engagement and Psychological Well-being.

Ha3. Gender moderates the relationship between Fear of Missing Out, Social Media Engagement

and Psychological Well-being.

Statement of the Problem

Social media engagement is one of the phenomena in our daily life. Numerous studies

have discussed the relationship of social media engagement to social comparison orientation,

fear of missing out and psychological well-being of the students. However, the previous study
 48

focused on the relationship between the variables of the study and students in general. Thus, the

purpose of the current study is to contribute to the extent of research on Gender Differences in

social comparison orientation, fear of missing out, and psychological well-being. Specifically,

the study answers the following research questions:

1. How can the respondents be classified based on their gender?

2. What is the extent of the following variables:

a. Fear of missing out

b. Social media engagement

c. Social comparison orientation

d. Psychological Well-being

3. Does fear of missing out and social media engagement influence the psychological well-

being of selected college students?

4. Does social comparison mediate the relationship between Fear of missing out, Social

Media Engagement and Psychological Well-being?

5. Would gender be able to moderate the association between fear of missing out and Social

media engagement and psychological well-being?

Definition of Terms
 49

This enables the readers to comprehend the concepts, terms or abbreviations that are

investigated and used all throughout the current study. This section provides the overview of the

main focus or the variables of the current study.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO). The feeling or perception that other individuals are having more

fun, living better lives, or enjoying things better than what they are experiencing is referred to as

FoMO. It is frequently through social media participation (Scott, 2022).

Social Media Engagement (SME). Online behaviors that allow for direct exchanges between

users. It is the tendency to likes, comments, messages, and other forms of interaction with other

users through social media platforms. In this current study, it is also defined as the sum of

content and entertainment media consumed on the daily basis by an individual from social media

(Trifiro & Gerson, 2019).

Psychological Well-being (PWB). It is defined as self-perceived success in various aspects of

life such as relationships, self-esteem, purpose, and meaning, which overall defines an individual

if they have a healthy well-being psychologically, which is emphasized in this study (Garganta et

al., 2021). Psychological well-being is a pivotal component of mental health and can be defined

as hedonic or enjoyment and eudaimonic or fulfillment happiness, as well as resilience or coping,

emotion regulation, and healthy problem solving (Tang et al., 2019).

 50

Social Comparison Orientation (SCO). The tendency to compare one's personal achievements,

circumstance, and experiences with those of other individuals is defined as social comparison

orientation (Buunk and Gibbons 2006, p. 16).

Gender Difference. Typical distinctions among both men and women that are culturally specific

and influenced by attitudes and practices. Gender differences manifest themselves in a variety of

contexts, including careers, communication, and interpersonal relationships (Shannon, 2019).

Method

This section presents the research design, site and participants, the instruments, the

procedures, and the ethical considerations of the present study.

Research Design

The current research employed a descriptive and predictive-causal research design. The

descriptive research design is utilized to provide descriptive statistics on respondents' level of

psychological well-being, fear of missing out, and social media engagement. On the other hand,

the predictive-causal research design is used to measure both direct and indirect relationships, or

hypothesized relationships, among the study's constructs (Chin et al., 2020). Partial least squares-

path modeling (PLS-PM) is utilized to estimate the variables of the study's framework, and

WarpPLS 8.0 is utilized as the software. The structural model, which is the evaluation of

collinearity, path coefficients, coefficients of determination, predictive relevance, and effect

sizes, as well as the measurement model, which pertains to construct validity and reliability, are

evaluated (Hair et al., 2017). In order to measure the indirect effects of social comparison
 51

orientation are also included in a mediation analysis, which also performed a moderation analysis

for gender.

Site and Participant Selection

The current study's sampling design is non-probability sampling, specifically the quota

sampling method. The purpose of this sampling technique is for the researchers to obtain a

representative sample from the participants in the study, and this particular demographic must

have the same characteristics that the researchers are seeking (Saunders et al., 2016). The

participants are gathered online through the Adamson University Blackboard portal.

