MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

FACTORS THAT PROHIBIT FEMALE EDUCATORS FROM BECOMING SCHOOL

PRINCIPALS IN OHANGWENA REGION, ONDOBE CIRCUIT

BY

HAMUKOTO SHINGUNGUMA VILHO

MSU183878T

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION IN

PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE MASTER OF

EDUCATION DEGREE IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT.

MARCH 2020

SUPERVISOR: DR SHOKO
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.................................1
1.0. Introduction...............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background......................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the problem................................................................................................................2
1.3 Research questions..........................................................................................................................3
1.4 Significance of the study..................................................................................................................3
1.5 Limitation of the study....................................................................................................................4
1.6. Definition of key terms...................................................................................................................4
1.7. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................6
2.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................6
2.2. Theoretical frameworks.................................................................................................................6
2.2.1 The theory of feminism and management...............................................................................6
2.2.2 Liberal feminism.......................................................................................................................7
2.2.3 Radical feminism......................................................................................................................8
2.2.4 Socialist feminist.......................................................................................................................9
2.3. Challenges faced female educators in acquiring leadership positions........................................9
2.3.1 Internal challenges..................................................................................................................10
2.3.2 External challenges.................................................................................................................10
2.3.3. Society and its stereotype of thinking...................................................................................11
2.3.4. Cultural background.............................................................................................................13
2.3.5 Gender discrimination............................................................................................................14
2.3.6. Power dynamics between women and male counterparts...................................................15
2.4. Possible solutions to challenges hindering female educators to be principals..........................16
2.4.1. Influence of delegation on female teachers’ appointment and participation in leadership
...........................................................................................................................................................16
2.4.2. Influence of mentorship on female teachers’ aspiration to leadership position................17
2.4.3. Influence of role modelling on female teachers’ participation in leadership.....................17
2.4.4. Influence of training on female teachers’ participation in leadership...............................17
2.4.5. Supporting female educators through policy implementation...........................................19
2.5. Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.......................................................................21

i
 3.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................21
3.2. Research paradigm.......................................................................................................................21
3.3. Research approach.......................................................................................................................21
3.4. Research design.............................................................................................................................22
3.5. Population of the study.................................................................................................................22
3.6 Sample and Sampling Procedures................................................................................................23
3.7. Data collection process.................................................................................................................23
3.7.1 Pilot testing..............................................................................................................................23
3.7.2. Interviews...............................................................................................................................24
3.7.3. Document analysis.................................................................................................................24
3.8 Data Collection Procedures...........................................................................................................24
3.9. Data Analysis................................................................................................................................25
3.10. Ethical Considerations...............................................................................................................25
3.11. Conclusion...................................................................................................................................26
REFERENCE..........................................................................................................................................27

ii
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.0. Introduction
This chapter provides an orientation to the study, by giving the background information that
informed the study. The chapter will further outline the problem underpinning the study, the
research questions as well as the significance of the study. The chapter will end by discussing the
limitations of the study.

1.1 Background

Historically, Namibian women, especially black women were disadvantaged in many ways. They
did not get the same opportunity to become leaders in schools as their male counterparts. Instead
they were expected to be mothers, wives, caregivers and nurturers. Supporting the above
statement, Phendla (2015) argues that black women school leaders are obliged to learn to cope
across the pressure created by culture, language and customary law. Research, as shown by
Thurman (2016) has shown that under-representation of women in school principal positions is
not only unique to Africa but also found in the United States. Thurman (2016) arguments
correspond with the one made by Wrushen and Sherman (2015) when they state that the scarcity
of women in principal position in schools is a worldwide phenomenon.

The Namibian situation is no different from other countries mentioned above. Even after thirty
years of democracy when policies have been formulated to address this problem, in practice
gender inequality still prevails in principal positions. Despite affirmative action and gender
mainstreaming initiatives within education, women in Africa continue to fight against sexist
cultural attitudes in their communities’ environments (Moorosi, 2013). Gender inequality is still
evident in the educational system especially in leadership and management where women are
deprived of opportunities of senior positions (principalship) that they rightfully deserve.

Since independence, the Namibian Government has been concerned with improving the status of
women and addressing the negative effects of the colonial era. The quality of and equality in
education, including gender equality, have been very important priorities for educational policy
in Namibia but Namibian schools continue to have a high number of female teachers than male
teachers. This can be supported by the Namibian fifteenth school day report of 2017 in which out
of 29167 teachers in the country, only 9978 are male teachers and 19,189 are females.

1
Ohangwena region has a total number of 3982 teachers, 2588 of them are female teachers but
none of them are principals. It is the second region with the highest number of schools (262) but
even though the female teachers are more than the male teachers, only few of them are principals
or school heads. This becomes questionable in a country where most of the gender equality
policies have been introduced and are supported by the constitution. The Namibian Constitution
provides the foundation for principles of gender equality in Namibia: All persons are equal
before the law. No persons may be discriminated against on the grounds of sex, race, color,
ethnic origin, religion, creed or social or economic status (Namibian Constitution Article 10).

Underrepresentation of women and minorities as school leaders has been, and still is, a national
problem, as stated by Glass in the American Association of School Administrators (AASA) 2000
Study of the American School Superintendency. In Montana, there was also a documented and
growing shortage of qualified women educational leaders as reported in the Montana School
Leaders: Superintendents and Principals Survey 2014-2015 sponsored by the Montana State
Action for Educational Leadership Project (SAELP).

In South Africa it was noted that the workforce that made up the education sector was
predominantly female. Yet the females were highly under-represented in principal positions and
that was strongly evident in secondary schools. That happened in spite of equitable
representation of women in all sectors in terms of gender equity. Motshekga (2013) argues that
this is not representative of the government’s vision of addressing historical injustice such as
gender inequity.

In 2015, only 43 percent of women in the United Kingdom held teaching positions in tertiary
education, whereas in Germany, the figure was 39 percent. In other parts of the world, the trend
remains the same; college and university teaching is a male-dominated arena (UNESCO, 2016).

