Gelogi Bawah Permukaan

Formation Evauation
In Subsurface Perspective
Maulana Rizki Aditama, S.Si., M.Sc

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 PETROPHYSICS

• So, what is it and why do we need it?

How much
oil/gas have
we got?
Q1 What factors
affect it?

Q2 How can we
estimate these
factors?
 Direct observation of reservoir
Boreholes
(i) Cores
A. Drilling barrel cores - large and continuous, expensive
B. Side-wall cores - small and discrete – still expensive
(ii) Cuttings
Rock fragments ground by drill bit flushed to the surface -
principal source of sub-surface sampling
Problems mixture of chips, time lag and dissolution from soft
horizons
Measurement of cores in the lab is accurate BUT time consuming
and expensive. Only small number are taken therefore how
representative of the well or formation
 Indirect observation of reservoir
— Drilling logs - drill rate, mud loss, torque, etc

— Mud logs - mud salinity, pH, mud weight, pressure,

etc.
— Wireline logs - petrophysical logs – provide better
coverage than core measurements and are calibrated
to core measurements
— Cement logs, Production logs, MWD and LWD –
Other types of borehole logging
 Basic reservoir properties
— Pore space in the rock - POROSITY
How much fluid storage capacity there is in a
reservoir

— What fluid fill the pore spaces –SATURATION

How much hydrocarbon is in the reservoir

— How fluids flow in the rock – PERMEABILITY

How fast can we extract the hydrocarbons
 More reservoir properties

— Pressure that causes fluid to flow - DRIVE

— Vertical and spatial distribution of reservoir quality -

STRATIGRAPHICAL & SIZE

— Barriers to flow - SEALING FAULTS & STRATIGRAPHY

 Hydrocarbon reservoirs: Requirements I
v A source rock
containing organic remains
v The right pressure and temperature conditions
to turn the organic remains into hydrocarbons
v Time
for the transformation to happen
v A porous reservoir rock
to contain the hydrocarbons
 HC reservoirs: Requirements II
v A migration path
to allow the hydrocarbons to entre the reservoir
v A trap (structural or chemical)
to keep the hydrocarbons in the reservoir
v A cap rock
to keep the hydrocarbons in the reservoir
v A reservoir rock that is sufficiently permeable
for us to extract as much as possible
A source rock can be the cap rock for the same reservoir
 Emplacement of hydrocarbons I

Initially all the rock is saturated with water; the water

with which it was deposited.
 Emplacement of hydrocarbons
Oil migrates into 35%
the rock
It pushes most of
the water out

Interaction between water and minerals is usually much greater

than between oil and minerals
Hence the water-wet rock retains a layer of water next to the
grains which is called the irreducible water saturation, Swi
Flow in hydrocarbon reservoirs

kwater
good

kwater=0 35%

koil<kwater
@100%
water
How much oil have we got?

Resources calculations
Reserves calculations
 Influencing factors

– Gross Volume Area? thickness?

– Ratio of Paying Volume Non-paying Layers
– Space for fluid Porosity (f)
– Percentage that is gas or oil; Saturation
– How much is extractable? Permeability, drive,
– Others ... pressure, ...
 Important equations

O(O)IP = 7758 Ahf (1- Sw) bbl.

G(O)IP = 43560 Ahf (1- Sw) standard cu. ft.

STO(O)IP = 7758 Ahf (1- Sw)/Bo bbl.

STG(O)IP = 43560 Ahf (1- Sw)/Bg standard cu. ft.

Porosity in calculations is always a fraction – never a percentage.

Always consider your units in every step of a calculation.

 Input data
Parameter Source Comment

Reservoir area Seismics

Reservoir Well logs & Volume is usually calculated by combining areas and
depths from seismics with thicknesses and net to gross
thickness seismics
from well logs
Net to gross Well logs

Well logs & Laboratory makes a few highly accurate measurements

Porosity
Laboratory to which well logsare calibrated
Well logs & Calculation of saturations from well logsrequires
Saturations
Laboratory laboratory determinations of Archie’sexponents
Formation Samples of reservoir fluid are analysed in specialist
Laboratory
volume factor PVT labs
 Units
Unit (feet) SI units
1 acre 43 560 sq ft 4047 m2
1 barrel (bbl) 5.6154 cu. Ft 0.159 m3
1 acre foot (=7758 bbl) 43560 cu. Ft 1233.522 m3

1 Mbbl. = 1000 bbl.

1 MMbbl. = 1,000,000 bbl.
1 Gscf = 109 scf
 Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place (STOIIP)

– HCIIP ... OIIP; GIIP; “initially in Place”