Sample

The current study utilized the general population of college students enrolled in the

school year 2022-2023 at Adamson University. The minimum sample size is 374, based on the

estimated population size the enrollees are 12, 296 in total as the possible participants if they

approved the consent to volunteer. The sample size calculator, specifically one manufactured by

Raosoft Inc. and available online, to calculate the number of respondents required for the study.

The sample size must have a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error.

To ensure that the sample size is adequate, the researchers employed the inverse square

root and gamma-exponential methods using the WarpPLS 8.0 software. The inverse square root

method estimates the standard error by taking the inverse square root of the sample size. The
 52

gamma-exponential method, on the other hand, estimates standard error using gamma and

exponential smoothing function corrections. The inverse square root and gamma-exponential

methods simulate Monte Carlo experiments, and the results are identical to those of the Monte

Carlo method (Kock & Hadaya, 2018). A minimum absolute significant path coefficient of

0.167, a significance level of 0.05, and a power level of 0.95 were used.

Instrument

The equipment being utilized in this study has been adapted with the necessary permission from

its authors, and have been validated by some experts in this field.

Fear of Missing Out Scale

A 10-item self-report questionnaire was designed and released to assess participants' fear

of missing out (Przybylski et al., 2013). Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients for the private

factor, social factor, and overall scale were 0.84, 0.87, and 0.88, respectively, according to the

findings of this study. As a result, the questionnaire is considered to be in the public domain.

Although no permission was sought from the authors, proper credit and attribution were provided

in the review article to acknowledge the FoMOS and its creators. The scale that is developed can

be utilized by researchers as an efficient tool for assessing the FoMO levels of youth while also

allowing the individual to actually recognize and act on the FoMO experience. Furthermore,

validity and reliability studies can be conducted by using the scale at various educational levels

(Mazlum & Atalay, 2022).

 53

Social Media Engagement Scale

The Social Media Engagement Scale for Adolescents (SMES-A) is a reliable and

accurate tool for measuring social media engagement in adolescents. The three factors' mean

intra-correlation coefficients were 0.523, 0.451, and 0.512. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for

affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement ranged from 0.709 to 0.804. Their McDonald's

omega values were 0.805, 0.805, and 0.712, indicating that this three-factor structure was highly

reliable. Eight weeks later, the test-retest reliability of all three factors was greater than 0.68. (Ni

et al., 2020). As a result, the questionnaire is considered to be in the public domain. Even though

the writers' permission wasn't needed, credit and attribution were given in the research report to

show who made the SMES.

Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale

The Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale is a self-report social comparison

scale containing 11 self-reported items. Participants are asked to indicate how much they agree

with the details relating to how they compare themselves to others on a 5-point Likert scale

(Tigges, 2009). The reliability is high, ranging from 49 to 73 percent of the explained variance.

However, the control item has low reliability, as expected, with a reliability of only 15%. As a

result, the questionnaire is considered to be in the public domain. The writers' permission wasn't

needed, but they were given credit and a nod in the research report to show that they were

responsible for the INCOS.

 54

Psychological Well-being Scale

The Flourishing Scale, an 8-item summary survey of a person's self-perceived

achievements in several aspects of life including relationships, self-esteem, purpose, and

meaning, was applied to assess psychological well-being. The Flourishing Scale is a reliable and

valid test for determining psychological well-being in adolescents, adults, and the elderly range

from 18 years and older (Garganta et al., 2021). As a result, the questionnaire is considered

public domain. Although no permission from the writers was required, due credit and attribution

were provided in the research report to attribute the FS to its creators.

Procedure

The current study is approved by the school to be conducted in Adamson University and

was approved by the school administrators, the Chairperson and the teachers. The administrators

received a letter of request from the researchers to conduct the study at the university and asked

the school to participate. In coordination with faculty members who are teaching Professional

Psychology courses, the teachers posted announcements in the Blackboard portal regarding the

study guided by the Informed Consent and other details. It included the description of the study,

a consent form, a demographic questionnaire, the Fear of Missing Out Scale, the Social Media

Engagement Scale, the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale, and the Flourishing

Scale. The teachers and the researchers posted the link of the questionnaire in a Google Form

through the group chat in Facebook of any year level of college students that are enrolled in

Adamson University in school year 2022-2023. In the Informed Consent the researchers have

stated and made it clear that no additional incentive in grades are given for participation except
 55

the P50 load from GCASH, which are from the researchers. After all the total of questionnaires

has been answered by the college students who volunteered which they have answered via

Google Form, five (5) participants have received the P50 load from GCASH using a Random

Name Picker Wheel.