These are the reasons why this study is intended to determine the obstacles faced by female
educational administrators in educational encounter and the challenges that they have in the
course of their service delivery so as to provide remedies to enhance the management of
educational institutions in the country.

2
1.2 Statement of the problem
Before Namibia gained independence, it is believed that women were not allowed to be school
heads or in any leadership position in education. Namibia has paid special attention to women’s
empowerment and gender equality, an integral part of its constitution, but yet again, Namibian
societies continue to discourage female educators with ambition from aspiring to leadership
positions. Despite progress made, significant challenges remain in programming for gender
equality. Women continue to be under-represented at most levels of decision making in public
and private sector, special committees, religious groups, boards and other institutions in the
community (National gender policy, 2008-2018). The purpose of this study is to investigate the
factors that prohibit Namibian female educators from taking up leadership positions in education
when there are documents addressing the gender bias in the country.

1.3 Research questions

 What are the factors that prohibit female educators from taking up leadership roles in
education?
 What are the possible solutions to these challenges?

1.4 Significance of the study

This study is designed to find out the factors that prohibit the female teachers from taking up
leadership positions in education. This study will be of much importance to the following school
stakeholders as summaries below:

Teachers

As other useful research done, this study will be very useful for the novice teachers who are
joining the teaching profession in Ohangwena region as they will be made aware of challenges
faced by the old gurus when they want to be promoted. The potential contribution to the study is
to add knowledge, provide equity, equal opportunity and improve fair access to decision-making
process on educational affairs regardless of which gender, field, position and qualification one
holds but based on shared leadership and its positive impact on teaching and learning outcomes.

Education administrators

3
The finding of the study may possible influence school inspectors, principals, head of
departments and teachers own leadership practice to be of growing material goods of cluster
linkage of interrelating separate within the educational setting

Policy makers

This study is very important because if the factors facing female teachers are found then the
ministry of education will have to revise their policies when promoting teachers. Policy makers
will also understand how school management are experiencing challenges in attempting to help
females to get in leadership.

Academicians

Above all, this study will benefit other researchers who wish to have similar studies as they can
get background information from the results of this study which will serve as a template to
modify their research. It will also be helpful to the student teachers in the field as to they will be
made aware of the factors before they start working.

1.5 Limitation of the study

The limitation of this study might be that because this is a case study, therefore the results cannot
be generalized to other regions because the results might differ due to the methods and research
instruments to be used in the process of gathering data. Hence the results of this study will be
strictly be applicable to Ohangwena Region only. Secondly, some respondents might be scared
of disclosing their information thinking that they are exposing their status to the public. In this
regards, the researcher will explain to the respondents that the information will be kept
confidential and that the information gathered will be used for academic purpose only. Lastly,
tight working schedules may result in respondents taking too long to respond to the appointment
seek. To resolve this, respondents will utilize a pick and drop concept on administering
questionnaires and interviews will be scheduled for minimum minutes such as 10 minutes and or
appointment will be made in advance.

1.6. Definition of key terms

Principal: A person who has the authority to supervise or direct, usually the head administrator
of a school building, thus; Elementary, Middle School, High School (dictionary.com).

4
Administrator: A person who has the authority to supervise or direct within a school district. In
this context administrator included the superintendents, assistant superintendents, principals,
assistant principals and district coordinators (dictionary.com).

Teacher: A person who has instructional responsibilities in a school classroom (Moorosi, 2013)

Female Education Administrators –female teachers in senior positions in both secondary and
primary schools (Moorosi, 2013)

Gender equality/parity refers to equality in provision of resources and opportunities in

education between the two genders (dictionary.com).

1.7. Conclusion
Chapter one has presented the problem and, its setting. The background to the study; statement
of the problem, research questions, significance of the study have been described in this chapter.
The limitations predicted to be encountered in the study have been explained. The next chapter is
a review of related literature on factors that prohibit female educators from becoming school
principals.

5
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction

Literature review refers to the activities involved in searching for information on the topic and
developing a comprehensive picture of the state of knowledge on that topic. This section will
shed more light on challenges faced female educators in acquiring leadership positions, the
theoretical frameworks supporting the study and possible solutions to challenges hindering
female educators to be principals.

2.2. Theoretical frameworks

This study was underpinned by the theory of feminism, and the discussion of feminism takes the
form of three strands, namely, liberal feminism, radical feminism and social feminism. The
liberal feminism was chosen because of the study focused on women educators and their under-
representation in principal positions particularly in secondary schools.

2.2.1 The theory of feminism and management

In this section the researcher used different feminist’s theories to understand how they view
gender issues. The Feminist theory is broad and can be divided into liberal feminism, radical
feminism and social feminism (Harding, 2015). These theories are used to explore how we can
comprehend social, cultural and historical practices which relate to the debates surrounding
issues of marginalization based on gender and such debates are relevant for this study (Hooks,
2013). This study explored gender-related challenges that female educators experience in their
appointment to senior positions of principalship in secondary schools. Hence, this sub-section
addresses feminist theories and their suggestions for school management.

According to Hooks (2013), feminism seeks justice for females and to eliminate gender
inequality. Feminism holds that women are not treated the same as men, and that there is a
necessity to encourage justice and the liberation of women (Hartmann, 2013). It is assumed that
if women are treated in the same way as men that would have an influence in allowing effective
school management (Oplatka & Hertz-Lazarowitz, 2016). The reason the study is located in this

6
theory is that, what I have consistently seen happening in secondary schools today can be better
understood from the perspectives of feminist theory. Feminist theory seems to provide an
explanation as to why women are under-represented in principal positions in education mainly in
secondary schools (Hooks, 2013).

Feminist theory critiques the notion of male supremacy and suggests that all people are created
equal and women should not be denied the equality of opportunities they deserve because of
their gender (Hartmann, 2013). These theories include liberal feminism, social feminism and
radical feminism. Liberal feminism suggests that both men and women should have equal rights
(Grant, 2015). Socialist feminist are concerned about the issues of social class while on the other
hand, radical feminist theory questions the notion of women as subordinates to men and looks at
patriarchy as the perpetrator of domination, exploitation and oppression of women by men
(Hartmann, 2013). Chancer and Watkins (2016) claim that the form of limitations that hinder
such progress and success should be eliminated. Feminist theories also suggest that all people are
created equal; therefore, one may argue that women should not be denied the equality of
opportunities they rightfully deserve because of gender. The next section pays special focus on
liberal feminism.

