lar does not only ne rion Af by Joba Paden Srarewsnr: My firs cont with Profesor J.H. Nketia was through a etter in which henvited me to hep teach mic inthe nel established School of Music, Dance and Dram, Insitute of Attican Studies, University of Ghana. This asin 1962 had no idea who cwas that suggesied me to hrs However, nothing came ori ‘Two years late, twas when entered the University of Ghana 'o do a postDiploma cours in African music that | met Profes. Sr Nk or the Fist ie For the next two years (19641968), he teacher. Atte cdf te ous was eo gcd ny Aton nee es A Study of Yeve Musie—assupervsoe. At hs time in my carer, flee had the god fortune of meting Professor Mande Hood and Dr. Klaus Wachanann both of stnat taught md for shot periods a Vsting Profesor (othe Institute of Afscan Stodis Te ne this mectibe was a valuable one, for whereas bot atthe tine represented tome cares of ene poins offvicw no matter how hard they ted to avoid lt—and on many occasions they suceeded Professor Neta embodied in my thinking the insiders view. The effet of ta posure wih the development in me ofan independent itegrity of mind. Beeve 1 al have i, and Think tome it to Professor Nktia's vision in providing the golden opportunity to in tcract with brilian minds inthe Feld of African muscology quite eal in my career 2 research Haden, ‘Whe in 1970 I joined the academic staff ofthe Music Department, Professor Netia had ener the Director of the Institute of African Stwiies and the School of Musie, Dance and Dram for atlas five years. As Ditector he drew afound him student and cultural seen tists from over the world, and he was Visiting Profesor at UCLA where he went every year 10 lecture Again, the effect for me was a most welcome academic atmosphere of an interna- tional chaactr that produced an incelectual ferment nthe Institute and School, Many were the times that Professor and | exchanged views on various issues in African musi research at ‘African musi seminats at UCLA ani informally at other times. One such when Professor invited me (I wag then a doctoral student at UCLA) to ich some material he was working om for hig latest book, The Musi of Aric. It the litle that I was able to do for his purpose was jon at UCLA, he asked me tego, afin fete hi i iaeeeecaon er! f cee trac cuann ac Peo, On gph oom aon ee ne ele at tete hs notes ap ek he woul expe op I a ctuned Eaton 10), 146 @ sso rscuenst Academically Profesor Nketia stands out as one ofthe foremost orignal thinkers inthe Fick! of African musicology. In my own work often find myself turing 0 his ideas, scrutinizing thew for what they are, discovering the depth of insight contained in them, and thinking about how sor ‘of them could be more fll elaborated and sharpened to serve the purposes of scientific exp nation in African musicology Two examples come readily to mind. Fist, the aesthetic madel of a reference system ofa ‘istic, social and philosophical value whic, unsmitied through sociation and participation ‘operates independent of musical structure eventhough its exponents are embodied inthe materi and structure of music—a reference system which toh derives its validation arty from the a theti guidance embedded inthe authority and ideas of recognized leaders of society and party from the artistic integrity ofthe art objec, the degre to which the object mec the socal and tistc ideals of society. Second, the notion ofa socomusicl juncture which reflects the tue char ter of most African musical events and draws attention by implication tothe necesityof distin ‘musical meaning from complementary angles—an eclectic postion aimed a eapturing the exence of Aftican music andthe related at, Undoubtedly The Music of Africa isan eloquent pointer to the need yet 10 be fulfilled for indepth regional studies of Aftican music. In my view the work isthe only introduction to th subject with a breadth of coverage yet to be matched Since its early beginnings the field of ethnomusicology has been firmly grounded on an anthropological view which stipulates thatthe art of music is more fully explained an! understood relative to the culture of which i isan integral part. Ethnomusicologsts have usually been “interested in understanding music from the standpoint of its sociocultural context—why a music is used as it s, what culture expresses about itself through its music, and what the music expresses about a culture” (Jackson 19883). ‘evertces the various approaches to hnomasiclogial explanation have over j the years tended to rcate msc tnd clture in vere ways in effet the vers ia tt conceptual and methodological approach appears to reveal a conspicuous absence of paradigm that would nable he analyst to interpret msial acs within the wide om ton of clare | African musicologists are not unaware of the problem: to some, this problem lies inthe absenc of a consistent methodlogy” derived from common goals (my empha) | which ecopnize the centaiyof msi my emphasis) (Nktia 981) or in the flue identity and describe “technical processes” at work in msc and cle from which con | clusions would be drawn (Arom 1981). Perhaps it might not be too far-fetched even to think that Nets (1963) most recent suggestion of approaching chhnomuscology s+ | the scence af musi Mstory” stems from the aed 0 ses the fusion ofthe eno traphic/ethnoloical andthe historical mensions of etinomusioloey, inorder to | fue the science fom its overemphass onthe contemporary and from ts apparsa ‘Aamiedy, conitency im methodolon. nied definitive appronch that fey the ethnological and the "musiclogeal,” emans tobe fully worked out n concrete studies. But the eed fora conceptual framework for the development of methodology trust not be left unattended to: an the contrary, our continued serious attention should be