Only the students who have agreed to participate have completed the FOMOS, SMES,

INCOMS, and FS at home during a time that did not conflict with classwork and their schedules.

Through proper coordination with school administrators and teachers, the participants were

recruited to participate with their voluntary consent. There are two steps to conducting an online

survey: First, the consent of voluntary participation; second, the completion of the survey

questionnaire; and third, the freedom to withdraw at any point or not be able to complete the

survey. Responses on the survey questionnaire that do not reflect response variability were

eliminated from the analysis. Online surveys are an option being considered due to the current

condition of the COVID-19 pandemic, which paralyzed the conduct of the study involving face-

to-face contact with human participants.

Data Analysis

Preliminary Analysis

The researchers performed data cleaning for the preliminary study, specifically

Mahalanobis distance and univariate and multivariate outlier data removal from the dataset

compiled from participant responses. To ensure that every participant answered all scale

elements, each question on the Google Form page where data was collected required a response.
 56

Respondents are motivated to complete the questionnaire since attention-check questions are

randomly placed throughout the survey. Respondents are asked if their survey responses were

correct in the final phase of the exam. The responses of those who answered "no" are deleted.

Model Fit and Quality

The current study used PLS-SEM, one of its aims was to identify if the model had a

better fit with the original data than another. Thus, it is vital to measure the quality of the model

using several indices. There were six indices computed in the present study, namely, the average

path coefficient (APC), average R-squared (ARS), average adjusted R-squared (AARS), average

block variance inflation factor (AVIF), average full collinearity VIF (AFVIF), and Tenenhaus

goodness of fit (GoF). For the model to be acceptable, the p-values of APC, ARS, and AARS

must be equal to or lower than 0.05 (Kock, 2018).

In terms of AVIF and AFVIF, the values must be both equal to or lower than 3.3 (Kock,

2017). With regard to Tenenhaus GoF, a gauge of the explanatory power of the model, the

following thresholds are being followed: small if equal to or more than 0.1; medium if equal to

or greater than 0.25; and large if equal to or larger than 0.36 (Wetzels et al., 2009; Kock, 2018).

Collinearity, Reliability and Validity Test

When intercorrelations or inter-associations among variables are high, multicollinearity

may arise. To verify whether multicollinearity exists, the variance inflation factor (VIF)

coefficients are computed using WarpPLS 8.0. The VIF values allow examination of both lateral
 57

and vertical collinearity (Kock & Lynn, 2012). To tell whether no multicollinearity exists, the

values of VIF must be equal to or lower than 3.3 (Petter et al., 2007; Kock & Lynn, 2012; Kock,

2015).

To demonstrate the robustness of the results of the study, an assessment of the reliability

and validity of the variables is necessary. Reliability of the constructs is assessed to evaluate the

consistency of items, particularly reflective items, in terms of what they intend to measure

(Straub et al., 2004). There are two measures of reliability: Cronbach’s alpha and composite

reliability (Roldán & Sánchez-Franco, 2012; Kock, 2018). Comparing the two measures of

reliability, composite reliability in general is more acceptable, but both are reported in paper. To

reflect high reliability, the values of the composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha must be

equal to or higher than 0.7 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Nunnally, 1978; Nunnally & Bernstein,

1994).

In terms of validity of the constructs, both convergent and discriminant validity tests are

performed. Convergent validity measures the item quality or question/statement quality of a

construct. It gauges whether the respondents and the designers of the items/ questions/statements

of the questionnaire have the same understanding on what the construct intends to measure. To

say that the constructs possess convergent validity, the p-values of each item must be equal to or

lower than 0.05 and the loadings be equal to or higher than 0.5 (Hair et al., 2009; Kock, 2018).