2.2.2 Liberal feminism

Liberal feminists fight for equal opportunities and aim to improve the condition of females
(Hartmann, 2013). Liberal feminists aim at eliminating all the barriers to education that causes
inequality among women as a disadvantaged gender from working towards their fullest potential
(Grogan, 2015). It fights against sex stereotypes and sex discrimination and advocate for equal
opportunities (Hooks, 2013). This study was located in liberal feminist because of its focus on
women who do not enjoy human rights; and therefore are arguably not free; women who do not
seen to be recognised by society as being capable to be appointed in principal positions.
Furthermore, this theory is useful in this study because it encourages female Deputies Principals
and Head of Departments to see themselves as capable, effective and good managers in schools
and who qualify to be principals. This theoretical framing was preferred because female
educators have for so long been deprived of senior positions of principals in secondary school
due the prejudices they suffer in the hands of their male counterparts.

7
Therefore, it is important to explore and gain insights about what is taking place in secondary
schools and understand what makes women educators to be under-represented in senior positions
such as that of principals as policy prescribes. Liberal feminists strive for equal opportunities and
present affirmative action as a significant approach to develop the position of females (Coffey &
Delamount, 2017). However, it is worth noting that the realization of equal opportunities is
hindered by factors such gender stereotypes, and these are based on the grounds which suggest
that the division of labour is not gender neutral (Eagly & Mladinic, 2015). Women’s unequal
treatment is unfair and must be remedied if the objectives of liberalism are to be achieved in the
society as a whole. Liberal feminists appeal to the central values of liberty, equality and fairness
for all to justify women’s rights (Grogan, 2015). Liberal feminists believe that access to equality
in education and school management position should be provided equally for both sexes. Any
laws that inhibit equal rights of men and females to participate in school management must be
banned (Morris, 2014). The next section focuses on radical feminism which is different from
liberal feminism.

2.2.3 Radical feminism

Radical feminists view women as biologically not as strong as men (Coffey & Delamount,
2017). There are two important concepts within radical feminism (Weiner, 2014). The first one is
patriarchy and the second is the universal oppression of women. Patriarchy is described by
Weiner (2014) as historical dominance of men over women. Universal political oppression of
women projects men the oppressors and women the oppressed.

These dynamics may have a bearing on how women are viewed and respected in leadership
positions as they give pointers to the nature of the challenges that women are experiencing in
schools. Pillay (2015) concurs with Weiner (2014) who argues that radical feminism view the
oppression of females as the most fundamental form of male domination and that patriarchal
power rests on the social meaning given to biological sexual differences between males and
females. Sharpe (2016) argues that one site where men have been and continue to be at the centre
is education management. This centrality is marked both by men’s numerical dominance and a
particular masculinity organizational hegemony (Grogan, 2015). Hence, one may argue that
female manager’s experiences are due to male domination and females have to perform their
management duties in the way that impresses men.

8
However, Lumby (2017) notes how this puts female managers under pressure to practice their
management in ways that are acceptable to men rather than developing their own unique styles
that draw from female experiences. A school is an organization which requires harmony and
good relationships in order to be successful but yet they are used as oppressive political factor for
perpetuating and conveying stereotyped images that prevent women from climbing the ladder
(Makura, 2015). It is not surprising that if some members of staff are to be dominant over the
others it usually causes tension, mismatch and resistance, and therefore undermines the
effectiveness of women in carrying out their duties. Male educators tend to despise working
under a female leader. This is due to the inculcated philosophy of patriarchy which makes them
to believe that they should always occupy leading position in society solely on the basis of their
gender.

2.2.4 Socialist feminist

The socialist feminist theory is grounded on the issue of social class and gender inequality
(Chancer & Watkins, 2016). This theory recommends extensive cultural and economic actions to
challenge both capitalism and patriarchy (Oplatka & Hertz-Lazarowitz, 2016). Such a theory
embraces the view that there should be equal chances for both men and women labours and
recommend policies that would escalate child care and family leave programmes and men’s
participation in domestic work (Nandraj, 2014). According to Nandraj (2014), socialist feminist
states that capitalism and patriarchy result in women’s subordination; those women are
manufactures of cheap labour, and that women are subject to capitalist oppression are
economically dependent on men.

2.3. Challenges faced female educators in acquiring leadership positions

Literature points to various challenges that female educators face in their duties within the
organization. These can be internal or external challenges which hinder the progress of women
aiming towards leadership (Coleman, 2014). Whatever the cause of these challenges, their
consequences constitute barriers to the educator’s progress. The next sections deal with both the
internal and the external challenges.

9
2.3.1 Internal challenges

Coleman, (2014) stated that society prescribes and divides individuals and ascribes roles to them
accordingly. In the African society, a mother is a caregiver to the family and supports the
husband in keeping a stable home. All these activities are evidently domestic roles. Internal
challenges are issues within women themselves which obstruct their progress in the day-to-day
work. Makura (2015) reveals that women’s progress is hindered as a result of multi roles.

Makura (2015) argued that, during office hours a female principal attend to leadership and
administrative duties with diligence. When she went home she need to switch roles to attend to
domestic duties as mother and a wife to a husband. While the family is supportive, they do not
shoulder a reasonable share of domestic duties with women. Towards the end of the day one will
be physically exhausted without much rest. This daily struggle wears out women and contributes
negatively in the process of balancing the work and family responsibilities. Even in the 21 st
century there is a glass ceiling shocking around women in positions of leadership (Cubillo &
Brown, 2016).

These circumstances mean that women are still prohibited from making a remarkable increase on
the top as it is a space dominated by males (Diko, 2017). This makes it difficult for them to move
to the next level of leadership because of too much responsibility that they are unable to compete
in actual world (Oplatka & Hertz-Lazarowitz, 2016). This scholar further suggests that many will
lose ambition to apply for promotion because of anxieties surrounding the thought of failure,
lack of awareness of the promotion system, gender based socialisation, low competitiveness, and
low self-esteem. Interrupted career development pattern are some of these internal challenges.