focussed on defintnes investigatory and analytic approaches suchas would enable the cence ofelhnomusicoloy to develop viable paradigminking abou how son ss of scientific exp ‘ference system of a ‘ion and participation, bodied in the materia ‘on partly from the ac, Sof society and party ‘ees the social andar ‘fet the true charac renecesity of distin capuring the essence Yet to be Fulfilled for ay imtroduction to th nly grounded on an fully explained and romusicologsts have {ofits sociocultural ut itself through its 98523) planation have over fect, the diversity in Dicwous absence of a “thin the wider con 1e, this problem lies szoais (my emphasis) )or inthe failure wo ture from which con far-fetched even to ethnomusicology as ‘sion of the ethno. ‘oy, in order to res {from its apparent nd approach that fuses ed out in concrete of methodology ous attention should teh as would enable ‘TOWARD A PHILOSOPHY OHITHEORY IN ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL RESEARCH mT tn this essay, I propose to arguel ‘ase for a conceptual framework under the rubric: hilosophy of ethnomusicologi Usha in- ‘ate the need for developing this afea of inquiry and knowledge to the mutual benefit ‘he practicing musician and the African musicologist. {trory, ‘seems admissible to assume that ory represents but one ofthe domains of any field “ nuiry. Theory may be conceptlized as an abstracive view in explanation of, and tw merely descriptive of, a phenomenon. As such, theory takes cognizance of bare facs ‘wom which it differs and for whit t accounts by relating themn in away that reveals ‘he nature or character ofthat which itis an explanation of. Usually theory allows for (unher aniculation, elaboration, modification, or specification. Often, there ma¥ be ‘more than one theory accounting fof asc of facts; and where one is found tobe more (woductive than competing alternatives, it may become paradigmatic in the sense of di flay, a8 a model, a greater capacly for generating new perspectives to old and new {woblenis thereby yielding the means for a better understanding of the phenomenon to Which itis applied ln respect to musi, theory maybe thought of in terms ofthe grammatical andthe lative. Grammatical theory cofmprchends the rule or body of rules prescriptive or ptive of musical organization find performance. On this view, it includes all sys- emnatzations of melodic and multipart techniques as wel as techniques of fora struc Wie, and of composition and perfprmance that would on appliation yield music Moducts in the idiomatic style foal which the rules derive In African music, this type of freory may involve rules of polyrhythmic and for al structures, rules of polyphony, polarity, melodic design, expectations governing the Wetctis and context of performance, and 0 forth. Thus rules of polyrythmie str {wre may require that instruments ofa drum ensemble play individual lines of rbythin Mian frst to a complex of repetitie patterns played by bells and rates and then sever, Hy o one another in a way that ghaintains rhythmic points of synchronization ae a Hamework of reference (Fiagbedzf1979:3). Or, again rules of structural design may esrb sensitivity to the demandgof the context of performance orto inherent nay, lon of particular instruments such as are used in hocket techniques of music making. Asconccived, grammatical thebry includes what Palisca(1963:112T identifies th Western music as “practical” and fereative™ theory aimed atthe taining of musicians Wi composers generally, and (I woth addin the contest of African musiology) of pe. formers as well, but subsumes bothjcategores under one rubric since the er "gram. Malea” underscores more explicitly the common prescriptive function ofthe (wo. The {weston may arise as to whether grammatical theory has tobe written tobe identifiable ch, Undoubtedly i iis written it would be readily and public available—one can wore casly identify it as a souree, nd be able to consult it if one wishes. On the ther ‘an, its probably unlikely that there can be any tradition of music without rules and ‘wocedures by which the musi is ofeanized48 sesiosiscornzt In oral trations where theory soften unwriten is probable that erammatical theory would as defined be implicit inthe rules which the mist practitioners ecoptize and make thet musi by. Further, radiions of music and mune making ae usually ttansmited from generation to generation by example and verbal explanation. Unless it canbe proved tha this ransmission takes place in some societies solely by example and by no oer means, the argument myst eman enable ha societies with ral a dIviont of mune do verbalize about the rules of ensie making even isin a baldly as Serve manner without mach atonal elaboration. Tote exten that sch verbalization Sos Torus on ands in explanation of music organization, grammatical theory must be Ssaumed to constitute an integral aspect ofthe musical tradilon of a given society omprehends problems of museal valu, modes of musical meaning (Nkctia 1981), mo erally Im its speculative endeavor, speculative theory may be conceived of as ultimately comprising systems of thought for the understanding of music based on definable philosophical postions and argument in terms of which the individual systems can have ‘ality. For example in trying to rationalize what could constitute the most fundamental principle characterizing musical meaning, a system given tothe elaboration of an eclectic view may have to base its argument on empirical evidence relating music to other arts and forms of behavior by means of which meaning may normally be communicated. As Nketia (1975:11-13) points out In African societies, a person i said to understand apiece of music when he is able to relate or respond to it in certain culturally