Item loading refers to the correlation between the construct and the item (Amora et al., 2016;

Kock, 2018).
 58

Part of the assessment of convergent validity is measuring the amount of variance of each

variable from its items relative to the amount due to measurement error, or simply the average

variance extracted (AVE) (Chin, 1998; Amora et al., 2016). The AVE must be equal to or higher

than 0.5. As a result, the AVE coefficients satisfied the acceptable validity (Fornell & Larcker,

1981).

For discriminant validity, the researchers used the Fornell & Larcker criterion. This

determined whether the statements linked to each latent variable are not confusing to the

respondents answering the questionnaire. It also tests whether the statements related to one

variable are not confused with the statements connected to other variables (Kock, 2018). For

each variable, the square root of the AVEs must be greater than the correlations involving the

variable (Fornell & Lacker, 1981). If the instrument passes this criterion, then the researchers can

say that their instrument is valid in terms of discriminant validity.

Main Analysis

The partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) method using

WarpPLS 6.0 software was employed to estimate the parameters of the mediation model. A PLS-

SEM is a variance-based estimation method that assesses the reliability and validity of the

constructs and estimates the relationships between these measures (Barroso et al., 2010; Reinartz

et al., 2009).

Ethical Considerations

The researchers used the American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Guidelines

for Treating Human Participants in Research as a guide to ensure the experiment was ethically
 59

sound. The rules serve as a guideline for researchers dealing with circumstances that arise during

the investigation. The purpose of the APA Ethical Guidelines is to protect and ensure the well-

being of all those involved in the experiment. The rights of the participants in this study were

given careful consideration. The ethics code complements legal laws that are consistent with

ethical values. As a result, ethical considerations are highlighted in this study in order to

emphasize the legal rights of human participants as well as fair treatment.

This includes adult male and female participants who are studying at Adamson

University and able to make informed decisions. Participants were given a digital informed

consent form to ensure that all information was clear and to prevent misconceptions. Brief

background information on the study, procedures employed, duration, voluntary nature of the

study, risks/benefits, and anonymity were all included in the informed consent. No deception was

practiced. Also, exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research is avoided.

Participation in this study is completely anonymous, which means that none of the

participants’ responses or non-identifiable demographic data will be linked to the identity of the

entire organization. Participants may withdraw from this research at any time without penalty or

consequence. If participants decide to withdraw, their responses will not be included in and used

for the analyses of data and the interpretation of results, respectively.

If the participants have questions at any time about this study, or have experienced

adverse effects as a result of participating in this study, then, they can freely express these

concerns to the researchers. If the participants have questions regarding their rights as a research

participant, or if problems arise during the participation, the participants can discuss it with the
 60

group of researchers by contacting the representative of group : Jenevalyn Ullega via this email

address (jenevalyn.ullega@adamson.edu.ph)

By benefiting participants, the community as a whole can receive benefits as well from

the study. This study will benefit the students by raising awareness and broadening their

understanding of the influence and correlations of Social Comparison Orientation, Fear of

Missing Out, Psycho-social Well-being, and Social Media Engagement. It will also inform

readers about the risky effects of social media, and it will be extremely useful for mental health

practitioners, particularly guidance counselors and psychologists, in detecting and possibly

explaining the long periods of social media engagement among youth.

The researchers made sure to minimize as little as possible the risks while obtaining the

same amount of knowledge. The dignity and well-being of the participants was protected at all

times. No one from the vulnerable group participated in the experiment; no groups were

exploited based on their circumstances. The dignity and well-being of the participants was

protected at all times.

In addition, the following ethical considerations were also taken into account in

completion of the experiment.

Conflict of Interest
 61

The researchers assured to minimize the tendencies of conflict of interest from occurring,

two experimenters would act as a mediator and administrator of the test between the two groups

to reduce any potential biases.

Privacy and Confidentiality

There is no personal information requested of participants throughout the data collecting.

Additional data obtained in this study, such as demographics, are kept private and are not used or

released in any way other than for the purposes of this study. Videos as proofs are kept in a

Google Drive folder only visible with the administrator and the professor.