2.3.2 External challenges

External challenges are actual competition where men dominate and discourage the progress of
women (Coleman, 2014). These are issues that reside outside of women themselves but which
hinder their day-to-day duties. According to Diko, (2017), external challenges refer to
environmental factors which discourage the progress of women into the previously male
dominated world that women do not belong to the work place. This implies that when an
environment assumes that men’s values and practices are the norm for leadership, women are

10
excluded from principalship (Eagly & Mladinic, 2015). As a result, even in the School
Management Teams, under-representation of women has been witnessed. Those who are lucky to
aspire for and get into senior positions of management face discrimination (Coleman, 2014).

Some scholars view under-representation of women in principal positions as a result of male

dominated power structure and relations in schools (Morris, 2014; Coffey & Delamount, 2017).
Van der Westhuizen (2013) defines power as the ability and the manner in which an educational
leader executes his authority. Power is further defined by Jorgensen (2014) as a relation between
forces, and every relation between forces is a power relation. In the words of Morris, (2014),
where there is power there is resistance. According to these authors, power is everywhere.
However, Pillay (2015) expresses a different notion of power. Pillay (2015) claims that a
democratic perception of power means that one can attain decisive power by giving it to the
people who are led. Power structure and associations to schools not only reproduce male
dominance in educational administration, but also hinders the leadership chances of many
women (Oplatka & Hertz-Lazarowitz, 2016). Males end up-recruiting other males in principal
positions because leadership positions are dominated by them.

Power is over emphasized by different scholars because it is still adapted to the society and its
stereotypes of thinking hierarchy of male domination that leads to under-representation of
women in leadership positions (Inglehart & Wetzel, 2015). A wide range of research explains
why women are under-represented in education leadership (Cubillo & Brown, 2013; Oplatka &
Hert-Lazarowitz, 2016; Motshekga, 2013). Some of these challenges are societal and its
stereotype of thinking cultural background and gender discrimination.

2.3.3. Society and its stereotype of thinking

The consequential explanation is an old cultural stereotype which says that women cannot lead in
schools (Lumby, 2017). These are stereotypes that inform the ways in which women are treated
in the education sector (Lumby, 2017). According to this line of thought, the word leader is
associated with masculinity and patriarchal system still exists which maintains that women
cannot lead; people still believe that women’s place is in the kitchen (Gray, 2015). The
stereotypes of how women operate and how society expects them to operate, still exists.
Unfortunately, some men still hold such stereotypes which inform them that they can do one

11
thing at a time but women multi-task yet they are seen as inefficient by the society (Eagly &
Mladinic, 2014). This implies that when an environment assumes that men’s values and practices
are the norm for leadership, women are excluded from principals and those who are lucky to
aspire to senior management positions face discrimination (Coleman, 2014).

According to Gobler et al. (2016), outlook denies people’s individuality and restricts their
potentials. However, research indicates that competency, ability and capability are not related to
gender, therefore, the notion that women managers are less intelligent, emotionally unstable and
lack focus are also very disturbing (Lumby, 2017). Drawing the discussion above, it is evident
that gender has nothing to do with competency; therefore, what may be causing women to be
under-represented in principal positions could be related to the view that they have already been
prejudiced by the society. Based on the above findings, one may say it is clear that women
educators were making the effort and were the majority when it came to upgrading their
qualifications but they are not appointed to senior positions of principals.

Society and its stereotype of thinking state that men are better leaders than women (Growe &
Montgomery, 2016). Even though this may be the truth in some ways, one may state that women
are just as significant to leadership as men. Studies have shown that women lead differently from
men, yet barriers occur that obstruct them in excelling into higher positions (Jorgensen, 2014).
Nevertheless, one may say that there is a possible far reaching significance for female educators
since they lack formal power and respect. Consequently, they are under-represented in the
principal positions of the schooling system. A further significance of more males occupying
senior positions in secondary schools is that it increases men’s chances over females of moving
into the higher ranks of education administration in key personal positions(Mannah, 2018).This
view is supported by various scholars such as Diko (2017) and Ngcobo (2013) who confirm that
there are far less women than men occupying senior leadership positions education and that
patriarchal attitudes in the schooling system increase consistently, leaving many women
marginalized from development and the system defrauded of the gains of an integrated
workforce.

Patriarchal stereotypes frustrate a well-balanced understanding of reality to such a point that

even the oppressed become limited in their thinking (Schoeman, 2015). Similarly, Sharpe (2016)

12
indicates that the insight of gender in leadership positions makes men as natural or born leaders,
thus implying that females, as opposed to their male counter-parts, are likely to struggle in order
to become active leaders. Moreover, it is this reality that has drawn my attention and interest in
exploring the challenges faced by female educators into principal positions in secondary schools.

2.3.4. Cultural background

Culture creates has a tendency of giving power to the boys and not to the girls (Makura, 2015).
There is a possibility for conflict to start from individual fighting over power (Cubillo & Brown,
2016). Furthermore, one may argue that this conflict must be handled with tact and diplomacy
because it can be as a consequence of females trying to liberate themselves from outward male
domination (Makura, 2015). Therefore, one may say that being women at a time and in a
country, that pursues to empower women is in itself a power base.

A number of scholars have recommended numerous clarifications to account for

underrepresentation of women in principal positions in education especially in secondary
schools. All explanations revolve around cultural factors which link masculine features as a
contributing factor to effective leadership while feminine attributes and qualities contribute to
ineffective leadership (Bush &West-Burnham, 2015). This view is also shared by Blackmore
(2017) when arguing about the theories of management which give an impression that those who
practice management must have male qualities.

Nonetheless, one may argue that the under-representation of females at principal positions at
secondary schools stems from the problems both sociocultural and institutional. Mannah, (2018)
pointed out that in Indonesia the majority of teachers are women in almost all classrooms in
secondary schools, however they are not majority in numbers in the principalship roles. In other
words, women are under-represented in the position of principalships. According to the statistics
of the Namibian fifteenth school day report of 2017, in Ohangwena Region women make up the
largest percentage compared to men. However, the increase in the number of female teachers has
not been accompanied by a significant change in the proportion of women at principalship levels,
which are still dominated by men. Therefore, one may conclude that this is not only a Namibian
challenge but an international one as well.

