Zentrum für Angewandte Geowissenschaften

Geotechnical
Geotec ca Engineering
g ee g Labab Cou
Course
se
including health and safety instruction

Dr. Carsten Leven

WS 2011/12

Schedule
• Monday (9:15 h – 15 h) – seminar room S245

- General introduction to experiments

- Health and safety instructions

• Tueday – Friday (9 – 18 h)

- 9 experiments

• April 16th: Final date for submission of report

1
Experiments
1. Sedimentation / hydrometer method
2 Sieve
2. Si A
Analysis
l i
3. Consolidation / Oedometer Test
4. Density and pore volume
5. Water content / consistency limits
6. Permeameter
7. Proctor compaction test
8. Uniaxial pressure test
9. Shear test

Experimental groups

Experiment Supervisor

Oedometer, Sedimentation 
Talgatbek Muratbayev
analysis

Density and pore volume, 
Kennedy Okioghene Doro
Proctor test

Sieve analysis, Water 
content / consistency 
t t/ it C t L
Carsten Leven
limits, Permeameter

Shear test, Uniaxial
Tiangsheng Li
compression test

2
 Experimental groups – week 1

Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Sieve analysis, Water 
Group  Oedometer,  Density and pore  Shear test, Uniaxial 
content / consistency 
„Terzaghi“ Sedimentation analysis volume, Proctor test compression test
limits, Permeameter

Sieve analysis, Water 
Group  Density and pore  Shear test, Uniaxial Oedometer, 
content / consistency 
„Hook“ volume, Proctor test compression test Sedimentation analysis
limits, Permeameter

Sieve analysis, Water 
Group  Shear test, Uniaxial Oedometer,  Density and pore 
content / consistency 
content / consistency
„Casagrande“ compression test Sedimentation analysis volume, Proctor test
limits, Permeameter

Description of experiments and form sheets

will be made available on ILIAS

Experimental groups – week 2

Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Sieve analysis, Water 
Group  Oedometer,  Density and pore  Shear test, Uniaxial 
content / consistency 
„Stress“ Sedimentation analysis volume, Proctor test compression test
limits, Permeameter

Sieve analysis, Water 
Group  Density and pore  Shear test, Uniaxial Oedometer, 
content / consistency 
„Strain“ volume, Proctor test compression test Sedimentation analysis
limits, Permeameter

Description of experiments and form sheets

will be made available on ILIAS

3
 Report to the experiments
• You are allowed to prepare the report in "report groups" of 2-3
(depending on the size of the experimental groups)
• Every "report group" has to submit a report covering 3 experiments
• The general form of the report has to be as following (for each experiment):
1. Objective of the experiment / why is the experiment important / for which
purposes do you need the estimated parameters (1 - 2 examples)
Hint: do not just copy the course notes. I recommend to consult text books if necessary.

2
2. Description of the experiment (how do I get to the data)
3. Presentation of the experimental data (in tables and graphically)
4. Data analysis and conclusions

Other rules for the report

• You have to submit the report until April 15th, 2011 (last day of submission).
You can send the report by e-mail (carsten.leven-pfister@uni-tuebingen.de),
via ILIAS or put it directly in my mail box

• Late submission will result in point deduction (per opened week 0.3 point
deduction in the final grade)

• Group work is allowed as long as it is indicated.

Note that all group members will get the same grade (therefore it makes
sense to review the report as a group)

• Copying parts of the report from / between other groups doesn’t make
sense, it is easily recognizable and leads to point deduction.

4
Safety Instructions

General Regulations
• Unauthorized access is
prohibited.

• Safety regulations have to be

observed.

• Every lab user needs to be

instructed in safety regulations.

5
•Consumption of food and beverages is NOT
allowed in the lab

•The storage of chemicals and soil in food or

drink containers, or unlabeled containers, is
strictly forbidden

The Main Risks

• The main risks are that hands or feet may be
crushed
h d–b by machinery
hi or equipment
i t ffalling
lli
accidently from tables or equipment
• Also be aware of moving parts
• Some experiments produce noise and dust,
report it when it becomes a problem
• Things you take out of the drying cabinet
are hot (~105 °C)
• Some of the equipment is heavy!

