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EMT1
EMT1
~E
∇· ~ = ρ Gauss's law
0
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 Magnetic monopoles do not exist
~ = − ∂B
~
~ ×E
∇ Faraday's law
∂t
∇ × B = µ0~J
~ ~ Ampere's law
~E
∇· ~ = ρ
ˆ ˆ0
~ · Ed
~ 3r = ρ 3
∇ d r
0
˛
q
E~ · d ~S = encl The integral form of Gauss's law (1)
s 0
~B
∇· ~ =0
˛
B~ · d ~S = 0 Net magnetic ux enclosed by a closed surface
(2)
Maxwell's Equations
I
~ = − ∂B
~
~ ×E
∇
∂t
ˆ ˆ ~
~ · d ~S = − ∂ B · d ~S
~ ×E
∇
s ˛ s ∂t
dφ
E~ · d~l = − Integral form of Faraday's law (3)
dt
~ ×B
∇ ~ = µ0~J
ˆ ˆ
∇ × B · d S = µ0~J · d ~S
~ ~ ~
S ˛
B~ · d~l = µ0 Iencl Integral form of Ampere's law
(4)
Maxwell's Equations
~ =−∂ ∇
~ ×E ~ ·B
~ · ∇
∇ ~ =0
∂t
I But
~ ×B ~ · ~J 6= 0
~ · ∇
∇ ~ = µ0 ∇ in general
S2 S1
φs1 + φs2 = 0
φs1 = −φs2
∂E
!
~
~ · ~J = − ∂ρ = − ∂ 0 ∇
~ ·E
∇ ~ = −∇
~ · 0
∂t ∂t ∂t
E
!
∂ ~
~ · ~J + 0
∇ =0
∂t
~ = µ0~J + µ0 0 ∂ E
~
~ ×B
∇
∂t
~ ×B
~
Taking divergence of the above Eq. yeilds zero:∇ · ∇ ~ =
~E
~ · ~J + ∂ µ0 0 ∇·
µ0 ∇ ~ = −µ0 ∂ρ + µ0 0 1 ∂ρ = 0
∂t ∂t 0 ∂ t
So this xes the problem !!
Maxwell's Fourth Equation :
I The dierential form
~ = µ0~J + µ0 0 ∂ E
~
~ ×B
∇
∂t
I The integral form
ˆ ˆ
∂E
!
~
~ ×B
~ · d ~S = µ0~J + µ0 0 · d ~S
∇
s ∂t
˛ ˆ
∂E
~
B~ · d~l = µ0 Iencl + µ0 0 · d ~S
∂t
I Such a modication changes nothing as far as magnetostatics
is concerned: when E~ is constant we still have ~ ×B
∇ ~ = µ0~J .
In fact Maxwell's term is hard to detect in ordinary e.m.
experiments where it must compete for recognition with ~J .
Maxwell's Fourth Equation :
I Apart from curing the defect in Ampere's law, Maxwell's term
has a certain aesthetic appeal. Just as changing magnetic eld
induces an electric eld so also a changing electric eld
induces a magnetic eld.
J~d = 0 ∂∂E~t
I Resolution of the paradox:
I If the capacitor plates are close to each other then electric eld
between the plates
σ Q
E= =
0 0 A
∂E 1 dQ I
= =
∂t 0 A dt 0 A
Now ˛ ˆ
∂E
~
B~ · d~l = µ0 Iencl + µ 0 0 · d ~S
∂t
Maxwell's Fourth Equation :
~ ·E
∇ ~ =0 (5)
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 (6)
~ = − ∂B
~
~ ×E
∇ (7)
∂t
~ = µ0 0 ∂ E
~
~ ×B
∇ (8)
∂t
Taking curl of Eq.7we have
~ =−∂ ∇
~ ×E ~ ×B
~ × ∇
∇ ~
∂t
E
!
