IBDP Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships

1. 1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter

E.I: Physical and chemical properties depend on the ways in which different atoms combine.

Nature of science: Making quantitative measurements with replicates to ensure reliability—definite and
multiple proportions. (3.1)

Understandings
• 1.1.U1 Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, which have different
properties from their component elements.
• 1.1.U2 Mixtures contain more than one element and/or
compound that are not chemically bonded together and so THIS SECTION SHOULD COME
retain their individual properties. FROM THE MYP/DP SUBJECT GUIDE
• 1.1.U3 Mixtures are either homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
Applications and skills
• 1.1.AS1 Deduction of chemical equations when reactants and products are specified.
• 1.1.AS2 Application of the state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq) in equations.
• 1.1.AS3 Explanation of observable changes in physical properties and temperature during changes of
state.

States of matter

One of the most fundamental ideas in chemistry is that all matter consists of particles as we use this idea to
explain many of the chemical and physical behaviours that we can observe.

Substances can be classified as solids, liquids and gases (also plasma) according to physical properties
such as shape, volume and ability to flow and be compressed.
At any given temperature and pressure, the state of matter a substance (and therefore its physical properties
described above depend on its melting point, boiling point and sublimation point. These properties then
depend on what atoms have combined with each other as this determines how they interact with each other
or how they are attracted to each other. For instance many covalent compounds (such as water in which
oxygen has combined with hydrogen) have much lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds
(such as iron oxide in which oxygen has combined with iron) as in covalent compounds atoms have
combined with different atoms then they have combined with in ionic compounds. In covalent compounds the
forces of attraction between the particles that make up the substance are generally weaker than in ionic
compounds.

Substances can change state of matter as a result of temperature changes or changes in pressure.

You need to:

• Understand the observable properties such as shape LET YOUR NOTES TALK TO
and volume of the different states of matter: see your STUDENTS, MAKE REFERENCES TO
textbook page 9. THE RECOMMENDED TEXTS THAT
• State the names of the changes in state: including THEY HAVE.
sublimation (from solid to gas) and deposition (from
gas to solid): page 11 in your textbook.
• Understand physical changes and changes to temperature and energy during changes in state as shown
by the diagram below.

Topic 1 notes 13.5 hours Page 1 of 4

THIS SECTION IS MANDATORY
The diagram summarizes shows the changes in energy, arrangement, movement and observable physical
properties that occur during a change in state of matter as a result of changes in temperature.

The temperature of a substance is directly related to the average kinetic of all its particles.

gas Particles gain kinetic energy vibrate,
rotate and translate (=move) faster
and more randomly, move further
apart. Substance has no fixed shape
(flows and expands) or volume and
can be compressed. Temperature of
the gas rises.
evaporation, Particles use the energy to overcome
boiling attractive forces between liquid
 particles and escape the liquid.
Temperature remains the same as
kinetic energy (and movement)
remains the same.
liquid Particles gain kinetic energy and
vibrate, rotate and translate more.
The temperature rises to boiling
point. Substance can change shape
(can flow) but maintains its volume
and is difficult to compress.
Melting Particles use the energy to overcome
attractive forces between them.
Temperature remains the same as
 kinetic energy of the particles remains
the same and so does their
movement. Substance changes
shape.
solid Particles gain kinetic energy and
vibrate more and move further apart.
Substance expands but maintains its
shape. Cannot be compressed.
Temperature increases to melting
point.
 Heating (Endothermic)
Pure substances and mixtures
Cooling(Exothermic) 
Particles lose kinetic energy and gas
vibrate, rotate and translate less,
and come closer together.
Substance contracts (less
volume), can still change its
shape and volume and can be
compressed. The temperature
decreases to condensation
point.
Particles come closer together Condensing
and release potential energy
(latent heat). The kinetic energy

(and movement) remains the
same and therefore the
temperature remains the same.
Particles lose kinetic energy and liquid
vibrate, rotate and translate less.
The temperature decreases to
freezing point. Substance
changes shape (can flow) but
maintains its volume and is
difficult to compress.
Particles lose potential energy Freezing
(latent heat) as the particles
return to the lattice or regular
arrangement. 
Temperature remains the same
as kinetic energy (and
movement) remains the same.
Particles lose kinetic energy – solid
temperature decreases – and
its particles vibrate less and
move closer together. Fixed
shape and volume and cannot be
compressed.