13
2.3.5 Gender discrimination

Gender discrimination constitutes experiences of people based to their gender, due to unequal
power between males and females in society (Chancer & Watkins, 2016). Furthermore, Chancer
& Watkins (2016) state that these experiences conditioned by cultural background tend to
undermine females and make them feel inferior. Gender discrimination and freedom from
discrimination is contained in the Namibian Bill of Rights that people should be treated fairly
and without discrimination based on gender, race, or class (Replublic of Namibia, 1996a). In
terms of the provision of the Bill of Rights, female teachers and managers should also enjoy
protection from discrimination. A study conducted by Ngcobo (2013) on secondary schools
revealed that educators, both male and females, who have worked with female managers had
observed how gender biases against women result in discrimination against women in
management. Ngcobo’s (2013) study revealed that preconceived insights coming from prejudice
is considered to be real.

Gender bias is universal even though it undertakes different forms in different contexts
depending on the cultural, social and economic parameters that define gender relations (Morris,
2014). The negative attitudes of teachers at school reveal a certain influence from society that
shows discrimination by gender, race and class (Eagly & Mladinic, 2015). This emotion is
reinforced by Morris, (2014) who also points out that the cultures of the workplace can
discriminate and downgrade women from progressing professionally. This occurs against the
backdrop of male personnel who continuously network with the aim of perpetuating their
advantages as males. Some of the gendered issues that hinder women from applying for senior
positions are that of inequality and discrimination (Coleman, 2014). It is more connected to
power in teaching means challenging power throughout the society (Gray, 2015; Morojele,
2017). The downgrading of women can be credited to the consequence of particular power
relations in countries such as South African society (Grant, 2015). As a result, one may argue
that leadership not only became to be assumed as a male domain but also the privilege of an
individual in a formal position.

Moreover, Kattula (2016) contended that the present configuration of school administration is
inextricably woven with traditional gender definitions that are premised on males controlling

14
females. Women are viewed as capable when fulfilling the position of a classroom teacher;
however when it comes to the administrative level, women are not viewed in the same capacity,
(Kattula, 2016). One of the findings included the fact that while females have made progress
acquiring elementary principalships, they have made little progress in acquiring secondary
principalships.

2.3.6. Power dynamics between women and male counterparts

Gender and power reflects inequalities as well as imbalances (Connell, 2014). This scholar
further argues that if authority is defined as legitimate, then we can deduce that the main axis of
the power structure of gender is general connection of authority with masculinity (Connell,
2014). The assumption is that males are given first preference when it comes to promotion
because of the belief that females should remain subordinate to men. This assumption makes one
to go deeper in terms of understanding the subordinate position of female educators that hinders
their upward mobility in the leadership and management ladder in schools. Therefore, one may
argue that it leads to women being excluded by their male counter-parts in terms of doing other
managerial duties within the school.

Furthermore, the marginalization of female educators by male school managers through sexual
division of power and sexual division of labour is understood in a broader context (Connell,
2014). My personal experience as a principal in my circuit indicates that, many schools,
particularly secondary schools, are managed in a way that promotes patriarchy, where
management posts are earmarked for male educators. Even the interview committee is structured
in such a way that males are dominating in the panel lists. Evidently, that may contribute to
female interviewees feeling intimidated by their male counter-parts during the process of the
interview session. Connell (2003) argues that those with powers find their way to avoid the
gender equity legislation and other principles that speak to equity and side line their female
colleagues. Patriarchy becomes the order for the day.

Throughout the last century, the role of females in secondary education has undergone many
changes. The message women teach and men manage‖ still exists. Kattula (2016) states that
female presence has dominated the educational field, however, male presence has continued to
dominate the administrative positions within education. Furthermore, one may say that this

15
means that educators tell students that they can become anything they want as long as they have
the necessary will, determination and perseverance. However, tomorrow’s future leaders
continue to develop in an environment that reinforces and perpetuates gender. Nonetheless,
Kattula (2016) states that, what happens in schools influences what happens in society, vice
versa. Therefore this may indicate that the gender stratification that once existed still exists
today.

2.4. Possible solutions to challenges hindering female educators to be principals

Appointment of teachers to leadership positions is done internally or externally. Administrators

can therefore create enabling environment for female teachers to effectively participate in school
leadership and as well, they can hinder them from participating in leadership or even advancing
to leadership positions. Women must be present in leadership positions in education systems to
provide a gendered perspective on educational change and development (Bush & West-
Burnham, 2015).

The 4th World Conference on Women (1995), declared that, „gender sensitive education system
should be created to ensure full and equal participation of women in educational administration
and policy, and decision-making‟ (Beijing Declaration and, Platform for Action, 1995, IV,
Article 82). For women to effectively participate in leadership they must be fully equipped with
skills and understanding needed to participate in educational leadership and policy making at
both school and national level. The following strategies can be used to influence female
teachers‟ participation in leadership:

2.4.1. Influence of delegation on female teachers’ appointment and participation in

leadership

According to Grant (2015), learning and development activities are important means of
developing managers and gaining engagement and commitment of talented staff by giving the
staff opportunities to grow in their present roles to higher level roles. Female teachers with a
potential of leadership can be identified and ensuring that they have a sequence of experience
being given a chance to perform leadership roles under guidance of the head-teacher. Delegation
of duty helps in development of succession plan ensuring that there are people who can take key

16
roles and they are equipped with the right skills and attributes for the future. It helps to identify
potential, and who should be promoted, to what position and when.

2.4.2. Influence of mentorship on female teachers’ aspiration to leadership position

Grant (2015), defines mentoring as a method of helping people to learn. It involves learning on
job, which must always be the best way of acquiring particular skills and knowledge the job
holder’s needs. Weiner (2014) defines mentoring as a kind of apprenticeship for senior positions.
He further asserts that a senior member of staff assumes responsibility for the career
development of his or her subordinates. In a school a head teacher can therefore mentor teachers
in preparation for them to take up leadership positions. The person being mentored is provided
with the necessary administrative skills, knowledge and information for handling school matters.