∂ ∂ ~
~ ·E
~ −∇ E
~ ∇ 2 ~ =−
∇ µ0 0
∂t ∂t
∂2E
~
∇2 E
~ = µ0 0
∂t 2
EM waves :
I Similarly by taking curl of Eq.8 we get
∂2B
~
∇2 B
~ = µ0 0
∂t 2
I We see that in vacuum each cartesian component of E~ and
B~ satises the three dimensional wave equation
1 ∂2f
∇2 f =
v 2 ∂t 2
I So Maxwell's equations implt that empty space supports the
propagation of em waves travelling at a speed
1
v=√ = 3 × 108 m/sec
µ0 0
u (x , t ) = A exp (i (kx ± ωt ))
for waves travelling towards left and right. Here ω = kv
3D Wave equation :
∂2E
~ ∂2E
~
= µ 0 0
∂x 2 ∂x 2
E = E0 exp (i (kx − ωt ))
~ ~
~ 0 exp i ~k · ~r − ω t
=E
I ~k · ~r in rotated frame=kx 0 .
I Wavefront ~k · ~r = const.= ω t + φ.
I At xed t this is the equation of a plane normal to ~k , whose
ω t +φ
distance from the origin = .
|~k |
ω∆t
I t → t + ∆t the plane shifts by
|~k |
I So we get a plane wavefront normal to ~k moving with a speed
ω
.
|~k |
Helmholtz Equation :
1 ∂2u
∇2 u =
v 2 ∂t 2
Using the separation ansatz u (~r , t ) = U (~r ) T (t )
T (t ) = exp (−i ωt )
where ω = ±kv . For the spatial part we have
∇2 + k 2 U=0
d 2 dU
1
r + k 2U = 0
r 2 dr dr
d 2 U 2 dU
+ + k 2U = 0
dr 2 r dr
d 2U dU
r 2 + 2 + k 2 rU = 0
dr dr
Helmholtz Equation :
kr − ωt = −ωt0
ω t0 = ω t − kr
which implies
t0 < t
Helmholtz Equation :
kr + ωt = ωt0
which implies
t < t0
which is an impossibility.
Poynting Vector, Poynting's Theorem :
I Energy needed to assemble a system of charges by bringing
them in from innity:
q1 q2 q1 q3 q1−n qn
1
W= + + ............ +
4π0 r12 r13 r1−n,n
n n
X X qi qj n
X qi qj
1 1 1
= =
4π0 r
i =1 j =i +1 ij
2 4π0 r
i 6=j =1 ij
n n
1 1 qj 1
qi qi Vi
X X
= =
2 4π0 rij 2
i =1 j =1
I For continuum
ˆ
1
W = ρ (~r ) V (~r ) d 3 r
2
V falls o at least as
1
r so the surface integral vanishes when
the surface is taken at innity]. Therefore
ˆ
0
W = E 2d 3r
2 all space
I So we have ˆ
0
We = E 2d τ
2
Similarly ˆ
1
Wm = B 2d τ
2 µ0
Poynting Vector, Poynting's Theorem :
I Total energy stored in em elds
ˆ
1 1
Uem = 0 E 2 + B 2
dτ
2 µ0
dW = F~ ·d~l = F
~ · ~v dt = q E~ + ~v × B
~ · ~v dt = q E
~ · ~v dt
Therefore
dW
= qE
~ · ~v
dt
for a point charge.
