Each of the 111 chemical elements discovered till date has a set of characteristic properties. For the convenience of study, these elements have been grouped on the basis of their common features into two broad classes—metals and nonmetals. There is no sharp line of demarcation between these two classes of elements. However, there are some characteristic features by which metals can be distinguished from nonmetals. Characteristic Properties of Metals Physical properties 1. Electronic configuration of metals Metal atoms generally possess 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outermost shells or valence shells. For example, the electronic configurations of sodium, ‘magnesium and aluminium are given below. i Element Atomicnumber Electronic configuration Sodium (Na) u 2,81 Magnesium (Mg) 2 2,82 Aluminium (Al) B 28,3, a me it Thus, sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals as they have 1, 2 and 3 electrons respectively in their outermost shells. Exceptions Hydrogen and helium have in their outermost shells 1 and 2 electrons respectively, but they are not metals. In these cases, the outermost shell is the first and only shell (K shell). 2. Electropositive character Metals have high electropositivity, ie,, the metal atoms have a high tendency to lose their valence electrons and become positive ions (cations). By losing electron(¢), 4 metal atom tends to acquire the stable configuration of the nearest noble gas. Na Na * (Neon-like configuration) 281 2 Ca 2 4ca . je 283.27 $4.4 (Atgonike configuration) ey A : a eine Al (Neon-like configuration) 3, Malleability Metals are malleable, i.e., they can be beaten into very thin sheets, Fc . ' : gold and silver are among the most malleable metals, . eras 4. Duciility Metals are ductile, ie., they can be drawn into wii ductile. Gold and silver are among the most ductile met @ scanned with OKEN Scannercoin can be stretched into a 10-km-long wire. Because of its ductile nature, copper is used in electrical wires. Fig. 5.1 Metals are ductile and malleable—they can be drawn into wires, pressed to form sheets or foils. 5. Thermal and electrical conductivity All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Silvers the best conductor of heat and electricity, while lead is the poorest. The utensils we use in Kitchen are made of zinc, copper and aluminium because these metals are good conductors of heat. Alll metals are good conductors of electricity because they contain free or mobile electrons. ‘These free electrons conduct electric current. Silver and copper are among the best conductors of electricity, followed by gold, aluminium and tungsten. Iron and mercury offer greater resistance to the flow of current. The electrical conductivity of metals decreases with the rise in temperature. This is because with the rise in temperature, the vibration of core electrons increases which creates hindrance to the flow of free electrons or valence electrons. Exception Graphite is a good conductor of electricity although it is a nonmetal. 6. Lustre Metals possess a characteristic shining appearance called metallic lustre, and they can be polished. Txceptions Graphite and iodine are lustrous but they are nonmetals. 7. Tensile strength Metals have high tensile strength. 4. Density Metals have high densities, except sodium, potassium, etc., which have low densities. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMetals and Nonmetals . Table 5.1 Metal 3 Densily kgm ? na Iron 79x10 Copper 89%10° Silver 105 x10 Gold 193 x10 Sodium, 0.97 x10° Potassium 0.86 x10? Magnesium 74x10? Aluminium 27x10 Because of low densities, sodium, potassium, magnesium and aluminium are called light metals. 9. Slate Metals are generally solids at room temperature, except mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature. 10. Melting point and boiling point Metals have high melting and boiling points. But there are exceptions—sodium and potassium melt and boil at low temperatures. Gallium and caesium can melt if kept on palm. Table 5.2 Metal mp.CO) bp.EO Zinc 419 907 Iron 1535, 2750 Copper 1083 2567 Silver 962 2212 Sodium 98 881 Potassium 63 774 Gallium 30 2400 Caesium 3B 680 11. Sound Metals, when struck with a hammer, metallic sound, 12, Alloy formation Metals can form a homogeneous mixture in combination with other metals, Such a mixture is called an alloy. For example, copper and zinc mix up to form brass, 13. Hardness Most metals are very hard. However, sodium and potassium are soft metals which can be cut with a knife. Produce a characteristic sound known as Activity Series of Metals The reactivity of metals differs from metal to metal. Some of the me! others are less reactive towards chemical reagents. form positively charged ions are more reactive, less reactive. Metals can be arranged in the order of decreasing Activity