Plagiarism

Although it can be unintentional, the experimenters made sure that the data included in

this paper are all given proper credits and dissertation with the use of the APA referencing

system. The experimenters made sure that they did not benefit by harming other researchers by

plagiarizing their works.

Research Misconduct

The researchers did not commit any academic fraud, such as falsifying data, changing

data analysis, or misrepresenting outcomes in the research report.

 62

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

This section presents the gathered data represented in tabular form as well as its analysis

and interpretation. The findings contained are based on the results of the statistical treatment

applied using statistical software particularly IBM-SPSS v27, jamovi v2.3.19 and WarpPLS v8.

Preliminary Analysis

The pilot study included 399 undergraduate students recruited from various programs at

Adamson University. All of the respondents were considered to be part of the study, since, based

on Mahalanobis Distance, no multivariate outliers were found using IBM-SPSS v27. The

kurtosis and skewness indices were examined using jamovi v2.3.19, and none of the observed

indicators had absolute skewness and kurtosis values of > [3] and > [10], respectively. As a

result, the distribution's univariate normality is met (Weston & Gore, 2006). If prior empirical

studies have provided evidence of the existence of an underlying latent variable structure, a

confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) tests the adequacy of data fit in the priori structure provided

(Bryne, 2009).

Measurement Model
Table 1
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Model Fit and Quality Indices of SEM

Indices Coefficients
Average Path Coefficient (APC) 0.211, p =<0.001
Average R-squared (ARS) 0.357, p = <0.001
Average Adjusted R-squared (AARS) 0.350, p = <0.001
Average Block VIF (AVIF) 1.381
Average Full Collinearity (AFVIF) 1.485
Tenenhaus GoF 0.530
Simpson’s Paradox Ratio (SPR) 0.857
R-squared Contribution Ratio (RSCR) 0.994
Statistical Suppression Ratio (SSR) 1.00
Nonlinear Bivariate Causality Direction 1.000
Ratio (NLBCDR)

For the model to be acceptable, the p-values of the average path coefficient (APC),

average R-squared (ARS), and average adjusted R-squared (AARS) must be equal to or less than

0.05. The average block VIF (AVIF) and average full collinearity VIF (AFVIF) indices should

be 3.3 or less (Kock, 2017). The following thresholds are used for Tenenhaus goodness of fit

(GoF), an index that measures the model's explanatory power (Kock, 2017): small if equal to or

greater than 0.1, medium if equal to or greater than 0.25, and large if equal to or greater than

0.36. (Kock, 2017; Wetzels, Odekerken-Schroder, & van Oppen, 2009). The GoF is the product

of the ARS and the average communality index squared (Tenenhaus, Vinzi, Chatelin, & Lauro,

2005). For Simpson’s paradox ratio, the acceptable threshold is >0.7; for the r-squared

contribution ratio, it is >0.9; for the statistical suppression ratio, the acceptable threshold is >0.7;

and lastly, for the nonlinear bivariate causality direction ratio, the acceptable ratio is >0.7. Table

1 displays the model fit coefficients and quality indices for the structural equation model. The

results show that the SEM estimates fall within a reasonable range and are considered

acceptable.
 64

Table 2

Item Loadings, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Reliability of Fear of Missing Out

Indicators Item AVE CR CA

Loading
1. I often fear that others have more rewarding 0.750 0.538 0.913 0.887
experiences than me.
2. I often fear that my friends  have more rewarding 0.736
experiences than me.
3. Sometimes, I get worried when I find out my friends 0.836
are having fun without me.
4. I often get anxious when I don’t know what my 0.805
friends are up to.
5. It is always  important that I understand my friends 0.720
‘‘lame jokes’’.
6. Sometimes, I wonder if I spend too much time 0.800
keeping up with what is going on.
7. It always bothers me when I miss an opportunity to 0.813
meet up with friends.
8. When I have a good time it is important for me to 0.702
share the details online (e.g. updating status).
9. When I miss out on a planned get-together it bothers 0.782
me.
10. When I go on vacation, I continue to keep tabs on 0.564
what my friends are doing.