I For a charge distribution
ˆ ˆ ˆ
dW
= ρd τ E
~ · ~v = d τ E~ · (ρ~v ) = E~ · ~Jd τ
dt V V
Poynting Vector, Poynting's Theorem :
I So E
~ · ~J is the work done per unit time per unit volume or the
power delivered per unit volume. Now
~ = µ0~J + µ0 0 ∂ E
~
~ ×B
∇
∂t
~ · ∂E
1 ~
E~ · ~J = E~ · ~ − 0 E
~ ×B
∇
µ0 ∂t
Now
~ · E~ ×B
~ =B ~ ×E
~ −E ~ ×B
∇ ~ · ∇ ~ · ∇ ~
Hence
1 ∂E
~
E~ · ~J = B · ∇ × E − ∇ · E × B − 0 E~ ·
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
µ0 ∂t
~ · ∂ B − 0 E
~ · ∂E − 1 ∇
1 ~ ~
=− B ~ · E~ ×B
~
µ0 ∂t ∂t µ0
Poynting Vector, Poynting's Theorem :
1 ∂ 1 1
E~ · ~J = − 0 E +
2
B 2 ~ · E~ ×B
− ∇ ~
2 ∂t µ0 µ0
I Therefore rate of work done on charge by em eld:
ˆ ˛
dW d
1 1 1
0 E 2 + B2 dτ − E~ × B~ · d ~S
=−
dt dt 2 µ0 µ0 S
I The energy per unit time per unit area transported by the
elds is called the Poynting vector given by
1
~S = E~ × B~
µ0
Maxwell's Equations in free space (no sources, vacuum):
I In free space ρ = 0 and ~j = 0. Maxwell's eqns. take the form
~ ·E
∇ ~ =0
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0
~ = − ∂B
~
~ ×E
∇
∂t
~ = µ0 0 ∂ E = 1 ∂ E
~ ~
∇~ ×B
∂t c 2 ∂t
Now
E~ =E i ~k · ~r − ωt
~ 0 exp
B~ = B~ 0 exp i ~k · ~r − ωt
~ ·E
∇ ~ = i ~k · E
~ = 0 =⇒ ~k · E
~ =0
~ ·B
∇ ~ = i ~k · B
~ = 0 =⇒ ~k · B
~ =0
~ ≡ i ~k
∇
and
∂
≡ −i ω
∂t
From
~ = − ∂B
~
~ ×E
∇
∂t
i ~k × E~= i ωB
~
~k × E
~
B~ =
ω
From
~ ×B
~ = 1 ∂E
~
∇
c 2 ∂t
Maxwell's Equations in free space :
we have
iω
i ~k × B~ = − 2 E~
c
ω 2
~k × ~k × E ~ =− E
~
c2
2
~k ~k · E
~ −E~ ~k · ~k = − ω E
~
2 c
ω2
k2 =
c2
ω = ±ck
Meaning of Complex EM elds :
I The Maxwell's equations are real and linear.
E~ =E i ~k · ~r − ωt
I So when we say ~ 0 exp with
E~ 0 = E~ 0 e i φ
what we really mean is that
E~ = E k r t
~
0 cos ~ · ~ − ω + φ
ã = a0 e i (kx −ωt )
b̃ = b0 e i (kx −ωt )
Now
ˆ T
|a0 | |b0 |
habitime = 2 cos (kx − ω t + φa ) cos (kx − ω t + φb ) dt
T 02
|a0 | |b0 |
= cos (φa − φb ) T
2T
Re ∗
ã b̃
=
2
E~ ∗ × H~
!
Therefore
~S = Re
D E
2
Conservation of momentum in EM elds :
Trouble with Newton's Third Law:
Y
Fe I The electric forces are opposite to
q2⊗ Fm
each other.