The difference between a role model and a mentor is that mentors are older persons in an
organization who take younger colleagues under their wings and encourage and support their
careers. The mentor and protégé relationship is more continuous and complex than that of a role
model. Usually mentors are friends; career guides, sources of information about expectations and
strategies for advancement. A mentor is a transition figure who helps advance a protégés
personal growth and professional development, providing vision while helping the protégé to
develop his/ her own vision.

2.4.3. Influence of role modelling on female teachers’ participation in leadership

Unlike a mentor, a role model may not necessarily have a personal conduct with those who
admire them. Role models also play a substantial part in determining who teachers and students
handle their transition from one level of advancement to another (Diko, 2017).

2.4.4. Influence of training on female teachers’ participation in leadership

Chancer and Watkins, (2016) defines training as any learning activity which is directed towards
the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills for the purposes of an occupation task. Training
involves building the capacity of the employees in preparation to playing certain organizational
role. Head-teachers have a responsibility of organizing or recommending teachers for capacity
building courses, seminars and workshops so as to develop managers and administrators who can

17
handle school matters. It is therefore the duty of the head-teacher to make sure that female
teachers are involved in such events to enhance their participation in school leadership.

Makura, (2015) defines training as a process of providing junior employees with specific
knowledge and skills in order to enable to them to perform specific work duties. Development is
the process of providing senior employees with conceptual skills for performing general duties.
Makura, (2015) therefore points out that training is the provision of specific skills to the middle
and the lower cadre of workers and development implies the provision of general and conceptual
skills to the upper cadres of workers. Due to curriculum and technological changes, transfers and
promotions training is of great importance. It is therefore important to training teacher so as to
enhance their quality and quantity of output in their work. Training will also motivate female
teachers‟ participation in leadership. Training will also help to build and increase confidence and
self-esteem of the female teacher as well it will create acceptance from their male counter parts.
Training will also help in building a strong and stable succession plan (Makura, 2015).

Training is a key to any change project and takes a number of forms. In this study training takes
the form of acquiring news skills and competences that are necessary for school administration.
Training also can help teachers to undertake change by themselves and to acquire the right
attitudes towards female teachers‟ leadership in secondary schools. Training will give teachers
the ability to peruse continuous, improvement, once the change has been substantially achieved
or make them aware of the need for change and to win them over. There is need to give general
awareness training to those in the organization who might be indirectly affected (Hartmann,
2013). Training can also be done for culture change ensuring that the training targets at the right
people and groups.

Jorgensen, (2014) asserts that effective organization performance demands an understanding of

and response to, diversity which will necessitate a work climate that respects individuals‟
differences and treat all members of staff with dignity and mutual respect. Jorgensen notes that
training should involve increasing awareness and value of diversifying, education in
understanding the culture and values of members of a diverse workforce, developing skills of
effective diversity management, address brasses, prejudices and stereotypes. This study therefore

18
wishes to establish administrative strategies used by secondary school head-teachers to enhance
female teachers‟ promotion to school leadership.

2.4.5. Supporting female educators through policy implementation

Policies are considered as a key driving force in providing support for educators including
female educators. The appropriate legislation includes the South African Schools Act (No. 84 of
1996); the National Education Policy (No. 27 of 1996) and the Skills Development Act (No. 97
of 1998). In other words, if these policies are implemented correctly, we will be able to see
women occupying principal positions such as principals in primary and secondary schools. These
policies set the values and the framework for non-discrimination and are centered on human
rights protection, social justice and democracy (Eagly & Mladinic, 2015). When such policies
are in place, females need to be well-informed of them and immediate implementation need to
take place.

However, it is also recommended that in order for people to implement policy they must have
skills and knowledge (Fester, 2015). For instance, women School Management Team members
need to interact with these policies so that they can get a clear understanding on how they should
be implemented. In that way, they will be able to challenge their male counter-parts if they are
implemented incorrectly. Successful implementation of policy depends on two main factors,
namely, the will and local capacity (Eagly & Mladinic, 2015). The will factor involves
individual’s motivation accompanied by beliefs, attitudes and implementers reaction. Motivation
as defined by Heystek, et al. (2008) is the force that energizes behaviours and gives direction to
behaviour.

These policies mentioned earlier on as indicated in the Department of Education Manual on

Instrumental Leadership (Department of Education, 2000) aimed to promote fairness, diversity
and human right protection. These policies encourage ambitious women who assume school
management positions and to accept a style of management which supports the values of gender
equity. One may argue that policies are there but people need to understand and acquaint
themselves with them. Nonetheless, one may also state that people who are the custodians of
these policies need to make the policies available to everyone.

19
2.5. Conclusion

In this chapter, literature has been reviewed with particular reference to challenges faced by
female educators into resuming principal positions in schools both international and locally. This
chapter has also presented a theoretical framework which was used to analyse the research.
Furthermore, the chapter has revealed the theories underpinning the study and it drew from
feminist theory. Feminist theory analyses the concept of male authority and suggests that
leadership is not a biological function of a male. Meanwhile, policy implementation to support
female educators suggests that the successful policy implementation depends on implementers
will. The next section will discuss the design and methodology that will be utilised in the study.

20
 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction

This chapter will present the methods that will be adopted for the gathering of data related in

answering the study questions. It explored separate components such as the research design,

study population, sample design, data collection, and data analysis procedures which will be used

in this study.

3.2. Research paradigm

A research paradigm is an approach or a research model to conducting a research that has been

verified by the research community for long and that has been in practice for hundreds of years

(Creswell, 2014). Creswell added that, most of the research paradigms emerge from one of the

two of the approaches to research that are positivist approach and interpretivism approach. In this

study, the researcher will utilize the interpretivism approach. According to Gay, Mills and

Airasian, (2016), interpretivists believe that human behavior is multilayered and it cannot be

determined by pre-defined probabilistic models. They indicated that, it depends on the situations

and is determined by environmental factors other than the genes. A human behavior is quite

unlike a scientific variable which is easy to control. Human behaviors are affected by several

factors and are mostly subjective in nature Gay et al (2016). Therefore interpretivistic believe in

studying human behavior in the daily life rather than in the controlled environment and due to

this motive the researcher have adopted this paradigm in this study.

