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ESSENTIALS OF NEGOTIATION
CANADIAN 3RD EDITION LEWIC
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CHAPTER 8
Negotiation Power and Persuasion

Overview

Most negotiators believe that power is important because it gives one negotiator an advantage
over the other party. Why? Negotiators who have this advantage usually want to use it to secure
a greater share of the outcomes or achieve their preferred solution. In general, negotiators who
don’t care about their power or who have matched power—equally high or low—will find that
their deliberations proceed with greater ease and simplicity toward a mutually satisfying and
acceptable outcome. In contrast, negotiators who do care about their power and seek to match or
exceed the other’s power are probably seeking a solution in which they either do not lose the
negotiation (a defensive posture) or dominate the negotiation (an offensive posture).

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter you should be able to:

1. Identify the sources of power in negotiations and explain the uses and limits of power,
2. List eight ways to comfortably deal with others who have more power,
3. Describe the two routes to persuasion, and list the various influence tools and techniques
that are available through each route.

Sources of Power—How People Acquire Power

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In this section we will take a broad perspective on power as it relates to negotiation and
aggregate the major sources of power into several different groupings (see Table 7.1):
• Informational sources of power.
• Power based on position in an organization.
• Network or Relationship-based sources of power.
• Contextual sources of power.

Informational Sources of Power

• “Information is power”
a. Information power is derived from the negotiator’s ability to assemble and
organize facts and data to support his or her position, arguments, or desired
outcomes.

b. Power derived from expertise is a special form of information power. Expert

power is accorded to those who are seen as having achieved some level of
command and mastery of a body of information.

Power Based on Position in an Organization

There are two major sources of power based on an individual’s position in an organization: i)
legitimate power (title/responsibilities) and ii) resource power (control of funding/budgets).

1. Legitimate power

(1) Derived from occupying a particular job, office, or position in an

organizational hierarchy.
(2) Legitimate power is at the foundation of our social structure.
(3) People can acquire legitimate power in several ways.
(i) It may be acquired at birth.
(ii) It may be acquired by election to a designated office
(iii)It may is derived simply by appointment or promotion to some
organizational position some legitimate authority comes to an individual
who occupies a position for which other people simply show respect
(4) The effectiveness of formal authority is derived from the willingness of
followers to acknowledge the legitimacy of the organizational structure and
the system of rules and regulations that empowers its leaders.
(5) It is also possible to apply the notion of legitimacy to certain social norms or
conventions that exert strong control over people:
(i) The legitimate power of reciprocity
(ii) The legitimate power of equity
(iii)The legitimate power of responsibility or dependence

2. Resource control

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• People who control resources have the capacity to give them to someone who will do
what they want and withhold them (or take them away) from someone who doesn’t
do what they want.
• Important organizational resources include:
1. Money, in its various forms
2. Supplies
3. Human capital
4. Time
5. Equipment
6. Critical services
7. Interpersonal support
• Reward/punishment can be tangible or intangible.

Power Based on Networks

Power also comes from location in an organizational structure, but not necessarily a
hierarchical structure. In this case, power is derived from whatever flows through that
particular location in the structure (usually information and resources, such as money).

Expert negotiators know that power comes not just from who you control, but also from
whom you are connected to.

Contextual sources of power

a. Power based in the context, situation, or environment in which negotiations take

place.

(1) BATNAs
(i) The availability of a BATNA offers a negotiator significant power because
she now has a choice between accepting the other party’s proposal or the
alternative deal.

(2) Culture
(i) Culture often shapes what kinds of power are seen as legitimate and
illegitimate or how people use influence and react to influence.
(ii) National cultures also differ in the degree to which these “power over” or
“power with” orientations are supported or encouraged.
(iii)Culture—both organizational and national—often translates into deeply
embedded structural inequalities in a society.

(3) Agents, constituencies and external audiences

(i) Negotiations become significantly more complex when negotiators are
representing others’ views.

Dealing With Others Who Have More Power

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Power is only the capacity to influence; using that power to exert influence requires insight, skill,
experience and sophistication.