Apart from considering their physical properties and the electrostatic forces holding together their particles
(states of matter), all substances can also be classified according to the type of particle that makes up the
substance as this will effect both chemical and physical properties:
• Elements are made up of the same atoms only – has not combined with any other atoms.

Topic 1 notes 13.5 hours Page 2 of 4

THIS SECTION IS MANDATORY
• Compounds are made up of two or more different atoms (or ions) that have chemically bonded in fixed
ratios; but not always in molecules – we cannot use the term molecule when considering ionic
compounds.
• Mixtures are made up of two or more different atoms or ions but they have not chemically bonded in
fixed ratios. Therefore a mixture does not have any fixed properties but have the properties of the
components in the mixture. All mixtures can be classified as:
o Homogeneous: uniform composition with the same properties throughout the mixture e.g. milk,
soft drink, bronze, ..
o Heterogeneous: not a uniform composition and as a result the properties change throughout the
mixture, e.g. a beach, unshaken salad dressing, you!!

Balancing equations

Any balanced equation should include state symbols.

(s) = solid (l) = liquid (g) = gas (aq) = dissolved in water

Atom economy

The concept of atom economy has been introduced to emphasize the need for an appreciation of
sustainability of chemical reactions. Atom economy looks at the efficiency (like percentage yield) of a
chemical reaction. Both the mass of the atoms of useful product and the total mass are calculated using
molar mass and multiplied by the coefficient as in the balanced equation.

Percentage atom economy = mass of atoms of useful product x 100 %

mass of atoms in reactants/products

Example: Calculate the atom economy to extract silver according to: 2AgNO3 + Mg → 2Ag + Mg(NO3)2

Percentage atom economy = 2 x 107.87 = 215.74 x 100 %

(2 x 107.87)+ 24.31 + (2 x 14.01)+ (6 x 16.00) = 364.06
Atom economy = 59.3%

Exercises

Calculate the percentage atom economy of the named product in the reactions shown below:-

1) sodium in the reaction 2NaCl → 2Na + Cl2

2) hydrogen in the reaction Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
3) iron in the reaction Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
4) calcium oxide in the reaction CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
5) sulfur trioxide in the reaction 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
6) oxygen in the reaction 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2

THIS SECTION MAY BE CALLED PRACTISE AS WELL (USE

PRACTISE SHEET WORK HERE).
SELF DIRECTED LEARNING CAN BE USED TO MAKE UP
HOMEWORK

Topic 1 notes 13.5 hours Page 3 of 4

THIS SECTION IS MANDATORY
1.2 The mole concept

E.I: The mole makes it possible to correlate the number of particles with the mass that can be
measured.

Understandings
• 1.2.U1 The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance.
• 1.2.U2 Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed as relative atomic
mass (Ar) and relative formula/molecular mass (Mr).
• 1.2.U3 Molar mass (M) has the units g mol-1.
• 1.2.U4 The empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound give the simplest ratio and the actual
number of atoms present in a molecule respectively.
Applications and skills
• 1.2.AS1 Calculation of the molar masses of atoms, ions, molecules and formula units.
• 1.2.AS2 Solution of problems involving the relationships between the number of particles, the amount of
substance in moles and the mass in grams.
• 1.2 AS3 Interconversion of the percentage composition by mass and the empirical formula.
• 1.2.AS4 Determination of the molecular formula of a compound from its empirical formula and molar mass.
• 1.2.AS5 Obtaining and using experimental data for deriving empirical formulas from reactions involving
mass changes.

Topic 1 notes 13.5 hours Page 4 of 4

THIS SECTION IS MANDATORY