oF reactivity series of metals. The series has tals are more reactive, while The metals that can lose electrons easily and Those that cannot lose electrons easily are ‘Teactivity in a series. This series is called the been derived after studying many chemical @ scanned with OKEN Scannerist Foundation Science: Chemistry for Class 10 % Table 5.3 Activity series of metals : Meal Symbol _. | Potssium — K . React vigorously Bena Ba |]. Resetvigooe SS Calcium ca with water ee L. | sodium Na | Magnesium = Mg Aluminium AL React slowly with Zn water but readily pel ie with steam to give Hy yomium Cr Iron Fe with acid we Cadmium Ca Cobalt Co Nickel Ni Tin sn L_| tea Pb Hydrogen =H — | Copper cu Mercury Hg Do not react with a ps acids to give H, Platinum =P L. | Goa Aw sr (Cu), mercury (Fig) and silver (Ag) react with HNO, but do not produce H,. In these rections, the metals onedzed tothe sal ion, and NO; ion is reduced to NO, or other nitrogen species. Itmay be asked, why hydrogen, being a nonmetal, has been included in the activity series. It is because hydrogen, like metals, can part with its electron to form a positive ion or cation. Significance of activity series 1. The metals above hydrogen in the activity series have greater tendency than hydrogen to give up electrons in their solutions. Such metals are called electropositive metals. The electropositive character of metals becomes less pronounced as we go down the series, For example, lithium (Li), the first metal in the series is the most electropositive, while gold (Au), the last metal in the series is the least electropositive. 2. The metals above hydrogen in the series can liberate hydrogen when treated with an acid solution. Thus, magnesium and zinc react with dilute solutions of sulphuric acid to produce hydrogen gas. Mg + H,SO, —> MgSO, + H, Zn + H,S0,—>+ ZnSO, + H, In these reactions electrons released by metals are accepted by H' or H,O" ions present in the acid solution. Mg —> Mg” + 2e 2H’ + 2e —+ H, 3. > 2 2 g 3 g zB g 8 3 z g 8 i 2 & z 3 i 8 E 8 g @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMetals and Nonmetals 7” Fe + CuSO, —+ FeSO, + Cu This is because iron is more electropositive than copper. Chemical Properties 1. Combination with oxygen All metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides. 4Na + 0, —+ 2Na,0 2Mg + O, —+ 2Mg0 Metal atoms easily lose their valence-shell electrons and form positive ions while oxygen atoms receive electrons to form the negative oxide ion. For example, the formation of magnesium ‘oxide can be explained as follows. Mg ——> Mg” + 2e O+ 2e —+ OF The two oppositely charged ions, i.e, Mg” and O*, combine together by electrostatic force of attraction to produce electrovalent or ionic magnesium oxide (MgO). Mg —> Mg** + 2e O + 2e —+ OF Mg + OF Mg? o* Mg + O —> Mg**O* orMgO or Mg + 40, —> MgO. or 2Mg + 0, —> 2MgO Metal oxides are basic in nature. Some metal oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis. Na,O + H,O —> 2NaOH CaO + H,O —> Ca(OH), Some of the metal oxides (Al,O,, ZnO, etc.) have acidic as well as basic characters. These oxides, called amphoteric oxides, react with both acids and bases. For example, ZnO reacts with dilute HCI to form ZnCl, and H,0. ZnO + 2HCl —+ ZnCl, + H,O (basic nature of ZnO) When ZnO is heated with NaOH solution, sodium zincate and water are formed. ZnO + 2NaOH —+ Na,ZnO, + H,O (acidic nature of ZnO) The reactivities of metals towards oxygen are different. Some metals react with oxygen quite rapidly at room temperature itself, some react when heated, while there are metals which react only on prolonged heating. () Sodium and potassium react with oxygen at room temperature to form basic oxides. 4Na + 0, —> 2Na,0 4K + O, —> 2K,0 (Gi) Magnesium does not combine with oxygen at room temperature. But when heated, it burns in oxygen with a dazzling white light and produces magnesium oxide. 2Mg + 0, —> 2Mgo ‘Since magnesium reacts with oxygen less readily than sodium, magnesium is less reactive than sodium. (iii) Zinc reacts with oxygen only when strongly heated to form zinc oxide. 2Zn + O, —+ 22n0 Since zine reacts with oxygen less readily than magnesium, zinc is less reactive than magnesium (iv) Copper does not react with oxygen even on strong heating It, however, reacts very lowly on prolonged heating, forming cupric oxide. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerFoundation Science: Chemistry for Class 10 2Cu + O, —+ 2Cu0 ‘Since copper reacts with oxygen much less readily than zinc, copper is less reactive than zine, ‘The order of reactivity of these metals towards oxygen can be summed up as: sodium > magnesium > zinc > copper 2. Reaction with water Different metals react differently with water. Some metals react with water at ordinary temperature, some do only when heated, while some metals react with steam In each case, hydrogen is evolved. Here are some examples. (@) Metals such as potassium, sodium and calcium decompose water at ordinary temperature. 