68

BOOK REVIEWS
Aristotle's Political Theory. By R. G. MTJLGAN. (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1977. P p .
vii+156.)
Aristotle. By J O H N B . MORRAIX. (Allen & Unwin. 1977. P p . 120.)

Downloaded from http://pq.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of California, San Francisco on April 27, 2015
Both of these books are intended as guides for students of political theory, especially
those in university oourses on Greek political philosophy, who are reading Aristotle's
Politics for the first time. The two books are complementary and might both be read
with profit by the same students. Mulgan's book assumes an elementary knowledge of
Aristotle's intellectual background. Morrall's slender book, the seventh volume t o
appear in the series on political thinkers edited by Geraint Parry, provides just what
Mulgan assumes. Indeed, Morrall is so intent on providing background t h a t he does
not reach the Politics until the fourth of his six chapters. The theme of his first chapter,
which lightly touohes almost every famous name in Greek literature from Homer to
Demosthenes, is the political dream of Solon and Aeschylus of a society resting on the
"principle of moderation and harmony through compromise" (p. 91). Chapter I I is a
quiok survey of the political elements or implications of the philosophy of the pre-
Sooratics, the Sophists, the Soorates of Plato's Apology and Crito, and Plato. One
rather startling suggestion of Morrall's is t h a t "the spectre of Parmenides may have
been a prime reason why Greek democracy never in fact did frame a systematic philo-
sophy of its own to set against the well-articulated structure of its more powerful intel-
lectual oritics" (p. 32). Chapter I I I is structured around an account of Aristotle's life
and career, the founding and fate of the Lyceum, and the strange story of the trans-
mission of Aristotle's writings. I t includes a sketch of the contents of the Protrepticus
and of Aristotle's mature teleology. The rest of the book is devoted to the Nicomachean
Ethics and the Politics.
Aristotle is presented by Morrall as an embittered critic of fourth-century Athenian
democracy whose prinoipal practical objective in writing the Politics was the restoration
of the constitution of Solon or Theramenes under which full citizenship was restricted
to the hoplite class—the type of constitution t h a t Aristotle called a "polity" (pp. 65,
72, 77, 91-6). " I n order to serve this main objective," Morrall claims, "Aristotle was
ready to modify actually existing facts in such a way as to present, if not actually a
caricature, at any rate an incomplete picture of the democratic type of constitution
as exemplified a t Athens" (p. 97). The basis for this charge is t h a t Aristotle "omitted
either from mention or from any real consideration" those features of the fourth-century
Athenian constitution that limited the over-riding powers of the Assembly such as the
Council, the graphe paranomon (appeal against a given law), the eisangelion (impeach-
ment), and the commission of nomothetai (law-makers) (pp. 95-7).
In defence of Aristotle it must be said that the identification of extreme democracy
with fourth-century Athenian democracy is Morrall's, not Aristotle's. Aristotle's descrip-
tion of extreme democracy is a description of a type of constitution; unlike his description
of the Spartan constitution in Politics I I 9, it is not a description of the constitution of
any one polis in particular. His language indicates t h a t he was familiar with radical
democracies at other places besides Athens (Pol. VI 4, 1319M-32). Furthermore, even
if Aristotle's strictures are directed a t Athenian democracy, they may be directed more
toward the Athens of Cleon and Hyperbolus t h a n the Athens of Demosthenes and
Aesohines. His appraisal of ostracism (Pol. I l l 13, 1284al7-b34, V 3, 1302M8-21), for
example, in so far as it applies to the Athenian, institution applies only to the fifth
century since ostracism was not used in Athens in the fourth century. Finally, even if
 BOOK EBVIEWS 69
Aristotle's strictures are directed a t fourth-century Athenian demooraoy, his reason for
not taking the safeguards mentioned by Morrall into account may have been t h a t he
regarded them as ineffective. This is certainly his verdict on the one of the four he
does discuss—the Council (Pol. IV 15, 1299b38-1330a4, VI 2, 1317b30-35). Aristotle's
reputation as a detached and dispassionate political philosopher is safe.
Mulgan's book is a detailed and systematic analysis of the ideas and arguments of
the Politics. I t begins with a brief chapter on the conception of happiness and of political
soience in the Nicomachean Ethics and then follows fairly closely the order of topics in
the Politics except that, reverting to the custom of such nineteenth-century scholars

Downloaded from http://pq.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of California, San Francisco on April 27, 2015
as W. L. Newman, the "idealistic" books, V I I and V I I I , are considered before the
"realistio" books, IV, V, and VI. Mulgan correctly emphasizes t h a t Aristotle's views
of human nature, of slaves, of the role and status of women, and of the polis attribute
an illegitimate universality to the beliefs, values, and behaviour of his own society (pp.
20, 22, 25, 26, and 44).
For Mulgan the Politics is not addressed especially to fourth-century Athens. Mul-
gan, in stark contrast to Morrall, holds t h a t Aristotle's account of extreme demooraoy
is not intended to be a description of any actual polis at all. The various constitutions
t h a t Aristotle analyses are "abstract models": "Though based on observation, they are
not descriptions of any actual institutions" (p. 65). Extreme democracy is "an abstract
representation of all the democratic characteristics in their extreme or pure form"
(p. 66). Mulgan's general idea finds its most vivid expression with respect to absolute
kingship (pambasileia), the constitution t h a t stands a t the top of Aristotle's scale. The
ruler under absolute kingship is incomparably superior to his subjects in virtue and
political capacity and is "like a god among men" (Pol. I l l 13, 1284a3-ll). Since
Aristotle believes that Greeks are a superior race, an absolute king among Greeks
would have to be almost literally a god. Mulgan claims t h a t Aristotle does not believe
such a paragon possible: "A god among men would, after all, be an anomaly of nature
which Aristotle the biologist would not happily countenance" (p. 87). Mulgan oonoludes
t h a t for Aristotle absolute kingship for Greeks is nothing more than a theoretical
possibility (ibid.).
Mulgan has committed an error opposite t o Morrall's. Where Morrall makes Aris-
totle's theory too concrete Mulgan makes it too abstract. First of all, sinoe the form
of a polis is its constitution (Pol. I l l 3, 1276al7-bl3), Mulgan is in effect attributing
to Aristotle the very thing Aristotle finds so objeotionable in Plato—a belief in separable
Forms. For how else are we to conceive of a constitution t h a t has no instances? Seoondly,
Aristotle seems to subscribe to the principle t h a t every possibility is realized a t some
moment of time (see, inter alia, De Gen. et Corr. I 2, 316b23, I I 11, 337b35-338a2, and
J . Hintikka, Time and Necessity (Oxford, 1973), ch. V). This principle together with
Aristotle's maxim t h a t political ideals must never presuppose anything impossible (Pol.
I I 6, 1265al7-18, V I I 4, 1325b38-39) entails t h a t every political ideal is realized at
some moment of time. Finally, Aristotle does believe that even among Greeks an indi-
vidual occasionally arises who is like a god among men. This is d e a r from Nicomachean
Ethics V I I . 1 where Aristotle introduces six states of character ranging from "heroio
and divine" virtue a t the top of the scale to brutishness a t the bottom. The "godlike
m a n " who possesses heroic virtue, Aristotle says, is rare (not non-existent) (E.N. VII 1,
1145a27-28). These points illustrate the hazards of interpreting the Politics in isolation
from Aristotle's other treatises.
There is much more in these books than I have been able to indicate. Both will be
welcomed b y students of the Politics.
DAVID KKYT