Table 3
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Item Loadings, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Reliability of Social Media
Engagement

Indicators Item AVE CR CA

Loading
1. Using social media is my daily habit. 0.680 0.500 0.909 0.888
2. I browse social media whenever I have time. 0.633
3. Even if it is late, I take a look at social media 0.679
before sleep.
4. I often use social media to relax as a habit. 0.653
5. I get fulfilled from the attention and comments 0.727
of others on social media.
6. The support and encouragement of others on 0.740
social media is very important to me.
7. In using social media, I am satisfied with the 0.696
relationship between myself and my friends.
8. I feel bored when I cannot use social media. 0.763
9. Compared to the real world, I am happier when I 0.755
socialize on social media.
10. I feel anxious when I cannot use social media. 0.734

Table 4

Item Loadings, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Reliability of Social Comparison
Orientation

Indicators Item AVE CR CA

Loading
1. I often compare how my loved ones (boy or 0.723 0.651 0.949 0.939
girlfriend, family members, etc.) are doing with
how others are doing.
2. I always pay a lot of attention to how I do things 0.680
compared with how others do things.
3. If I want to find out how well I have done 0.836
something, I compare what I have done with
how others have done.
4. I often compare how I am doing socially (e.g., 0.809
social skills, popularity) with other people.
5. I often compare myself with others with respect 0.853
to what I have accomplished in life.
6. I often like to talk with others about mutual 0.845
opinions and experiences.
 66

7. I often try to find out what others think who face 0.872
similar problems as I face.
8. I always like to know what others in a similar 0.845
situation would do.
9. If I want to learn more about something, I try to 0.863
find out what others think about it.
10. I never consider my situation in life relative to 0.719
that of other people.

Table 5

Item Loadings, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Reliability of Psychological Well-
Being

Indicators Item AVE CR CA

Loading
1. I lead a purposeful and meaningful life. 0.917 0.815 0.972 0.967
2. My social relationships are supportive and 0.883
rewarding.
3. I am engaged and interested in my daily 0.895
activities.
4. I actively contribute to the happiness and well- 0.913
being of others.
5. I am competent and capable in the activities that 0.928
are important to me.
6. I am a good person and I live a good life. 0.911
7. I am optimistic about my future. 0.875
8. People respects me 0.898

The measurement model was evaluated using the results of reliability and validity tests

(convergent and discriminant). The assessment of construct reliability allows for the evaluation

of the consistency of a reflective item or set of items in terms of what it intends to measure

(Straub, Boudreau, & Gefen, 2004; Roldan & Sanchez-Franco, 2012). Composite reliability and

Cronbach's alpha are commonly used to assess construct reliability (Roldan & Sanchez-Franco,
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2012; Kock, 2017). The composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach's alpha (CA) values must be

equal to or greater than 0.7 to indicate good reliability. Nunnally (1978), Fornell and Larcker

(1981), and Nunnally and Bernstein (1994).

Convergent validity, on the other hand, assesses the quality of a research instrument's set

of items or question statements. This means that participants understand the items or question-

statements in each construct in the same way that the developers intended (Kock, 2017). The p-

values for each item should be equal to or less than 0.05, and the loadings should be equal to or

greater than 0.5, to achieve an acceptable level of convergent validity (Hair, Anderson, &

Tatham, 1987; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2009; Kock, 2017). The relationship between

the item and the construct is defined as item loading (Amora, Ochoco, & Anicete, 2016; Kock,

2017). In Table 3, all variable item loadings are statistically significant and greater than the 0.5

threshold. Furthermore, the extracted average variance (AVE) compares the variance of each

construct to the variance due to measurement error (Chin, 1998; Amora et al., 2016). Each latent

variable has an AVE greater than 0.5, which is the recommended threshold for acceptable

validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Tables 2-5 show that all of the variables, which are fear of missing out, social media

engagement, social comparison orientation, and psychological well-being, met the criterion for

research construct reliability

Table 6

Square root of AVE Coefficients and Correlation Coefficients

Variables FoMO SME SCO PWB

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Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) 0.733

Social Media Engagement (SME) 0.501 0.707
Social Comparison Orientation (SCO) 0.643 0.571 0.807
Psychological Well-Being (PWB) -0.205 -0.139 -0.310 0.903

Table 6 depicts the correlations between variables using square roots of AVE coefficients

to assess the instrument's discriminant validity. When respondents complete the questionnaire,

discriminant validity determines whether or not the statements associated with each latent

variable are perplexing. Furthermore, it determines whether statements about one variable, for

example, are not confusing with statements about other variables (Kock, 2017). The square root

of the AVEs for each variable should be greater than any of the correlations involving the

variable (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As a result, the findings suggest that the measures used in the

study have discriminant validity.