defined ways. .. . Meaning is, therefore felated to the musical experience itself (which) consists ofboth what is derived from the ‘musi itself and what is ocasioned by i inthe musical situation... This meaning may bbe communicated in several ways: through internal properties OF music, expressive changes in them which may be mirrored in observable behaviour; through creative ex pressions of verbal texts, the nexus betwoen music and dance movement and between Imusic and the context of use, Evidently, the eclectic viewpoint advanced in the foregoing docs, Admit to basic eth. nographic description; facts may be gathered about music musical activity, forms of ar tistic expression such as dance, poetic and other modes of verbal expression, observable tures could further includ, say, body ats, patterns of spall movement oy foratons Sequence and rhythm of events as wells events ofa private/public saison eal Likewise, the notion of meaning could call forthe absraction of those principles of the ethnologic kind that could account for music and musical situations in relation to the culture of a given African society; show up explicitly what the individual culture could reveal about itself from its various artistic and sociocultural expressions in given ‘musical situations; and, ifthe data so permits, indicate the morphological or typolog cal classifications that could be established cross-culturally or by way of historical reconstruction,‘TOWARD A PIILOSOPITY OF THEORY IN ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL RESEARCH 49 is probable that grammatical When compared with the notion of the aesthetic attitude which forms the basis of ‘music practitioners recognize | Western aesthetic speculation, the recommendation by Nketia to find meaning from nnd music making are usually “several complementary angles" embedded in a musical situation can be seen to have 'd verbal explanation. Unless dctived from a fundamental view of music as an integrated art in opposition to the te societies solely by example Western view which usually separates music from whatever extramusical context there le that societies with oral tra-__ may be, And whereas both points of view would probably admit to the pertinence of an ing even if itis ina baldly as- empirical foundation to the argument, conclusions based on the eclectic view cannot cexient that such verbaliztion claim to be generalizations applicable across cultures in the sense scientific laws are, grammatical theory must be without shedding the implications of their cultural reference; nor would it be justifia- dition of a given society lo regard Western aesthetics as applicable; for, it would seem that among other Fac- heory aims to discover mean- tors the behavioral demands of the concert hall and the widely disseminated cultus of ‘hich transcends in point of she aesthetic attitude have both contributed somewhat in making the cultural condition ition. Thus its area of inquiry of Western art music peculiar to its social milieu and thus made its aesthetic theories in meaning (Nketia 1981), mo- applicable aross cultures. Thus it would seem that the philosophical position on which well as aesthetic experience systems of speculative theory can be founded in ethnomusicological explanation cannot cet the test of universal applicability such as obtains in scientific explanation. And if e conceived of as ultimately | i cannot, then such a philosophical position has to be different; and in relation (o F music based on definable | speculative theory this fundamental basis needs to be defined individual systems can have stitute the most fundamental . he elaboration of an eclectic | "WLOSOPHY OF THEORY. Felating music to other arts | While in its broad sweep speculative theory takes in the entire field of theory other than ‘mally be communicated. As | _ the strictly grammatical, a third but inclusive area, the philosophy of theory in ethnomu- flcology, may be isolated and identified with the rigorous and systematic elaboration of ‘concepts and propositions in terms of which all manner of theory and verbalization con- (erning music and musical experience are formulated including the perspective(s) from Which ethnomusicological explanation is made. It is to be thought of as a critical [illosophy of music or an aspect thereof; and in its reliance on philosophical method ff lnguiey tis to be distinguished from music criticism and speculative theory. It should In the ideal clarify by analysis the idea of ethnomusicology and the basic principles and {nets governing ethnomusicological explanation showing fundamental differences be- {ween it and other scientific explanation; for, by its very nature, the science of ethno fmusicology investigates the phenomenon and forms of artistic expressions rather than {msi wen hes able 0 ‘at n dened om he 260s Tis weaeg ony ing does admit to basic eth- J watural phenomena. In effect this approach would mean critically examining what eth sical activity, forms of ar- J Aomusicological explanation entails, what its preoccupations, standards of rationality Thal expression, observable J aid objectives are or can be, as well as the assumptions on which it can justifiably rest possible ethnographic fea. J Wt would also mean searching for other modes of inquiry and analysis than those that Imovement or formations, J may have become normal to ethnomusicology; for then and only then will viable Ypublic, ritual/non-rtual, [| paradigm emerge that will advance ethnomusicological research and knowledge. hem In its pursuit of clarity of thought through a detailed examination of theoretical raction of those principles J Wews, philosophy of theory wil also be concerned with the most general categories within sical situations in relation J Which we think about