~f = ρE
~ + ~j × B
~
~ − µ0 0 ∂ E
" #
1 ~
~ ·E~ E ~ ×B ×B
= 0 ∇ ~ + ∇ ~
µ0 ∂t
I Now
∂ ~S ∂ ~ ~ ∂ E~
~ × ∂B
~
µ0 = E ×B = ×B
~ +E
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
∂E ~ ~
~
×B −E × ∇~ ×E
= ~
∂t
Maxwell's Stress Tensor :
I Therefore
~f + µ0 0 ∂ S = 0 ∇
~
~ ·E~ E~ + 1 ∇ ~ ×B ~ ×B ~ − 0 E ~ ×E
~ × ∇ ~
∂t µ0
~ ·E~ E~ −E ~ ×E
h i
= 0 ∇ ~ × ∇ ~
1
~ ·B
~ B ~ −B ~ ×B
+ ∇ ~ × ∇ ~
µ0 | {z }
=0
I
E~ × ~ ×E = ijk Ej ∇~ ×E
h i
Now ~ ~
∇
i k
= ijk Ej klm ∂l Em
= kij Ej klm ∂l Em
= δil δjm − δim δjl Ej ∂l Em
= Ej ∂i Ej − Ej ∂j Ei
1
= ∂i E 2 − Ej ∂j Ei
2
Maxwell's Stress Tensor :
~S
" #
~f + µ0 0 ∂ 1
= 0 (∂j Ej ) Ei + Ej ∂j Ei − ∂i E 2
∂t 2
i
1 1
+ (∂j Bj ) Bi + Bj ∂j Bi − ∂i B 2
µ0 2
1 1 1
= 0 ∂j (Ei Ej ) − E 2 δij + ∂j (Bi Bj ) − B 2 δij
2 µ0 2
= ∂j Tij
Therefore
~ ·←
~f = ∇ → ∂ ~S
T − µ0 0
∂t
The total force on the charges (using the divergence theorem)Pg
353 (Griths)
‰ ˆ
←
→ d
F~ = T · d~a − µ0 0 ~Sd τ (9)
S dt V
Conservation of Momentum :
I We can write Eq. 9 in the form
ˆ ‰
d ~pmech d ~Sd τ + ←
→
= −µ0 o T · d~a (10)
dt dt V S
where ~pmech is the total mechanical momentum of the
particles contained in the volume V.
I This expression is similar in structure to Poynting's theorem.
I The rst integral represents momentum stored in the em elds
ˆ
~pem = µ0 0 ~Sd τ
V
~pem = µ0 0 ~S
∂ ~ ·←
→
T
~pmech + ~pem = ∇
∂t
←
→
I Here −T is the momentum ux density playing the role of ~J
in the continuity equation or ~S in Poynting's theorem.
Angular Momentum :
I The energy carried by the em elds
1 1
uem = 0 E +
2
B 2
2 µ0
and momentum
~pem = µ0 0 ~S = 0 E~ ×B
~
~lem = ~r × ~pem = 0 ~r × E~ ×B
h i
~
I The electric eld pulls the electrons and nucleus apart their
mutual attraction drawing them together -this when it reaches
a balance leaves the atom polarized.
N~ = ~p × E~
N~ is in such a direction as to line ~p parallel to E~ .
I The eect is the same in both cases-the material is polarized.
Electric elds in matter :
~ ·E
0 ∇ ~ = ρ = ρf + ρb
~ · P
~ + 0 E
∇ ~ = ρf
~ ·D
∇ ~ = ρf
~ = µ0~J + µ0 0 ∂ E
~
~ ×B
∇
∂t
I ~Jp = ∂ P~
Due to change in electric polarization we have
∂t and
~Jf is the current due to free charges.
Therefore
~ ×B ∂P~ ∂E
~
∇ × M + µ0 + µ0~Jf + µ0 0
∇ ~ = µ0 ~ ~
∂t ∂t
B~ ~
!
∂
−M = 0 E
~ +P~ + ~Jf
~ ×
∇
µ0 ∂t
Electric and Magnetic elds in matter :
~ = ∂ D + ~Jf
~
~ ×H
∇
∂t
where
D~ = 0 E~ + P~
B~ ~
H~ = − M
µ0
Boundary Conditions :
I The elds E
~, B
~, D
~ and H
~ will be discontinuous at a boundary
between two dierent media or at a surface that carries charge
density σ or surface current density K~ .
I The integral form of Maxwell's equations
˛
D~ · d~a = Qf encl
˛S
B~ · d~a = 0
˛S ˆ
d
E~ · d~l = − B~ · d~a
˛
dt S ˆ
d
H~ · d~l = If encl + D~ · d~a
dt s
I Considering a wafer thin pill box straddling the surface from
the rst equation we have
D~ 1 · ~a − D~ 2 · ~a = σf a
D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σf
Boundary Conditions :
I Similarly we have
B~ 1 · ~a − B~ 2 · ~a = 0
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
H~ 1 · ~l − H~ 2 · ~l = If encl
l θ
~λ
K~
I = Kl cos ϑ
We choose a vector ~λ on the surface with length l and
l .