6
 Other Rules
 Safetyy g
glasses and laboratory
y coats must
always be worn in the laboratory!

 Pipetting by mouth is forbidden

 use the pipette ball instead!

?
 Heavyy weigths?
g

!
 think about how to lift
 store them on the floor!

Other Rules
• Make yourself familiar with emergency exits and safety
equipment (eye washes, first aid cabinets, emergency
showers, fire extinguishers, etc.).
• Material specific safety instructions and precautions must
be observed when using laboratory chemicals (use of
gloves, safety glasses, etc.)
• M
Make
k yourselflf familiar
f ili with
ith th
the equipment
i t and
d itits
operating instructions
• Ask if something is unclear!!

7
 Safety equipment
Emergency exits

First aid kit

Eye washers

Emergency shower

Fire extinguishers

Geotechnical lab

The most important safety rule: Use your brain!

Breaking laboratory regulations will result

in disqualification from laboratory use!

8
 The Safety Representative is
Hans Luginsland
room S149
phone -74699

First aid:
Dr. Thomas Wendel
room S219 (Chemistry Laboratory)
phone -77441

In case of emergency or accident in the

Geotech lab / during the course inform immediately:
Dr. Carsten Leven
room S551
phone -73168

Sieve
Analysis

9
Grain size / sieve analysis
Purpose
To determine proportions of different grain sizes in soil samples

Why is it important
Soil characterization (e.g. determination of permeability or the frost risk)

Grain size / sieve analysis

Instruments
Sieve set and scale

Safety aspects
Risk of crushing, noise up to 82 dB
during sieving, development of dust

10
Grain size / sieve analysis
Technique
• Sieves are placed on top of each other and sample is placed in the
uppermost sieve

• Adjust shaking time and intensity of vibration (short time and low
frequency vibrations only to avoid breakup of grains, change
frequencies )

• The material caught by individual sieves is weighed on scales

• If the sample contains a large proportion (>

( 10 weight % with
d < 0.063 mm of small fraction, sedimentation analysis is necessary

• Plot the grain size distribution curve

Grain size / sieve analysis

Data examples

11
Grain size / sieve analysis
Data examples

Grain size / sieve analysis

Data examples

12
Sedimentation
Hydrometer
((= Areometer))

Sedimentation hydrometer
Purpose
To determine grain sizes within the range 0.125 to 0.001 mm,
ii.e.
e from fine sand to clay

Why is it important
Soil characterization (e.g. determination of permeability or the frost risk)

13
Sedimentation hydrometer
Instruments
Hydrometer for measuring the
specific density of liquids

Safety aspects
Sodiumpyrophosphate (Na4P2O7.10H2O):
Harmful if swallowed or inhaled. Causes irritation
to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.

Sedimentation hydrometer
Technique
• Sample is “dissolved” and suspended in water
• Th ti l settle
The particles ttl outt ffrom th i iin a water
the suspension t column
l
• Larger grains settle faster than smaller ones
› see STOKE’s law 2r 2 g (  p   f )
vp 
9
› The density of the suspension decreases with time and is
repeatedly measured
• From the change of density over time time, the grain size
distribution can be determined – usually based on
a nomogram
• Plot the grain size distribution curve

14
Sedimentation hydrometer - nomogram

Sedimentation hydrometer - nomogram

15
Sedimentation hydrometer - nomogram

1
3 2

5
7
6

Sedimentation hydrometer
Data examples

16
Sedimentation hydrometer
Data examples

Consolidaton /
Oedometer Test

17
Consolidation / Oedometer Test
Purpose
Consolidation tests are frequently required to assess the amount of
volume change to be expected of a soil under loadload, for example beneath
a foundation, or to allow prediction of the time that consolidation will
take.

Why is it important
Fundamental for the calculation of structural foundations.