Main Analysis (Structural Model)

1. How can the respondents be classified based on their gender?

Table 7
Profile in terms of Gender
Gender Counts % of Total
Female 223 56 %
Male 176 44 %
TOTAL 399 100%
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Table 7 displays the gender distribution of the students. According to the tabulated data,

223 (or 56%) were female, while 176 (or 44%) were male. The data analysis revealed that the

majority of respondents are female.

2. What is the extent of the following variables:

Table 8
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Variables
Indicators  N Mean SD Verbal Interpretation
Fear of Missing Out 399 2.40 0.86 Slightly True of Me
Social Media Engagement 399 3.23 0.84 Sometimes
Social Comparison Orientation 399 2.90 1.05 Sometimes
Psychological Well-Being 399 5.04 1.47 Slightly Agree
 Legend: 1.00-1.79: Not at all true of Me; 1.80-2.59: Slightly true of Me; 2.60-3.39; Moderately true of Me; 3.40-4.19: Very True of Me; 4.20-
5.00: Extremely true of Me (FoMO)
 Legend: 1.00-1.79: Never; 1.80-2.59: Rarely; 2.60-3.39; Sometimes; 3.40-4.19: Often; 4.20-5.00: Always (SME & SCO)
Legend: 1.00-1.86: Strongly Disagree; 1.87-2.73: Disagree; 2.74-3.60; Slightly Disagree; 3.61-4.47: Mixed or neither agree nor disagree; 4.48-
5.34: Slightly Agree; 5.35-6.21: Agree; 6.22-700: Strongly Agree

Table 7 summarizes the mean and standard deviation of the variables under study. Fear

of missing out received an overall mean score of 2.40 and a standard deviation of 0.86,

indicating that students agreed that it is always important to understand their friends' "lame

jokes," that they question whether they spend too much time keeping up with current events, and

that it bothers them when they miss a chance to meet up with friends. In terms of social media

engagement, the generated mean is 3.23 and the standard deviation is 0.84, indicating that

students occasionally use social media on a daily basis, browse social media whenever they have

time, and check social media before going to sleep, even if it is late. Similarly, social comparison

orientation yielded an overall mean score of 2.90 and a standard deviation of 1.05, indicating that
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students occasionally try to determine what others who face similar problems think and are

interested in what others in a similar situation would do. Lastly, psychological well-being

received an overall mean score of 5.04 and a standard deviation of 1.47, indicating that students

were moderately in agreement that they actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of

others, that they are competent and capable in the activities that are important to them, and that

they are a good person and live a good life.

3. Does fear of missing out and social media engagement influence the psychological well-

being of selected college students?

Table 9
Parameter Estimates of Direct and Mediation Model

Indicators 𝛽 SE p value f2 Verbal

Interpretation
Direct Effects
H1: FoMO  PWB -0.118 0.049 0.009 0.037 Significant
H2: SME  PWB 0.055 0.050 0.133 0.010 Not Significant
H3: SCO  PWB -0.303 0.048 <0.001 0.119 Significant

Indirect Effects

H4: FoMOSCOPWB -0.151 0.035 <0.001 0.047 Significant

H5: SMESCOPWB -0.104 0.035 0.002 0.019 Significant

f 2 is the Cohen’s (1988) effect size: 0.02=small, 0.15=medium, 0.35=large; SE = standard error, β=standardized
path coefficient. Total effect c is equal to the sum of direct effect c’ and indirect effects; i.e. c = c’ + (a*b)