~
perpendicular to
Boundary Conditions :
K~ · ~λ = Kl cos ϑ = n̂ × ~l · K~
Therefore
H1k − H2k = K~ f × n̂
Vector and Scalar Potentials :
Recap
I ~ ×E
∇
Electrostatics ~ = 0 =⇒ E ~V
~ = −∇
I ~ ·B
Magnetostatics ∇ ~ = 0 =⇒ B ~ ×A
~ =∇ ~
I On to electrodynamics:
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0
is still valid!
B~ = ∇
~ ×A
~
The new thing is A~ may also be time dependent.
~ ×E
I ∇ ~ 6= 0 In electrodynamics E
~ is no longer
conservative!
~ = − ∂B = − ∂ ∇ ∂A
!
~ ~
~ ×E ~ ×A
∇ ~ =∇~ × −
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂A
!
~
~ ×
∇ E~ + =0
∂t
Vector and Scalar Potentials :
~ + ∂A
I E ~ ~V
−∇
∂t is irrotational and can be written as
∂A
~
E~ ~V −
= −∇
∂t
I To summarize
~ V − ∂A
~
E~= −∇
∂t
B =∇×A
~ ~ ~
Gauge Transformations :
~ V − ∂A
~
E~= −∇
∂t
B =∇×A
~ ~ ~
~ V 0 − ∂ A = −∇
~0
E~ →E ~ V0 − ∂ A
~ 0 = −∇ ~ + ∇χ
∂t ∂t
∂A
~ ∂
= −∇V 0 − − ∇χ
∂t ∂t
∂A
~
∂χ
= −∇ V + 0
−
∂t ∂t
I To get E~ =E
~0 we must have
∂χ
∇ V 0
+ = ∇V
∂t
Therefore
∂χ
V0 = V −
∂t
upto a constant.
Gauge Transformations :
I The transformations
A~ → A~ 0 = A~ + ∇χ
∂χ
V → V0 = V −
∂t
~ = ρ
~ ·E
∇
0
~ = µ0~j + µ0 0 ∂ E
~
~ ×B
∇
∂t
~ · ∂A = ρ
~
−∇2 V − ∇ (11)
∂t 0
and
~ + µ0 0 ∂ A + µ0 0 ∂ ∇
2~
~ ·A
~ − ∇2 A ~ V = µ0~j
~ ∇
∇ (12)
∂t 2 ∂t
Coulomb Gauge :
I By exploiting Gauge freedom we can choose
~ ·A
∇ ~ =0
I In Eq. 11 putting ~ ·A
∇ ~ =0 we have
ρ
∇2 V = −
0
.
∂2 ~ ∂V
1 1
∇ A − 2 2A
2~
= µ0~j − ~
∇
c ∂t c 2 ∂t
Coulomb Gauge:
I From
ρ
∇2 V = −
0
I For potentials which vanish innitely far away we get
ˆ
1 ρ (~r 0 , t ) 3 0
V (~r , t ) = d ~r
4π0 |~r − ~r 0 |
I V responds instantaneously to changes in ρ ! Doesn't this
violate causality?
∇ ~ + µ0 0 ∂ V = ∇
~ ·A ~ ·A
~+ 1 ∂V
=0 (13)
∂t c 2 ∂t
I Hence from Eq. 12 we have
∂2A
~
∇2 A
~ − µ0 0 = −µ0~j
∂t 2
I From Eq. 11 and Eq. 13 we have
∂2V ρ
∇2 V − µ0 0 =−
∂t 2 0
I We dene
∂2 1 ∂2
∇ 2 − µ0 0 = ∇2 − =
∂t 2 c 2 ∂t 2
I Therefore
A
~ = µ0~j
ρ
V = −
0