Consolidation / Oedometer Test

Instruments
• Oedometer with floating ring
and filter stones

Safety aspects

›
›
Risk of crushing
Heavy weights !

18
 Consolidation / Oedometer Test
Technique
• An undisturbed sample is placed in a stiff ring between two filter
stones to allow unrestricted escape of pore water

• Vertical loading and subsequent settlement for different applied

stresses is measured:

• Calculate settlement s' for each normal (axial) stress σ

• Determine the constrained modulus ES for a specific stress range
from the slope of an almost straight section of the stress - settlement
c r e
curve
• Assess the time progression of settling by observing the degree of
settling for up to 24 hours after the last load increase

Consolidation / Oedometer Test

Data example

Ti
Time t in
i minutes
i t
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 1000
0

6
Settlement
h
8 in 1/100mm

10

12

19
Consolidation / Oedometer Test
Data example

Stress in kP/cm2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0

4
Relative a
settleme 6
nt b
s’ = h/ha 8
=
10

12

Density and
pore volume

20
Density and pore volume
Purpose
• To determine the density of the solids in a soil samples
• To determine the porosity of a cohesive soil

Why is it important
• Density: To determine the mineral type
• Pore volume: To determine the type of soil

Values are not normally used strictly for classification purposes, but are
used in the calculation and interpretation of other test results.
results

Density and pore volume

Instruments
• Density: Capillary pycnometer,
Porcelain dishes
dishes, Mortar and
pestle, Desiccator, pump,
drying cabinet, analytical
scales, filter paper
• Porosity: undisturbed soil
sample and metal cylinder of
known internal volume, drying
cabinet

Safety aspects
› Delicate glass ware
› drying cabinet ~ 105°C  hot soil

21
Density and pore volume
Technique
• Density: Determine the dry mass and volume of the particles

mp
mp + ms mp + ms mp
+ mw1 + mw2

• Pore Volume: The weight of the undisturbed, moist sample in

cylinder of known volume is compared to the weight of the dried
sample.

Density and pore volume

Technique
• Calculate particle density
ρs = mdry / Vsample

• Calculate porosity
n = (Vsample-Vdry)/Vsample

• Calculate void ratio

e = n/(1-n)

• Determine soil and mineral type

Soil type  Porosity n ‐  Void ratio e ‐ 
Very cohesive soils  0.30 ‐ 0.70  0.40 ‐ 2.3 
Weakly cohesive soils  0.26 ‐ 0.60  0.35 ‐ 1.5 
Noncohesive soils  0.30 ‐ 0.45  0.40 ‐ 0.8 
Gravel 0.30 ‐ 0.55 0.40 ‐ 1.2
Sand  0.20 ‐ 0.45  0.25 ‐ 0.8 

22
Water content /
consistency
limits

Water content / consistency limits

Purpose
• To determine water content & consistency / liquid limits

Why is it important
• For soil classification
• To determine physical properties of fine grained soils

Values are also used in the calculation and interpretation of other test
results.
results

23
Water content / consistency limits
Instruments
• Casagrandes apparatus

Safety aspects
› drying cabinet ~ 105°C  hot soil

› dirty fingers

Water content / consistency limits

Technique
• Liquid Limit: Casagrande’s
apparatus

• Plastic Limit: Rolling the soil

sample into a thread

• Water content: Weighing the

sample before and after drying

Plastic range
hard v. stiff stiff weak soft liquid

Consistency Index IC = 1.0 0.75 0.5 0

Water content w

24
Water content / consistency limits
Technique
• Liquid limit wL: Check water content with addition of 15 to 40 drops
with the Casagrande apparatus then check liquid limit graphically at
25 drops point.
• Plastic limit wP: measure water content of rolled soil threads at the
point they start to crack.
• Consistency Index Ic = (wL-w) / (wL-wP)
• Water content w: Weigh the sample before and after drying it in the
oven: w = mw/md

Plastic range
hard v. stiff stiff weak soft liquid

Consistency Index IC = 1.0 0.75 0.5 0

Water content w

Water content / consistency limits

Data example
Plasticity Index
I in %
P
60
A-line IP = 73 (WL - 20)
Plasticity chart (DIN 18 196)
50
Inorganic,
highly plastic
clay
40