21
3.3. Research approach

Research approach is a plan and procedure that consists of the steps of broad assumptions to

detailed method of data collection, analysis and interpretation (Davies & Hughes, 2014). The

added that it is therefore, based on the nature of the research problem being addressed. Matthews

and Ross, (2010) claimed that research approach is essentially divided into two categories thus

approach of data collection and approach of data analysis or reasoning. This research will adopt a

qualitative research approach. Silverman, (2011) claims that qualitative research is the approach

usually associated with the social constructivist paradigm which emphasises the socially

constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the

deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and experience, including contradictory

beliefs, behaviours and emotions (Silverman, 2011). Therefore, the researcher will adopt this

because she is interested in gaining a rich and complex understanding of people’s experience and

not in obtaining information which can be generalized to other larger groups.

3.4. Research design

The study will use a case study research design which is a qualitative research approach in which

a researcher will focus on a unit of study (Creswell, 2014). The main advantage of this type of

design is that it enables the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding and meaningful social

action and experiences.

3.5. Population of the study

Gay and Mills (2016), describes the research population as the entire group of individuals, events

or objects that have common observable characteristics or any group who is the subject of

research interest or want to study. They further argues that it is not practical or possible to study

an entire population, thus, the researcher can determine the average of a group to consider for the

22
study and to make a general findings based on the sample. In this study, the population will

compromise of the total number of educators and principals in Ondobe Circuit.

3.6 Sample and Sampling Procedures

A sample is any subset of the elements of the population that is obtained for the purpose of being

studied Davies, and Hughes, (2014). A purposive non- probability sampling method will be

employed in this study. The sample size will be based on data saturation, which is the point at

which newly collected data no longer provides additional insights (Brink, Walt & Rensburg,

2012). A certain number of respondents will be reached when it is found sufficient for this study

basing on the data saturation technique which will be adopted under this study.

3.7. Data collection process

This will be the process whereby the data will be collected. During data collection, the researcher

will be guided by five important questions: What data to be collected, how will the data be

collected, who to collect the data, where will the data be collected and when will the data be

collected (Brink et al. 2012). Face to face in-depth will be individually and in the same manner

to each and every participant until the data collection is completed. Audio tape and notes will be

used to record information during the interview with the consent of the participants.

3.7.1 Pilot testing

A pilot study will be used to verify whether the data collection instrument which will be used is

useful or appropriate for the study. On other hand it will be made to bring about changes before

the actual data collection commences. The researcher will do a pilot study with 4 participants

(educator from another circuit) in Ohangwena Region. If the pilot study detects any errors in the

research instrument, the researcher will rectify the error immediately as they are recognized

23
before actual data collection. The participants to be involved in pilot study will not form part of

the actual data collection; therefore, quality results will be gathered with appropriate instruments.

3.7.2. Interviews

A face to face in-depth will be used to get information from the principals and teachers. Creswell

(2014:410) stated that “face to face in-depth discussion are useful for asking sensitive questions

and enabling interviewees to ask questions or provide comments that go beyond the initial

question”. This method will allow principals and teachers to reveal unique characteristics of their

individual perceptions in their own private space without fear of being judged or critiqued by

others. In addition, the participants might have varying experiences with regard to factors that

prohibit female educators from becoming school principals. Individual interviews will enable the

researcher to gather rich information from the targeted participants. All the interviews will be

carried for less than 10 minutes in the offices of the various principals and targeted teachers.

3.7.3. Document analysis

The researcher will collect information from various places, text books and some desktop

researches. Written sources such as public statements, sector analysis and internet will be also

used to obtain data. Various publications and manuals on employee empowerment will be

utilized in this particular study. Questions will be designed in a way that they will be short, clear

and concise, and this will be done as second hand information as the researcher will manage to

summarize the information in order to have a balanced approach to data collection. The

researcher will use this data to identify what other scholars said on his research problem and to

see whether they is any gap between the theoretical and empirical evidence.

24
3.8 Data Collection Procedures

The researcher will make appointments with the participants who confirmed to be interested in

taking part in this nature of research in a period of one week before the actual day of the

interviews. This will be done to avoid interruption on participants with their usual duties. The

researcher will record the conversations during the interview using a voice recorder in the form

of audios. Individual interviews will enable the researcher to gather rich information from the

participants. All the gathered data will be noted down in the researcher’s diary together with

audios for further data processing.

3.9. Data Analysis

A thematic technique will be used to analyse collected data. A thematic analysis is a qualitative

analytic method for ‘identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data. It

minimally organises and describes the data set in (rich) detail. The researcher will transcribe the

data into a word processing package. The transcription involved judgments about what level of

detail chosen (e.g. omitting non-verbal dimensions of interaction), data interpretation (e.g.

distinguishing 'I don't, no' from 'I don't know') and data representation (e.g. representing the

verbalization 'hwarryuhh' as 'How are you?'). Representation of audible and visual data into

written form is an interpretive process which is therefore the first step in analysing data

(Creswell, 2014). The researcher will code the data findings into themes. Data coding will

involve looking for similar words or phrases mentioned by the interviewees. After the researcher

get these phrases, he will put them into categories/themes. The researcher will finally, generalize

from the themes about the phenomena in question and interpret in the light of the available

literature.

25
3.10. Ethical Considerations

The researcher will seek a permission letter from AMADI-MSU that will be used to introduce

himself to the participants of the study. Furthermore, the researcher will inform the participants

about the purpose of the study and seek their consent to voluntarily participate in the study. The

researcher will also inform the participants that everything will be treated with confidentiality

and in order to ensure that, the researcher will inform the participants not to mention their names.

The researcher will also acknowledge all sources of reference that will be used in the study.