1. Never do an all-or-nothing deal.

2. Make the other party smaller.
3. Make yourself bigger.
4. Build momentum through doing deals in sequence.
5. Use the power of competition to leverage power.
6. Constrain yourself.
7. Good information is always a source of power.
8. Do what you can to manage the process.

Persuasion

• During negotiations, actors frequently need to convince the other party that they have
offered something of value, their offer is reasonable, and they cannot offer more.
• It is important to keep in mind that you do not need power to be persuasive. There are
numerous techniques negotiators can use to change their counterparts attitude and
behaviour.

Two Routes to Persuasion

1. the central route – a type of influence using direct behaviours and statements
2. the peripheral route – a type of influence relying on indirect behaviours and
manipulation of subtle cues

The Central Route: Framing and Delivering a Message

• Facts and ideas are clearly important in changing another person’s opinions and
perceptions, but the effectiveness of a persuasion effort depends on how the facts and
ideas are selected, organized, and presented.
• There are three major issues to consider when constructing a message:
1. the content of the message (the facts and topics that should be covered)
2. the structure of the message (how the topics and facts should be arranged and
organized)
3. the delivery style (how the message should be presented).

1. Make the Offer Attractive to the Other Party

• In structuring the message, negotiators should emphasize the advantage the other
party gains from accepting the proposal, as well as what they would lose from
refusing the offer. Recall from the Chapter 5, that people are more likely motivated
by potential losses, so while it is important to know why the deal is good for the other
side, it is as important to know what the other stand stands to lose from your potential
offer.

2. Frame the Message So the Other Party Will Say “Yes”

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• If you can get the other party to agree to something—almost anything—then you
have laid the foundation for subsequent agreement. The task is to find something that
the other party can agree with that puts him or her in the mind-set of saying yes.

3. Make the Message Normative

• A powerful argument in negotiation is to show the other person that by following a
course of action (your proposal), she will be acting in accordance both with her
values and with some higher (more noble, moral, or ethical) code of conduct.

4. Suggest an “Agreement in Principle”

• When discussions have stalled suggest that the other party to consider and
acknowledged smaller items or positions “in principle” as building blocks to a larger
deal. Getting the counterpart to accept an “agreement in principle” is an important
step because most people may agree with certain points in principle. Although an
agreement in principle is desirable when other options are blocked, it still takes a
great deal of work to turn such an agreement into one that contains actionable details.

5. One- and Two-Sided Messages

• An alternate approach to ignoring the competition’s position (i.e., a one-sided tactic)
is to directly mention and describe the opposing point of view and then explain and
demonstrate how and why it is less desirable than the presenter’s point of view (i.e., a
two-sided approach). In general, two-sided messages are considered more effective
than a one-sided message.

6. Message Components
• Negotiators can help the other party understand and accept their arguments by break-
ing them into smaller, more understandable pieces.

7. Use Vivid Language and Metaphors

• The vividness and intensity of the language negotiators use have a major effect on
their persuasiveness. This may involve using metaphors, analogies or even visual aids
to emphasize the message. However, it is noteworthy that people under stress are
more receptive to low intensity language, so it is important to remain calm even when
using vivid expressions to convey your position. Excessive use of metaphors or
overly vivid descriptions may lead the other party to believe you are filled with “filled
with hot air”, in of itself a metaphor for the idea that a person cannot substantiate
his/her points.

Section Summary

• Negotiators need to take care when they construct a message to persuade another
party to their point of view

• Aspects of the message content, message structure, and delivery style can all
influence the extent to which a message is persuasive

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Peripheral Routes to Persuasion

• Peripheral routes involve “automatic” avenues of influence or, in other words, persuasion
through habitual, instinctive, unconscious and routine means of behaviour
• Discussion of peripheral routes to influence draw, in part, on the seminal work of
psychologist Robert Cialdini
• Three sets of strategies: message aspects, attributes of the persuader, and elements of the
influence context

A. Aspects of Messages That Foster Peripheral Influence

1 Message Order
i Important points should be made early, exposing the receiver to the
primacy effect: The first item in a long list of items is the one most likely
to be remembered. In contrast, when the topic is uninteresting, unfamiliar,
or not very important to the receiver, the most critical point should be
placed at the end of the message to take advantage of the recency effect:
the tendency for the last item presented to be the best remembered.