music—categories such as musical substance, manifest qualities, ‘hat the individual culture | esperience and meaning in terms of themselves and in relation to cognate categories of tural expressions in given [thought orpholosical or typatogi Tn philosophy this branch of inquiry is normally considered the province of Pot by way of historical | «itaphysies; and just as present day metaphysics embraces the entire range of categories sowlcable in ordinary language and in individual sciences (Harré 1971:30), in philosophy50 @ xasorncaeon \ of theory the focus will be on studying the relation between concepts used in ethnom sicology as against those used in ordinary language and other sciences in order to pro- mote clear thinking in ethnomusicological explanation, In practice this may mean the comparison of general notions such as the concept ‘of music” as it occurs in different cultures to determine its signification in individual ‘cultures that may have adopted the term; and for cultures which do not use the term, the atea of inquiry may involve the critical elaboration of local concepts and denotata which make for presision in thought. Thus one may discover as among the Ewe people in Ghana that whereas concepts ‘exist inthe language for most of the musical forms that would fall under the category, ‘music, the term is in ordinary usage applied almost exclusively to forms of music that hhave been acquired through acculturation while indigenous terms may be used for in dividual types (of the imported forms) that ate similar to the local examples, For instance whereas the term, music (pronounced miziki), refers to the imported forms both vocal and instrumental generally, the Ewe term ha, denotes song as well as vocal musi in general whether imported or indigenous. And whereas there ae terms for ‘musical instruments and the acts of playing them, there does not seem to be any term for instrumental music per se. Thus, as of now, the ethnomusieologist has to be cognizant fof the semantic field of the adopted term miziki in relation to the category, music, in ‘thnomusicology. (The additional problem concerning types of sound admissible as mu: | sical has already been widely recognized to nced comment.) | ‘Again, individual languages may reveal evidence of structural features that enable \ its speakers to accommodate new musical concepts as the need arises. For example, in the Ewe language, the doubling ofthe final u ofthe word, blew, meaning slow, makes the word equivalent in meaning to the musical term, adagio; and the addition of the syl- lable roe changes the meaning to andante, moderately slow. Or, to give another exam. ple, the notion of rhythm is implied in the Ewe word, hagbe ‘meaning literally ound” (ie. melody), in the similar manner in which rhythm normally is assumed to be present in the concept ofthe English word, “melody.” Thus for ethnomusicological explanation, the rational analysis ofthe structural and sociolinguistic contexts that clarity 4 concepts such as these are indispensable; and the need for this kind of elaboration sug- i gests that hoth in intention and method a critical philosophy « *theory should as far as possible proceed in its inquiry along the lines of the rigorous metaphysical analysis of the language of description and explanation in ethnomusicology | If music is considered an integral part of culture, itis not unreasonable to expect ji that the epistonie strategies similar to those by which we ascertain what we do know or i can ever know about anything would be applicable to our knowledge about music as they senerally do in other domains of cultural experience. As Hoffman (1978:78) observes, 4 the way people know, the assumptions they make about the nature of information and i the nature of Knowing, the eisemology according 1o which they construe and experience i the phenomenal world, the rules and concepts which permeate their culture and pervade very aspect of ther behaviour cannot be absent in that typeof behaviour which results in ordered patterns of sound that we call music Let us suppose now that we become aware of having aural sensations of sound reach ing us through an open door. If the sensations are like those that we normally assoc ate with music, we would recognize that it was music that we heard; we would identifypis used in ethnomu- ances in order to pro- ' such as the concept fication in individual do not use the term, cepts and denotata hat whereas concepts Wunder the category, "forms of music that may be used for in- al examples fers to the imported snotes song as wel as -as there are terms for seem to be any’ term St has to be cognizant category, music, in ind admissible as mu [features that enable ises, For example, in meaning slow, makes re addition of the syl- give another exan ve, meaning literally ‘normally is assumed or ethnomusicological contexts that clarify dof elaboration sug- cory should as far as aphysical analysis of reasonable to expect what we do know or about music as they 1 (1978:78) observes, {information and rue and experience sure and pervade jour which resus ions of sound reach- wwe normally associ 4; we would identity TOWARD A PHILOSOPHY OF TIEORY IN ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL westARCH SL It not only as a phenomenon but also as a “thing” that our memory informs us with which we are familia. If we have doubts, we can verify by reference tothe sound source ‘ic aska friend to confirm our view. In view of this possiblity, we recognize thatthe truth ‘this kind of knowledge can be determined by verification. II upon reflection we concede that we do behave in some fashion in musical situa- tions, we may also find ourselves admitting that some form of music has significance fo us and the fact accounts for our