2K + 2H,O —> 2KOH + H, 2Na + 2H,O —> 2NaOH + H, Ca + 24,0 —> Ca(OH), + H, Potassium decomposes water more vigorously than does sodium. Hence, potassium is more reactive than sodium. Sodium decomposes water more vigorously than calcium does. Hence, sodium is more reactive than calcium. Since sodium and potassium react readily with atmospheric oxygen at room temperature, they cannot be left exposed to air or water. They are always kept under kerosene. The reaction of sodium and potassium with water is so violent and exothermic that the hydrogen produced catches fire immediately. In case of calcium, the reaction is not so violent and the heat evolved is insufficient for hydrogen to catch fire. However, hydrogen evolved envelopes the surface of the metal. This | causes the metal to float. (i) Magnesium, iron and zinc do not react with cold water. They react with steam. When steam is passed over the heated metals, respective metal oxides and hydrogen are produced. Mg + H,O —> MgO + H, Zn + H,O —> ZnO + H, 3Fe + 4H,O —> Fe,Q, + 4H, (iii) Metals such as copper, mercury and tin do not react with water either at ordinary temperature or at higher temperatures. The order of reactivity of some metals with water is: Na>Mg>Zn>Fe>Cu 3. Reaction of metals with acids Metals usually react with acids to displace hydrogen from acids. The less reactive metals, however, do not displace hydrogen from acids, The rate of reaction between a metal and an acid depends on the electropositivity of the metal. A more electropositive metal reacts with an acid more rapidly than does a less electropositive metal. () Sodium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid vigorously to form sodium chloride and hydrogen gas. 2Na + 2HCl —> 2NaCl + H, This is because sodium metal is highly reactive, (ii) Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid quite rapidly, but much less vigorously than does sodium, to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen. Mg + 2HCl —> MgCl, + H, This shows that magnesium is less reactive than sodium. (ii) Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce zine chloride and hydrogen, but the rate of this reaction is slower than that with magnesium. Hence, zinc is less reactive that magnesium. Zn + 2HCl —> ZnCl, + Hy @ scanned with OKEN Scanner | | 7 7 1 eassicaalMetals and Nonmetals a (iv) Copper does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid. This shows that copper is less reactive than zine. Cu + HCl —+Noreaction ‘The rate of reaction of a metal with an acid also depends upon the nature of the acid. Thus, aluminium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid at a reasonably fast rate, These acids are known as strong acids. On the other hand, aluminium reacts with weak acids, such as phosphoric acid and acetic acid, very slowly. 2Al + 6HCL —> 2AICl, + 3H, (rapid) aluminium chloride 2Al + 2H,PO, —> 2AIPO, + 3H, (slow) aluminium phosphate 2Al + 6CH,COOH —+ 2Al(CH,COO), + 3H, (slow) aluminium acetate In fact, all weak acids react with metals slowly. Metals below hydrogen in the activity series of metals do not liberate hydrogen from acids, but they react with oxidizing acids (conc. H,SO, or HNO;) to form water, salt of the metal and the reduction products of the oxidizing acids. For example, copper reacts with dilute nitric acid to form water, copper nitrate and nitric oxide. 3Cu + 8HNO, —> 3Cu(NO,), + 4H,O + 2NO Copper reacts with hot concentrated sulphuric acid to produce copper sulphate, sulphur dioxide and water. Cu + 2H,S0, —> CuSO, + SO, + 2H,O Note It should be noted that metals above hydrogen in the activity series can displace hydrogen from acids, but metals below hydrogen cannot do so. Clean small pieces of magnesium, zinc, aluminium and copper by rubbing them with a piece of sandpaper. Take them in separate test tubes. Add about 10 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid to each of them. You will find thatthe rate of evolution of hydrogen gas bubbles is not same in all the test tubes. ‘The evolution of bubbles in case of magnesium is very fast, while in the remaining cases it falls off in the following order. =) Mg > Al > Zn You will also find that there is no evolution of bubbles in case of copper. does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid, cates that copper 4. Displacement of metals from their salt solutions Any metal in contact with a solution containing the ions of a less electropositive (or less reactive) metal can replace the less electropositive metal. Ions of the more electropositive metal are produced, while the less electropositive metal gets deposited. Here are some examples: (i) When a strip of zinc metal is dipped into a solution of copper sulphate, the blue colour of copper sulphate gradually disappears and metallic copper is deposited on the strip of zinc. Zn + CuSO, —+ ZnSO, + Cu If we dip gold or platinum into copper sulphate solution, copper is not displaced. This is because gold and platinum are less electropositive (or less reactive) than copper. (ji) When a piece of iron is dipped into copper sulphate solution, the blue colour of the solution fades slowly, while red precipitate of copper is deposited on the iron piece. Due to the formation of FeSO,, the solution becomes greenish. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerFoundation Science: Chemistry for Class 10 Cu + 2AgNO, —> Cu(NO,), + 248 This reaction shows that copper is more reactive than silver. i 5. Displacement of metals from metal oxides A more electropositive eel a displ ce les clectropositive metal from its oxide. For example, when cupric 0» magnesium powder, magnesium oxide is formed and copper is set free. CuO + Mg —> MgO + Cu i : This is because magnesium is more electropositive (or more reactive) than coppe! it it i roduce electrovalent or ionic 6. Reaction with chlorine Metals combine with chlorine to produc r chlorides of metals. The metal atoms lose electrons and become positively charged ions On the other hand, chlorine atoms receive the electrons and become negatively charged ions (CI’). M—>+ M" + ne nCl + ne —> nCl- These oppositely charged ions (M"* and nC”) are now held together by electrostatic force of attraction to give M"*nCl-. / (j) Sodium reacts readily with chlorine to form sodium chloride, which is an electrovalent ‘compound. Na —> Na’ +e ad+e— a Na + Cl——> Na or Na+ a, —= Nat cr or 2Na + Cl, —+ 2Na* Cl’ or 2NaCl Gi) When magnesium is heated with chlorine, magnesium chloride, an electrovalent compound, is formed. Mg + Cl, —> MgCl, (iii) When zinc is heated in a current of chlorine, zinc chloride is obtained. Zn + Cl; —+ ZnCl, (iv) When copper is heated in chlorine, cupric chloride is produced. Cu + Cl, —> CuCl, 7. Reaction with hydrogen Not all metals combine with hydrogen. Some reactive metals such as. lithium, sodium, potassium and calcium combine with hydrogen to form the hydrides of metals. 2Li + H, —> 2LiH 2Na + H, —> 2NaH Ca + H, —> CaH, These hydrides are ionic compounds in which hydrogen is present as hydride ion (H°). NONMETALS There are only 22 nonmetallic elements, of which 11 are gases, one is a liquid and the rest 10 are solids. Characteristics of Nonmetals Physical properties 1, Nonmetals are usually brittle and cannot be used to make sheets or wires, 2. Nonmetals usually do not have lustre and cannot be polished. Only graphite and are lustrous. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMetals and Nonmetals a 3, They are generally bad conductors of heat and electricity. The only exception is graphite, which is a good conductor of electricity. A nonmetal atom has 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 electrons in its outermost shell (valence shell). These electrons are not free or mobile. This is why nonmetals do not conduct electric current. 4, Nonmetals can be easily broken, ie, the tensile strength of nonmetals is low. 5. Nonmetals have low melting and boiling points. The only exception is graphite, whose melting point is very high. Table 5.4 Metal mp.) bp.CO Phosphorus 44 281 Sulphur ua “4 Bromine 7 60 Oxygen 229 183 6. Nonmetals are generally light and have low densities. Table 5.5 Nonmetal Density kg:m” Phosphorus (white) 18210 Sulphur 2.07 x10° Graphite 2.25 x10? Diamond 351x10° 7. The solid nonmetals, eg,, sulphur and phosphorus are soft. But carbon (nonmetal), in the form of diamond, is very hard. In fact, diamond is the hardest substance known. 8. Unlike metals, nonmetals do not produce any sound when struck with an object. 9. Nonmetals exist in all the three states of matter, ie., nonmetals may be solid, liquid or gas at ordinary temperature. For example: carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, iodine. —> solid bromine — liquid hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine —> gas 10. All nonmetals, except hydrogen, are electronegative. They have the tendency to accept electrons and become negatively charged ions. d+e—cr O+ 2e —+ OF Chemical properties 1. Reaction with oxygen Nonmetals combine with oxygen to form acidic oxides. Some of these oxides dissolve in water to produce acids. C+ 0, —> C0, CO, + H,O —> H,Co, $+ 0, —> $0, $0, + H,O — H,S0, Other oxides, such as carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (NO) are neutral to litmus. Reaction with acids Unlike metals, nonmetals do not react with acids to liberate hydrogen gas. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerDistinctions between Metals and Nonmetals Foundation Science: Chemistry for Class 10 Some nonmetals, however, react with oxidizing acids to produce oxo acids. For example, sulphur reacts with concentrated nitric acid to form H,SO, and NO; $+ 6HNO, —> H,SO, + 6NO, + 2H,O 3. Reaction with chlorine Nonmetals react with chlorine to form chlorides. For example, phosphorus reacts with chlorine to form phosphorus trichloride. P, + 6Cl, —> 4PCl, Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to produce hydrogen chloride. H, + Cl, —> 2HCI 4. Reaction with hydrogen Nonmetals combine with hydrogen to form hydrides. Here are some examples: (i) Sulphur combines with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulphide. H, +$ —>H,S (i) Nitrogen combines with hydrogen to form ammonia. N, + 3H, —> 2NH, Nonmetal hydrides are covalent in nature because nonmetals cannot provide electrons to hydrogen atoms to produce hydride ions (H’). Due to the non-existence of ions, nonmetal hydrides are bad conductors of electric current. 5, Reaction with water Nonmetals in general do not react with water. This is because nonmetals do not lose electrons to reduce H” ions present in water. However, very reactive nonmetals like fluorine (F,) reacts with water to produce hydrogen fluoride and oxygen. 25, + 2H,O—> 4HF + 0, fluorine ‘wafer hydrogen ostden (A) Distinctions based on physical properties Metals Nonmetals Re Nonmetals do not possess any metallic lustre. Exceptions Iodine and graphite possess metallic lustre. 1. Metals have lustre called metallic lustre. Nonmetals are generally electronegative. Exception Hydrogen is a nonmetal but it is electropositive. 2. Metals are generally electropositive. Nonmetals are generally bad conductors of heat and electricity Exceptions Graphite is a nonmetal but itis a good conductor of electricity. Hydrogen, though a nonmetal, is a good conductor of i. 3. Metals are generally good conductors of heat and electricity 4, Metals are usually solids at ordinary temperature Exception Mercury is a metal but itis a liquid at ordinary temperature. 5. Metals are malleable and ductile, have high density, and reflect light. Exceptions Sodium and potassium are metals but their densities are less than that of water. 6. Metals when hammered emit a characteristic sound called metallic sound. Nonmetals are gases or solids at ordinary temperature. Exception Bromine is a nonmetal but it is a liquid at ordinary temperature. Nonmetals are not malleable and ductile, have Tow density, and do not reflect light. Exception Plastic sulphur is ductile. Nonmetals do not emit metallic sound. 7 7 @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMetals and Nonmetals (B) Distinctions based on chemical properties “Metals 1, Metals form positive ions. Examples: Na‘, K*, Ca®, Mg®, Fe, etc. 2. Oxides of metals are basic in nature, ie, the oxides of metals react with water to give bases or alkalis. Na,O + H,O — 2Na0H CaO + HO —+ Ca(OH, 3. Metals dissolve in dilute acids to produce hydrogen gas. Zn + H,SO, —> ZnSO, + H, Exceptions Some metals do not produce hydrogen when treated with an acid under ordinary circumstances. 4. Metals in general do not combine with hydrogen. Exceptions Some metals (Na, Ca, Li, Be, ete) combine with hydrogen to form non-volatile unstable hydrides. 5. Metallic chlorides are generally not hydrolyzed by water, or are only partially hydrolyzed. NaCl + H,O—+ No hydrolysis AICI, + 3H,O—> Al(OH), + 3HCI ‘Nonmetais : ‘Nonmetals form negative ions. Examples: Cl’, S*, N* etc, Oxides of nonmetals are acidic in nature, i, the oxides of nonmetals react with water to give acids. a OHO ee Nonmetals generally do not dissolve in dilute acids. ‘Nonmetals combine with hydrogen to form stable compounds. Chlorides of nonmetals are usually hydrolyzed by water. PCl,+ 3H,0—> 3HCI+ H,PO, SiCl, + 4H,0 — Si(OH), + 4HC1 OCCURRENCE OF METALS IN NATURE Metals occur in nature in free state or in combined state. A metal is said to occur native or free when it is found in nature in the metallic state. For example, gold may be found in nature as metal. This is because gold when left exposed to air practically does not undergo any change. Itis not reacted upon by moisture, oxygen and carbon dioxide of the air. Thus, those metals which remain unaffected by moisture, oxygen and carbon dioxide of the air can occur native or free. In other words, the unreactive metals occur in nature in free state because of their low reactivity towards chemical reagents. Another example of an unreactive metal is silver. The reactive metals, ie., the metals which react with moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide or other chemical reagents, are not found in nature in free state, but in combined state in the form of compounds. Metals usually occur in combination with nonmetallic elements. The native occurrence is comparatively rare. Occurrence of metals in nature @ scanned with OKEN Scanner