2 Distractions
i When receivers are distracted, they are less able to engage in issue-
relevant thinking, and hence they may be more susceptible to processing
peripheral cues that may push them toward a particular choice.

B. Source Characteristics That Foster Peripheral Influence

When recipients of a persuasive message are unmotivated to pay close attention to the
substance/content of the communication, they become vulnerable to influence (source
effect) by the characteristics of the individual/organization delivering the message, such
as expert status.

1 Source Credibility
i Qualifications
ii Trustworthiness
iii Self-Presentation
2 Personal Attractiveness
i Friendliness and Likeability
ii Perceived Similarity
3 Authority
i People with authority have more influence than those without authority.
Stanley Milgram’s classic studies of obedience to authority suggest that
people will go to great lengths when their behaviour is legitimized by an
authority figure
ii Most people will obey the orders of a person wearing a uniform, even if
there is apparent emergency

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iii Cialdini offers the following advice for dealing with authority figures who
may have influence over you. Ask two questions:
• “Is this authority truly an expert?”
• “How truthful can you expect this expert to be?”

Aspects of Context That Foster Peripheral Influence

There are certain aspects of the surrounding context that can be influential beyond the message
itself. The five strategies discussed below are powerful elements of persuasion. A sender of a
message should be aware of and incorporate opportunities in their discussions to involve/invoke
these additional peripheral routes of influence”

1. Reciprocity – a social norm that suggest you have an obligation to return something
(i.e., a favour) in the future when you have receive something. The norm of
reciprocity plays a vital role in negotiations, particularly with respect to concessions.

2. Commitment to a position – this involves the personal and interpersonal pressure

one experiences to remain consistent once we have taken a stance on something.
Commitment strategies are power devices in negotiation for making people comply –
agreements to smaller or innocuous statements early in the negotiation may be used a
foundation for further agreements or concessions.
3. Social proof – this involves the idea that people often behave in certain ways because
everyone else is doing the same. In negotiations, “social proof” can be use to judge
the appropriateness of a position based on the extent to which others are doing or
thinking the same thing.

4. Scarcity – this suggests that when things are less available, they will have more
influence. In negotiation, people may be more susceptible to influence if they feel
they are obtaining scarce resources.

5. Use of Reward and Punishment – this concept was discussed as a base of Power
early in the chapter. Individuals that control resources or the ability to employ a threat
can secure the other’s compliance. However, it is again noteworthy that such pressure
tactics produce short-term compliance and could have potentially long-term adverse
consequences.

The Role of Receivers—Targets of Influence

• Receivers of messages (the targets of influence) need to be conscious of the signals that
they send to signal acceptability, rejection or favourableness:
• Exploring or Ignoring the Other’s Position – probing the sender’s message and
asking questions, such as “what justification do you have for that position?”, can
signal that you are not easily being co-opted by their influence
• Active Listening & Selectively Paraphrase – when the sender speaks at length
and vividly to get their message across, you can actively listen and paraphrase to
move the discussion along to the next point.

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• Reinforce Points You Like in the Other Party’s Proposals – the simplest way
to reward people for what they say during a negotiation is to support the point you
are in agreement with and ask them to elaborate further on the favourable point.

Resisting the Other’s Influence

• Have a BATNA and Know How to Use It – having a good BATNA is a source
of leverage if you can sophisticatedly and subtly convey this to the other side
• Make a Public Commitment – one of the most effective ways to get someone to
stand firm on a position is to have them make a public commitment to that
position
• Inoculate Yourself against the Other Party’s Arguments – by preparing and
rehearsing points both your own position and aginst your position. To inoculate
against influence be aware of the counterarguements that can be used to refute
your key points.

Chapter Summary and Key Learning Points

Power can be fleeting and influential in different ways in different contexts. Expert negotiators
are aware of their sources of power and the limits of the power they do wield. In the next chapter
we further explore power and its role in dispute situations.

Persuasion is one way negotiators with low power can increase their success in negotiation. Each
of the techniques presented in the chapter can help, but only in situations where they are
appropriate. Familiarity with each technique, and attention to our suggestions regarding when to
use them, can go a long way towards improving your outcomes.

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