behaving in relation to it. If pressed to justify the hing it has for us, we may have to say in explanation that our feeling happy, dis {wrbed, sad, of yet again our having to pay greater attention or move our body in some fashion is the result of our experience in the musical situation. We note that by making ‘his explanation we have appealed to emotion and behavior as indices tothe significance ‘nusi has for us; and to show that our behavior infact relates tothe musical experience ‘ne may have to cal in evidence the fact that we behave similarly in similar circumstances, that we do observe others behave similarly, and that they also attribute their behavior tw similar musical experience. Thus in respect to behavior, we can atleast maintain that the truth value of our justification depends on our belief that the claims are empirically testable. ‘What of the truth value of explanation concerning emotions of joy, uneasiness, ir- ‘itailty or sadness? Here one has to concede that emotion in musical situations may ‘wot be directly open to empirical assessment except perhaps as it may be indirectly ex- alized in culturally defined forms of behavior. We may however be prepared to ac- ‘en that we may have identified the emotion we have by reference to similar feeling we tw in non-musical situations, and that any claim to the emotion being happy, perturbed ‘¢ sad rests solely on the analogy we make. That is to say, we may have extended the ‘meaning of “happy/sad"” from its connotation in emotions of non-musial situations to music-related emotion owing to the resemblance between the two. Yet, to postulate fesemblance is not necessarily to imply identity of the two emotions. If this is so, wherein Wies the difference? Can we establish the resemblance and make it publicly available ‘without reference to forms of observable behavior or other categories of non-musical ‘experience? It seems to me that in the attempt to find answers to questions such as these we would be seeking a clarification of the epistemic bases for understanding emotions ln musical situations. Such clarification seems necessary if we are to understand the na- lure of musical experience and value generally. Thus in general the justification for an epistemological approach in philosophy of \hoory lies in the need to ascertain the kind of knowledge that can accrue from the ap- plication of particular methods, the respects in which it conforms to genuine standards ff true knowledge, and how far our confidence in such methods should obtain. In eth- fnomusicology such approach may not be divorced from the need to measure our ana~ Iytical models by reference to epistemic strategies that relate music and culture effectively. For instance, it was probably the recognition of the centrality of physical, social and ver- bal behavior within the music-making process that led Merriam (1964:321) to base his todel of the three analytical levels on the close interconnection between the musical froduct and the behavior producing it on the one hand and to conceptual assumptions ‘bout what music is or should be on the other. Similarly in his characterization of the ftvnicologist and his peculiar musicological juncture the assumptions that Seeger (1977) tnakes touching on the biological, human, cultural and professional atributes of the mu icologist and the context of music study are a necessary epistemic framework for the Tlscussion of the problems of the musicologist that follows.52 ssionaceenzt APPLICATION OF THEORY Hitherto the attempt has been made to delimit three areas of theoretical concern germane to ethnomusicological research: |) the grammatical, which comprehends the rules or body of rules of musical of zanization and performance; 2 the speculative, embracing all theory or manner of theorizing in the areas of mus sical experience, meaning, value, interelationship with other forms of arts and activity generally, including modalities of their use and function, and of thes ace thetic and verbal communication; the philosophical, devoted to the rigorous examination of the nature of ethno- mmusicology and the scientific foundations on which the grammatical and spex lative theories rest—the metaphysical and epistemic bases and strategice of description and explanation employed in theoretical rationalization which cece to help us understand the why and how of musicological theory In all three, there has certainly been some activity in ethnomusicological writing. To ilustrate the different types of approach, a few examples will now be diseeead AS pointed out eater on, ethnomusicologists have long recognized the advantage of studying music within its many contexts, and the authors ofa fairly sizeable number of volumes including doctoral theses have characterized thei individual studies by make ico-cultural references. In this regard, Nketia’s works oF ican music are particularly notable forthe consistency with which he, amonac others, advanced this view. also are in part derived from social contexts or aien conn nensive cultural use of common musical devices, Again The Nees of Africa (1974), he he socially and artistically integrated character of aad thei ma is treatment of topes as music in community lites performing eeu, fad their music: the role of song text; the interrelatedness of music aed oaee eo forms in the context of ceremonials, public worship, funerals and social tlacone a institutionalize group expression of public opinion in song and dance Quite apart from his projection of the sociocultural matrix of African music, the sOutces referred to show that Nketia was equally consistently concerned to advance Knowledge and understanding through his rationaliztions regarding the sttuctores and ‘alist characteristic of vocal and instrumental