Inorganic,
30 moderately plastic
clayy

Inorganic, silt
20 Inorganic, very compactable
slightly plastic and organic clay
clay
Inorganic silt, moderately compactable
10 and organic clay
Cohesionless
Inorganic slightly compactable silt
materials
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid Limit wL in %

25
Permeameter

Permeameter
Purpose
• To estimate the hydraulic conductivity K

Why is it important
• for calculation / assessment of groundwater flow
• design of water drainage measures
• calculation of seepage velocities

26
Permeameter
Instruments
• Permeameter system with a
triaxial cell under a constant
hydraulic (pressure) gradient

Safety aspects
› high pressures
› heavy equipment

Permeameter
Technique

27
Permeameter
Technique
• Sample is kept in a pressurised
triaxial cell.
cell
• Water is passed through the
sample from top to bottom.
• A constant hydraulic (pressure)
gradient is maintained in the
system.
• Water flowing through the
sample is measured.
• Conductivity is determined
when the inflow volume =
outflow volume.

Permeameter
Data example

28
Proctor
compaction
test

Proctor compaction test

Purpose
• Determination of the maximum dry density (Proctor density ρPr)
and the optimal water content wPr.

Why is it important
• Foundation work and road construction.
• To improve ground conditions at optimum moisture level
• enhanced strength of foundations

29
Proctor compaction test
Instruments
• Test cylinder with guiding ring
and removable base plate;
• Calibrated compaction
apparatus

Safety aspects

!
› risk of crushing hands and feet
› heavy equipment

Proctor compaction test

Technique
• A soil sample is compacted in a test cylinder of known size utilizing a
falling weight.
weight The compaction is measured as an increase in the dry
density that corresponds to reduction the porosity.

• At least 5 individual tests at

different water contents

• The Proctor density ρPr is

dry deensity

the highest soil dry density ρPr

attainable in the test.

wopt water content

30
Proctor compaction test
Data example

Influence of compaction energy

Uniaxial
pressure
Test

31
Uniaxial Pressure Test
Purpose
• To quantify compression strength of soil and solid samples with
unrestricted horizontal deformation
deformation.

Why is it important ?
• Stability of buildings and
foundations
• Tunneling
• Nuclear waste repository

Uniaxial Pressure Test

Instruments
• Uniaxial press that allows the
application of an almost
constant rate of deformation.

Safety aspects

› risk of crushing
› splintering and fragmentation

32
Uniaxial Pressure Test
Technique
• Cylindrical or prismatic samples
are put under standardized
Pressure dial
constant rates of deformation. Measuring ring
• Until sample breaks one can
then determine the uniaxial
compression strength qu or
UCS (maximum value of the Compaction measurement dial

uniaxial stress σ (qu = max σ) Upper pressure plate

Sample
when the sample breaks)

Lower pressure plate

Axis of force

Uniaxial Pressure Test

Data example

Uniaxial Compressive Stress  [N/mm²]

[N/mm ]
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0
1
2
Strain  [%]

3
UCS

5
6

8
9

33
Sh
Shear test
t t

Shear Test
Purpose
• Estimate the angle of internal friction (φ) and cohesion (C) from plots
with different normal loads
loads.

Why is it important?
• Stability of soils,
Silver City (New Mexico)
• slope, and ground failure
analysis and earth pressure
calculations.

34
Shear Test
Instruments
• Shear box apparatus

Safety aspects

› risk of crushing hands and feet

› heavy equipment
!

Shear Test
Technique
• Soil is placed into the shear
box which is vertically loaded
box,
with the force N and is sheared
through the application of the
horizontal force H
• at failure:
αmax= φ  H = N·tanφ

and

τf = σ·tanφ

with τ = H/A and σ = N/A

35
Shear Test
Data example

τf = σ
σ·tanφ
tanφ τf = c + σ
σ·tanφ
tanφ

36