– HCOIP ... OOIP; GOIP; “originally in Place”
Both are at reservoir conditions, but hydrocarbons are
sold at near surface conditions that you find in the
stock tank (75oF, 1 atm)
– STHCOIP, STOOIP, STGOIP, Stock Tank Oil Initially in
Place (STOIIP)
Stock tank volumes are very different from reservoir
condition volumes – Why?
 STOIIP vs. OOIP
For oil
As oil comes from the reservoir to the surface
1. Temperature reduces and the oil volume contracts
2. Pressure reduces and the oil volume expands
3. Pressure reduces and dissolved gases exsolve, the
oil volume decreases
Effects 1. and 3. are bigger than 2, so STOOIP<OOIP
OOIP/STOOIP» 1.6 typical
 STGIIP vs. GOIP
For gas
As gas comes from the reservoir to the surface
1. Temperature reduces and the gas volume contracts
2. Pressure reduces and the gas volume expands
massively
3. There may be an additional gas volume from
exsolved gas if there is also oil in the reservoir
Effect 2. is by far the biggest, so STGOIP>>GOIP
GOIP/STGOIP» 0.003 typical
Formation Volume Factor

Usual symbols are FVF, Bo or Bg

FVFoil = Bo =OOIP/STOOIP
Units are volume per volume, i.e., bbl./bbl.

FVFgas = Bg =GOIP/STGOIP
Units are volume per volume, i.e., scf./scf.
 Oil field example
Area of zone, A 2000 acres
Thickness, h 150 ft
Porosity, f 15%
Water saturation, Sw 30%
Oil formation volume factor, Bo 1.65 (reservoir bbl. per
stock tank bbl.)

STO(O)IP = 7758×2000×150×0.15×(1- 0.3)/1.65

= 148.10727 MMbbl.

Whereas, the calculation for reservoir OOIP would have given

244.377 MMbbl.
 Gas field example
Area of zone, A 2000 acres
Thickness, h 150 ft
Porosity, f 15%
Water saturation, Sw 30%
Oil formation volume factor, Bo 0.0035 (reservoir scf. per
stock tank scf.)
STG(O)IP = 43560×2000×150×0.15×(1- 0.3)/0.0035
= 392.04 Bscf

Whereas, the calculation for reservoir OOIP would have given

1.372 Bscf
 Uncertainties
— Estimate gross volume?
— Area x height? – Seismic data input
— But how much is oil?
— Space for fluid – Porosity (f)
— Saturations? Sw, So, Sg, Shc?
— Stratified layers ... variations
— rock types – each min saturation and porosity
— What can likely be extracted? - permeabilities
— What volumes once at the surface? – Formation
volume factors
Gross Volume (lateral/ area)
• From seismics
• Good at identifying lateral
extents of layers
• Not at quantifying the porosity
and saturations
• Geological Interpretation
• Reservoir models

Figure from R. Stoneley (1995), “Intro. to

Petr. Exploration for non-geologists”
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Gross Volume – Multiple Wells

Figure from R. Stoneley (1995), “Intro. Petr. Exploration for non-geologists”

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 Multiple layers
If ALL the layershave
the same properties
can calculate for the
gross thickness
multiplied by a net-to-
gross ratio

If NOT then calculate

the hydrocarbon
volumes for each
individual layer and add
up

Second route is always

better
Figure from R. Stoneley (1995), “Intro. Petr. Exploration for non-
geologists”
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 Reserves and Recovery Factor
v So far we have estimated hydrocarbon initially in
place – ‘Resources’
v The proportion which can be successfully
recovered is the Recovery Factor
v Resources x Recovery factor = Reserves
v Depends on many factors: rock-types and fluids,
drive mechanisms, the extraction process,
secondary recovery and EOR, well geometry etc.

It varies …. 10% … 60%

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 Errors and Uncertainty

v Errors in area – nowadays quite small – seismics

delineates

v Greater error in petrophysical measurements

Are wells and well samples representative?

v What are the cumulative effects?

Formation Evaluation. Session 2 39

 Errors and Uncertainty

Property Low Estimate (-10%) Base Estimate High Estimate (+10%)

Area (acres) 2000 2000 2000

Zone Thickness (ft) 90 100 110
Porosity (%) 18 20 22
Sw (%) 38.5 35 31.5
Bo (oil FVF) 1.76 1.6 1.44

STOIIP (Mbbl) 88 126 179

% change -30% 0 42%

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