forms, including singing and other pe formance styles, scales, principles of modality, melodic patterns and movement; rea tipart textures and progressions; principles of rhythmic patterning, accentuation, Dhrasing, accompaniment; speech melody, the verbal bases of instrumental music and $0 forth lescriptive rather ‘The principles and rationalizations set out by him are presented in descrip ‘than prescriptive manner, for the theoretical observations are selective and do not dealpermane es of musical or- the areas of mu. lorms of arts and and oftheir aes nature of ethno: natical and spec- and strategies of ation which seek xy. sical writing. To e discussed cd the advantage sizeable number 1 studies by mak- 4, Nketia’s works rich he, amongst Akan Communi- ramming’ based ‘Also inthe sum- ‘attention to the pes ate tradition tuations ... that contexts.» and ain in The Music ated character of forming groups and other artistic jal relations that frican music, the med to advance he structures and rng and other per movement; mul- vg, aceentuation, rental music and deseriptve rather ceand do not deal eshuaustively with the indi live, However, since the pi seanization of the musical performance conventions a trammatical theory. Asa sical traditions are organi say OF THEORY IY ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL RESEARCH 53 Jal traditions covered to make the rules equally prescrip- {ciples and examples presented inform us about the or- Jaivions studied, their stylistic characteristics, structure, s0 forth, the theoretical abstractions may be classified as, of rules, they are informative about how the various mu- From the varity of mugfcal types and traditions dealt with, itis to be noted that Africa is indeed characterize ways of musical organizato ‘eal theories themselves do by unity and diversity of ‘musical practice: that isto say, re observable in various parts that suggest or confirm the t go further to inform us 1 unity oF divergencefpr the interethnic contact ofits peoples. Yet the grammat about why individual societies Cnpanize musi the way each dpes—why for example particular ethnic or language groups sing i parallel cieds while thers employ parallel ths fe that the theories are not accounted for on the basis of tribution. Todo s0 would have led the theorist into the- ioretical conclusions resulting therefrom would proba iy have Become castifable as speculative theory. Thus, since Nketi has not attempted ‘wr apparently had intendedfo show the why ofthe various forms of organizational and ‘liste phenomena described and to account for their incidence on ethnic criteria, the a this sense then one isi ethnic provenance and ‘retical speculation; and any swatical theory. Uioretical abstractions “f bed in his works may generally be characterized as gram [sides the types of works already mentioned, there are other works that focus on conceptual and methodological problems of music research for the benefit of the younger vey of the fied of ethnomusicology. Bruno Nett’s The- icology (1968) for instance is a definition of the field, a cthnomusicologiss or as a ‘ory and Method in Ethnor Aiscussion ofits major bibl fand techniques, as well as of Also, in his Anthropology ‘eal behavior as yet another phic resources, problems: ‘of field and laboratory methods heories and approaches to the study of music in culture, fuse, Merriam (1964) the spect of context, clarify rises om the systematics of mi ing its potential asa perspective bra factor in the study of msical culture. In developing the ideas centering on his ana [fucal model, Merriam altetpts to ‘provide a theory and methodolowy for the sty fof music as human behavior bolic device, the problem of aesthetics Prand discusses at length 0 vet iture change, Ina sina vein, The Ehnomusico , fn cure chan. and eld ad iabortory method al of which a2 Sian mac ee et he eahnomusct fogist, and speculates on sol of analysis. To the extent thi sues in ethnomusicology t than constitute s Tieular points of view, they echtially descriptive but as9 speculative in characte Seat elborate and ei cach aks im yet another respect jpsues such as the epistemological problems lt ‘ermational models in ethn and the interrelation of the arts, as well as of music nogist by Hood (1971) isa study jcation and models fon to problems of instrument classifi sors of the kind mentioned here engage with general is: Specific area studies conducted from par- Cwesent a different category of research effort they are ‘because of their individual engage- eewlmentation nevessary to making the theoretical point xg have been a growing Mut tare of central concern in rusivological explanation, snber of articles that examine ‘critical philosophy of music— tent inthe blind use of structural and trans the need for developing a trulySe 54 a sisto ricaen2t ethnomusicological paradigm (Feld 1974); the potential of information processin. latifying our views on universals in music (Harwood 1976); of Seeger’s (1977) elabo ration and virtually single-handed defense of the area of “speech knowledge of rausic™ as a necessary field of ethnomusicological research. ‘One may also note the proceedings at the recent semi Music: Perspectives in Methodology atthe International Insti Studies and Documentation in Berlin, and the papers subm critical studies of (1) “The Juneture of the Social and the ‘of Cultural Analysis" (Nketia 1981), (2) "New Perspectives for the Description of Orally Transmitted Music" (Arom 1981), (3) “Historical Reconstructions for Oral Traditions ‘of Music” (Hood 1981) and so forth. Undoubtedly the topis listed here and others like them focus on major problems dealing with the framework within which ethnomusieo logical research is carried out; and judging from the eritical approach exhibited