Direct and Indirect Effects

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Table 9 describes the parameter estimates of the direct and indirect effects of the

variables. Analysis of the data indicated that fear of missing out (p = 0.009) and social

comparison orientation (p = <0.001) have direct influence and good predictors of psychological

well-being. It indicates that for every 1 unit increase in fear of missing out, it will lead to 0.116-

point decrease in psychological well-being. Similarly, for every 1 unit increase in social

comparison orientation, 0.303-point decrease will occur to psychological well-being. The path

coefficients are negative, implying that as the levels of fear of missing out and social comparison

orientation increase, the level of psychological well-being will decrease, and vice versa. The

effect size of the paths from fear of missing out to psychological well-being (Cohen’s f 2=0.037)

and social comparison orientation to psychological well-being (Cohen’s f2=0.119) is small but

the latter has more impact on psychological well-being based on the coefficient . The finding

suggests that H1 and H2 are supported. On the other hand, social media engagement does not

influence the level of psychological well-being, implying that the variables are not statistically

connected and that the value of one variable does not grow or decrease in response to the

increase or decrease of the other variable. Hence, H2 is not supported.

4. Does social comparison mediate the relationship between Fear of missing out, Social

Media Engagement and Psychological Well-being?

A mediation analysis using structural equation modeling was performed to assess the

mediating role of social comparison orientation on the direct linkage between fear of missing out

and social engagement to psychological well-being. The results revealed p-values of p=<0.001

between fear of missing out and psychological well-being and p=0.002 between social media

engagement and psychological well-being, which are lower than the 05 level of significance,
 72

implying that social comparison orientation mediates the relationships between these variables.

Specifically, with the inclusion of social comparison orientation, the negative impact of fear of

missing out to psychological well-being is still significant (β = -0.151; p=<0.001; SE=0.035;

f2=0.047) with small effect size. Hence, social comparison orientation partially mediated the

direct influence of fear of missing out to psychological well-being of the students. On the other

hand, because of the inclusion of social comparison orientation, the social media engagement can

now influence the psychological well-being of the students, implying that full mediation

occurred. In fact, with the inclusion of social comparison orientation, the social media

engagement negative influence the psychological well-being (β = 0.104; p=0.002; SE=0.035;

f2=0.019) of the students. This means that as the level of social media engagement increases, the

level of psychological well-being decreases and with small effect size.

Table 10
Multigroup Analysis Result

Hypothesis 𝛽 𝛽 Absolute SE p Verbal

Male Female Latent (one-tailed) Interpretation
Growth
Coefficient
H6: FoMO  PWB 0.104 -0.148 0.086 0.049 0.042 Significant
H7: SME  PWB 0.228 0.050 0.099 0.049 0.023 Significant
H8: SCO  PWB -0.351 -0.216 0.130 0.049 0.004 Significant

5. Would gender be able to moderate the association between fear of missing out and

Social media engagement and psychological well-being?

Table 10 presents the multigroup analysis (MGA) on the significant difference on the
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hypothesized relationships. The objective of MGA is to compare the beta coefficients of the

structural model between male and female studies. In assessing MGA results, the recommended

threshold for each p-value of every hypothesized relationship to be significant is <.10 (Kock,

2014).

Using constrained latent growth method, analysis of the data revealed that there were

significant differences between were observed among the hypothesized relationships.

Specifically, the influence of fear of missing out on the psychological well-being is strongest to

female (β = -0.148) college students. On the other hand, the influence of social comparison

orientation on the psychological well-being is strongest to male respondents based on the

coefficient.

Mediating Effect

Moderating Effect

Table 9 presents how socio-economic status moderates the direct relationship between

parenting styles and academic performance. The analysis revealed that socio-economic status

moderates the direct and causal relationship of authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles to

academic performance. Specifically, with the inclusion of socio-economic status, the influence of

authoritative parenting style is strongest to those who have high household income. Similarly,

with the inclusion of socio-economic status as a moderator, the authoritarian parenting style
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influences now the academic performance of the students. The direct relationship is strongest to

those students how have low household income. Therefore, based on the findings, H8 and H9

were supported.