3.11. Conclusion

The data to be gathered will be screened to remove spoiled audios and notes for further analysis.

The screened data will be organized and presented using themes. Data will be edited to

eliminate inconsistencies, summarized and coded for easy classification in order to facilitate

establishment of themes and interpretation in chapter four.

26
REFERENCE

Blackmore, J. (2017). Troubling women: Feminism, leadership and educational change.

Buckingham. Open University Press.

Brink, H., Walt, C & Rensburg, G. (2012). Fundamentals of Research Methodology for
Healthcare Professionals (3rd Ed). . Cape Town, South Africa: Juta & Company Ltd.

Bush, T. & West-Burnham, J. (2015). The principles and practice of educational management.
Leicester: Longman.

Chancer, L.S., & Watkins, B.X. (2016). Gender, race and class: An overview. London: Blackwell
Publishers.

Coffey, A. & Delamount, S. (2017). Feminism and the classroom teacher: Research praxis
pedagogy. London: Routledge.

Coleman, M. (2014). Managing for equal opportunities: The gender issue. In T. Bush & D.
Middlewood (Eds). Managing people in education. London: Paul Chapman. Publishing.

Connell, R. W. (2014). Gender and power: society, the person and sexual politics, Cambridge:
Polity Press.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Educational Research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative
and qualitative research. (4th Ed.) London: Pearson.

Cubillo, L. & Brown, M. (2013). Women in educational leadership and management:

international differences. Journal of educational administration 41(3), 278-291.

Cubillo, L. & Brown, M. (2016). Women in educational leadership and management:

international differences. Journal of educational administration 41(3), 278-291.
Davies, M., & Hughes, N. (2014). Doing a successful research projects: Using qualitative or
quantitative methods. (2nd ed). New York: Macmillan.

Diko, N. (2017). Changes and Continuities: Implementation of Gender Equality in a South

African High School. Africa Today. 54 (1), 107-116.

27
Eagly, A. H. & Mladinic, A. (2014). Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from
research on attitudes, gender stereotypes and judgements of competence. European
review of social psychology.

Eagly, A. H. & Mladinic, A. (2015). Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from
research on attitudes, gender stereotypes and judgements of competence. European
review of social psychology.

Fester, G. (2015). Women writing for their rights. Agenda, 46, 42-47.
Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2016) Education Research: Competencies for analysis
and applications. New York, NY: Pearsons.

Gobler, P., Warnich, S., Carrel, M.R., Nobert, F.T., & Hatfield, R.D. (2016). Human resources
in South Africa (3rd Ed). United Kingdom: Thomson Learning.

Grant, R. (2015). Women teacher’s pathways: Towards an alternative model of ―career‖. In S.

Ecker (Ed). Rethinking Teacher‘s Career. London: Falmer Press.

Gray, H. L. (2015). Gender considerations in school management: Masculine and feminine

leadership styles. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Grogan, M. (2015). Voices of women aspiring to the superintendence. New York: New York
Press.

Growe, R., & Montgomery, P. (2016). Women and the leadership paradigm: Bridging the gender
gap. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 17 E (4).

Harding, S. (2015). Introduction: Is there a feminist method? In S. Harding (Ed). Feminist and
methodology, (112-127). Bloomington: Indian University.

Hartmann, H. (2013). The unhappy marriage of marxism and ferminism, towards a more
progressive union, in The Second Wave: a reader in Feminist theory: Nicholson, L. (Ed).
New York: Routledge.

Hooks, B. (2013). Feminist theory: from margin to centre. London: Pluto press

Inglehart, R. & Welzel, C. (2015). Modernisation, cultural change and democracy: the human
development sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Jorgensen, K. M. (2014). Power without glory: a genealogy of a management decision.

Copenhagen: Business School Press.

Kattula, H.S. (2016). Women and the high school principalship: metropolitan Detroit principals‘
and superintendents‘ perceptions regarding barriers and facilitators for job attainment.
Digital Commons: Wayne State University.
http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/oa_dissertations

28
Lumby, J. (2017). Women principals in small schools in South Africa: A case study of leaders in
South African primary school. Australian Journal of Education, 55 (1) 73-85.

Makura, A. H. (2015). The challenges faced by female primary school heads: the Zimbabwean
experience. Unpublished thesis, University of Fort Hare, King William’s Town.

Mannah, S. (2018). The experiences of women leaders in the South African Democratic
Teachers‘ Union. Unpublished thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal. Durban.
Matthews, B., & Ross, L. (2010). Research methods: A practical guide for social sciences.
London: Pearson.

Morojele, P. (2017). What does it mean to be a girl? Implications of girls’ and boys’ experience
of gender roles in rural Lesotho Primary Schools. Education as Change, 15(1) 133-147.

Morris, J. (2014). Managing women: High school principals in Trinidad and Tobago: Gender
and education. 11. (343-355).

Motshekga, A. (2013). Only 36% of school principals are women

http//www.citypress.co.zaspeech.pdf

Nandraj, S. (2014). Gender imbalances in positions of leadership at schools. Unpublished Med.

Thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.

Ngcobo, N. (2013). Exploring women school principals’ management experiences: Evidence

from Mafukuzela-Gandhi Circuit, Pinetown district. Unpublished Med. Thesis,
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.

Oplatka, I. & Hertz-Lazarowitz (Eds.). (2016). Women principals in a multi-cultural society:

New insights into feminist educational leadership. London: Paul Chapman.

Pillay, A. R. (2015). Women principals in KwaZulu-Natal reshaping the landscape of

educational leadership. Unpublished thesis, Durban: University of KwaZulu-Natal.

Schoeman, P.G. (2015). Ideology, culture and education. Bloemfontein: Tekskor.

Sharpe, R. (2016). As leaders, women rule. Business week. 3708.

Silverman, D. (Ed.). (2011). Qualitative research: Issues of theory, methods& practice. (3rd Ed.).
Los Angeles: Sage.

Van der Westhuisen, P.C. (2013). Effective educational management. (1st Ed). Pretoria.Kagiso
Tertiary.

Weiner, G. (2014). Feminism in Education: An introduction: Buckingham: Open University

Press.

29
30