in the treatment ofthe problems they may be offered as examples of the kind of approach with hich philosophy of theory should be concerned. Conversely they show a sense in which Philosophy of theory may be discerned in ethnomusicology, namely as a subtradition of the field devoted to ensuring clarity of thought in ethnomusicologieal thinking and research through detailed and systernatic elaboration of the most general concepts and Approaches necessary to our understanding of music in culture lar on The Study of World itute for Comparative Music ntted t0 it, which represent Musical: The Methodology} CONCEPT OF MUSICAL CULTURE Saenadreredty Nese a eee a the concept of “musical culture” has for ethnomusicological analysis, Nketia (198131) i describes “musical culture” as: {he agareeate of cultural traditions associated with music which become evident atthe juncture of the social and the musical, traditions that are learned inthe Soil process i on special earning situations, radition that are cultivated, praised and ve-ceated makers and audience in diferent contexts of situation. A musical cute, he 968 0 0 explain, msn distinct kent not only through the mia but ao the soi sphere of ature, forthe socomustaljuncure admis only forms of behavior, status tnd sutra lations, expesons and rls ha tre loma wot fr te ntoe doe nt ccs muse econo Seal Cult nor ou b make of made maney espaol lest 1c ae pap, Neate foro Gls of mea cb us sdlipoaeanepsope 1 meilipantitns op, Spanier soto thn fueapeone sepa of cost aden seca with” in Exp ing wih te mophyoal ety ofthe tfeent wa thng.” an evens or phenome ton arte the posi of terreno he unture allows for improvisation However, toca tha he concept of sil clue doesnt ele mesic fom ener afr isno ecstarly to ow carly whecn and how mus les omormation processing Seeger's (1977) clabo- knowledge of music” mn The Study of World for Comparative Music 410 it, whieh represent ical: The Methodology xe Description of Orally dns for Oral Traditions ted here and others like in which ethnomusico- roach exhibited in the kind of approach wich 1 show a sense in which ely as a subtradition of sological thinking and " general concepts and sitical examination of ay be drawn tothe ar- =rucial immediacy that lysis. Nketia (1981:31) ome evident atthe ‘the social process ised and re-created nakers, instrument tity not only through ‘sical juncture admits sssions and roles that the concept of general 5 view of musical cul- nt to it; for, defining th music” i in keep ‘event or phenome- ws for improvisation be juncture draws at 2 process ‘exclude music from ‘music relates to mu- ‘TOWARD A PIULOSOFWY OF TIKORY INETHNOMESICOLOGICAL RESEARCH SS al culture or to general culture. For instanée, in what respects is culture musical or uaencral? Wherein lies the specificity of musical culture if music is part of general cul~ ‘te? In what way isa particular musical juncture (a) a culture or b) an aspect of veneral \lture? It would seem to me that questions such as the foregoing evidently suggest that ‘vonceptually at any rate the notion of musical culture remains to be fully articulated, There seems to be one respect in which the notion of musical culture can be identi. 's characterized, the cultural traditions informing any musical culture can be none ‘her than those that have close relevance to the sociomusical juncture. Methodologi wally speaking, the selective approach to ethnological data that Arom advocates in his ticle seems to reflect a similar point or view, Placing within the centre of a concentric schema the systematics of any musical corpus a researcher may be interested in, and ‘warding such systematics as the focus of ethomusicological attention, Arom argues ‘Hat ethnologic information can be considered relevant to musical data atthe centre only IW the two sets of data are organically related; and that there would be varying degrees ‘au! kinds of relevance depending on the nature of ethnologic data, the concentric ci. te to which each datum is assigned and the distance of each datum from the centre. Thus ‘te more organically related, the closer to the centre and the more pertinent to the mu sical data: the more remotely connected, the farther away from the centre and the less ‘pertinent. Within this framework then, the researcher needs concern himscif only with some and not the whole ethnology of a people, ‘one assumes that the way the model will work out will depend on the nature of, data, the basis of organic relationship among the facts, and that the success or failure Of the model can be attested only after several applications of it, an assessment of the Wodalties of such application can await actual research effort. Yet conceptually, cer. ‘nin issues seem to demand clarification ifthe miodel isto be fully characterized. For in ‘ance, on what basis are the various bits of ethnologic data assigned to the respective concentric circles? How does one minimize the clement of subjectivity in deciding which bic of data is organically relevant relative to distance from the centre? Clearly, one feels he need to subject this relationship, and indeed the analytical model as a whole to a yet tore rigorous elaboration, The isues raised thus far have not been taken up to demonstrate that the particu- lar viewpoints discussed in them were not wel thought out or argued out, Far from it; they have been raised merely to indicate something of the critical approach to concepts ‘at might be expected in a critical philosophy of theory. The need for this level of [Philosophical effort in ethnomusicology becomes even more noticeable in instances in which general notions are used without conmitntent to the full elaboration of them. For ‘example one often meets concepts such as *metatheory,"* “metalanguage,” “theory of "heories,” but hardly anywhere inthe literature are they systematically rationalized fron the ethnomusicological or any point of view. To some extent, I have just now become ulty of it myself; for, Lam painfully aware that my effort ata critical rationalization philosophy of theory is but barely adequate. The point must however be made that ‘w writings on the music of non-Western cultuges, unelaborated general concepts and ‘iewpoints that demand fuller articulation are frequently found; and one would wish to ‘wueuest seriously that quite apart from ‘folk’? ideas on music within given cultures tvimary data for a philosophy of theory exist in written ethnomusicologcal sources wai {ng 0 be critically elaborated, Vor example, in The Music of Africa Nketia writes of instrumental combinations56 = xissonscarozt that are considered as aesthetically meaningful to the African. From an examination of the aesthetic habits of some African peoples, he observes “a distinct bias towards per cussion ... a preference for musical textures ... of sounds that increase the ratio o! noise to pitch"* (Nketia 1974:112). Elsewhere in the same volume, he describes norms ‘of behavior by means of which aesthetic feelin is externalized, which range from con templative pose through animated utterance to formalized behavior aimed at particu lar effect (1974:33-34). Further he gave instances of critical comment by Africare about particular performances of African music. From them he concludes as follows: although traditional musi is performed on socal occasions, there are norms that must be observed, expectation that must be flfiled... 1 (Neti) have watched musical changed hands infield situations because player was faltering and have ‘noticed tne and again the stern look from a master drummer ashe stopped to ive Someone the correct rhythmic pattern or urge hm to play better (1974240), Obviously Nketia's observations show clearly that the African docs react aesthetically tion to music; not only does he know what satisfies him musically, but he verbalizes about it, and demonstrates by example what musical ideals one should aim at. Thus there is evidence of aesthetic activity inthe literature on African musicology, and the ideas in evidence ofthis activity certainly constitute basic material for eritical analysis ‘beyond primary level conceptions in the virgin field of the aesthetic of non_-Westers One would concede however that evidence of ae ot necesarily evidence of aesthetic theory, much On the other hand Philosophy in the ri sthetic activity among a people is less a philosophy of aesthetic theory in ethnomusicological wrt ings should form an essential basis for and analysis adet ‘ale theory on the aesthetic behavior and com developing by inquiry ‘munication in non-Western musical pe It is interesting to find that some an mean in terms of Tiv sic is reflection of non-musical cultural plied in full statement of the it must be doubtful whether any “truth, Sonsitions” can be established for testing the validity ofthe correlation, ules of cour one is prepared to allow for a reduction of the metaphor iat Which again would make the resemblance more tenuous The justification for a philosophy of theory ofa critical philosophy of music within fthnomusicology would thus seem to be dictated by the need to understand one amatho in as brecise a manner as possible a a necessary condition for advancing knowledge in cthnomusicology in general and African musicology in particularWARD A PHILOSOPHY OF THEORY IN ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL neSEaReH ST sm an examination of net bias towards pe Increase the ratio of som, Simba he describes norms hich range from con ‘ior aimed at particu- | ant by Africans about des a8 Follows FERENC crrep Pespeives fr the Desctpon of Orally Transmited Musi." The Worl of Muse istics and Ethnomusicology,” Evhnomuscology 182-197-217. s Music Tradtion of Afies: A Critical Evaluation of Contemporary Problems end emia ne cite Ae Une f Ghana Press «© watched musical mec bisophies of Science: An tnroductry Survey. London: O.U. faltering and have a Paes "Wie “Walls ia Msc: Perspective fom Copiive Pasha" Ethnology 243) 521-533 Hosta, Stay Brian 974:240 i » 1918 “Epldemotogy and Musi: A Javanese Example," Ethnomusicology 2269-48. Wii The Bnomusicologie. New York McGraw-Hill Book Company. ost “Hidprical Recoastction for Oral Traian of Moss." Phe Word of Misi 230):5-21, ves react aesthetically ally, but he verbalizes should aim at. Thus, ‘musicology, and the | for critical analysis tic of non—Western 1 Drumming: Exar on African and Afro: Latin American Musi ond Musicons, Wet i Chicago: University of Chicago Pres. whvopoloy of Music. Evanston: Norhwestera Univesity Pres. ty among a people is uscoloy of he Fathead Indians. Chicago Ain. ¥of aesthetic theory. ‘an with theory and "individuals that are anable to expect that fan essential basis for ‘behavior and com and Method in Ethnomusicology. New York: The Fre Pres ; al Twenty-nine sees and Conceps Urban: University of ins Min Ghne Bano: Northwest Pr ing Aan Commun of Coa Ear Tomas Non and Son Ld Teun of ce New Yo W. Nation nd Capay Brande Aan ue" Nil oor Porta As arty Sol (Bom nf Sol an the Mas: The Matos Call Ana he Word pease) > this area of ethno- ain speculative as 10 corize about the ways, aspects of music with Aaborated metaphor, y of metaphor would ‘ean in terms of Tiv ton-musical cultural phor can have truth: whether any “truth ion, unless of course imiletie constituents, ca Schoashiin Western Mu” n Musicology by Frank Harrison Mantle Hood, Clade sca, Englewood Clif, NJ Prentice Hal pp. 87-213, in Musicology: Theory, History, Sytomats Berkley: University of California Pres. phy of music within derstand one another ancing knowledge in