2.1 Gas Turbine Primer

Gas Turbine Primer
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GAS TURBINE PRIMER

CONTENTS
Gas Turbine Primer ........................................................................................................... 2
General ................................................................................................................ 2
Operating Cycle Main Parts.............................................................................................. 3
Function Principle ............................................................................................................. 4

Heating of the Air Flow ...................................................................................................... 5
Self-Sustaining Speed ...................................................................................................... 5
Driving an object ...................................................................................................... 6
Main Components ............................................................................................................. 7

We reserve all rights in this document and in the information
contained therein. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third
The Compressor ...................................................................................................... 7

Axial Flow Compressor Design...............................................................................7
Parties without express authority is strictly forbidden.
© Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery AB
Function Principle ....................................................................................................8

Compressor Stall and Surging .................................................................................8
Airflow Control........................................................................................................8
The Combustion Chamber .................................................................................................. 9
Design ......................................................................................................................9
Function Principle ..................................................................................................10
The Turbine .................................................................................................... 11
Axial Flow Turbine Design ...................................................................................11
Function Principle ..................................................................................................12
Gas Turbine Configurations........................................................................................... 14
Terminology .................................................................................................... 14
Single shaft gas turbine (SGT-800)................................................................................... 14
Single shaft gas generator with power turbine (SGT600, SGT-700) ................................ 15
Dual shaft gas generator with power turbine (SGT-500)................................................... 15
Gas Turbine Performance .............................................................................................. 16

Thermodynamic Factors.................................................................................................... 16
Ambient Conditions .................................................................................................... 17
Ambient Air Pressure P..........................................................................................17
Ambient Air Temperature T ..................................................................................17
Ambient Air Relative Humidity RH ......................................................................18
Operating Condition........................................................................................................ 19
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GAS TURBINE PRIMER

The purpose of this document is to introduce the reader to the general principles of
gas turbines and how gas turbine performance is affected by ambient conditions.
Siemens gas turbines SGT-500, SGT-600 and SGT-800 have been used as models
for the detailed illustrations of commercial gas turbines.
General
The gas turbine is a heat engine, i.e. an engine that converts heat energy into
mechanical energy. The heat energy is usually produced by burning fuel together
with the oxygen of the air. This is how the engine converts the chemical energy of
the fuel, first to heat energy and then to mechanical energy. However, in a gas
turbine, as well as in other types of heat engines, only a part of the released heat
energy can be converted into mechanical energy. The remaining heat energy will
be transferred to the atmosphere.
Figure 1: The general gas turbine principle
The efficiency of the energy conversion is equal to the portion of the input energy
converted into useful energy and is generally designated (h). In a gas turbine 25 -
45% of the input energy is transformed into mechanical energy. The remaining 55 -
75% will be transferred to the atmosphere in the form of waste heat (exhaust
losses). The efficiency is consequently 25 - 45%.
Output energy
Efficiency = η =
Input energy
A part of the waste heat can be recovered, e.g. in a waste heat recovery boiler,
resulting in the efficiency increasing correspondingly.
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Operating Cycle Main Parts

A gas turbine process cycle works according to the principle:
Compression Heating Expansion.
The medium going through the process is air and combustion gases. NB! Both
liquid fuel and gas fuel can generate combustion gases for the process.
In an Open Gas Turbine Cycle, ambient air is sucked in and compressed in a
compressor, then heated in a combustion chamber by injection and burning of a
fuel and then finally expanded through a turbine back into the atmosphere. The
operating medium of an open gas turbine cycle is air and a mixture of air and
combustion gases.
In a Closed Gas Turbine Cycle, an enclosed gas, which does not have to be air,
runs through the same phases as in the open cycle. The heating takes place in a
combustion chamber (heat exchanger) before the gas expands through the turbine.
The hot gases must then be cooled before they are led back to the compressor.
Figure 2: Open gas turbine cycle Figure 3: Closed gas turbine cycle
C = Compressor T = Turbine
CC = Combustion Chamber GC = Gas Cooler
In reality the open gas turbine cycle is completely dominating the market and will
therefore be the subject to further description in this document.

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Function Principle
The gas turbine consists of the three main parts:
• Compressor
• Combustion chamber
• Turbine
The following simple model explains how heat energy is converted into mechanical
energy.
A tube is equipped with a fan in each end. One fan is called compressor and the
other turbine. An external power source, a starter, is connected to the compressor
fan by means of a coupling.
Figure 4: Simplified model of a gas turbine
Initially, the compressor is set into rotation by the starter . When rotating, the
compressor creates an air-flow through the tube, which forces the turbine to rotate
and deliver a mechanical output. The amount of energy supplied affects the speed
of the compressor, airflow velocity, pressure and the turbine speed. If the process is
maintained without losses (which in reality is impossible, but temporarily accepted
to simplify the understanding), the turbine energy output is equal to the energy
consumed by the starter that drives the compressor.

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Heating of the Air Flow

Heating the air increases the temperature and leads to expansion. Since the air
pressure inside the tube is created by the compressor, an increased temperature of
the air does not result in increased air pressure. Instead, the expanding air volume
causes an increased air velocity through the turbine. A large amount of energy is
transferred from the moving air to the turbine, which delivers a large mechanical
output. If the process is maintained without losses, the mechanical energy output of
the turbine is equal to the sum of the mechanical energy supplied to the compressor
and the heat energy supplied to the airflow.
Figure 5: Heating of the air flow results in increased air velocity through the gas turbine
which gives a large mechanical output
Self-Sustaining Speed
An increase in the supply of heat energy will result in sufficient mechanical output
from the turbine to drive the compressor. If the compressor and turbine are
mounted on a common shaft, the starter can be disconnected when self-sustaining
condition is reached as it was only required to create the initial airflow through the
tube. The airflow forces the process to continue by virtue of its momentum.
Heating stationary air inside the tube would only have resulted in the air expanding
backwards through the compressor as well as forward through the turbine.
Figure 6: Increased heat energy supply means that the turbine delivers sufficient
mechanical output to drive the compressor and self-sustaining condition is reached.

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When self-sustaining condition is reached the mechanical output extracted from the
turbine is just enough to drive the compressor. The whole amount of energy
supplied by heating is waste energy. In the reality these losses are caused by
exhaust, turbulence and radiation. Thermo dynamic reasons state that the
temperature of the exhaust gas must be higher than the inlet air, i.e. losses. The
exhaust gas must leave the turbine at a certain velocity, also causing losses.
Driving an object
To get a useful mechanical output from the turbine the heat supply must be further
increased to speed up the engine above self-sustaining speed.
Figure 7: To get a useful mechanical output from the turbine the heat supply must be
further increased
To make the gas turbine process (converting heat energy into mechanical energy)
as efficient as possible the design must be much more complicated than described
in the simple model. However, the main feature of a cylindrical casing containing
compressor, combustion chamber and turbine still remain, causing the air/gas flow
to move straight through the engine.
Figure 8: Typical gas turbine structure (SGT-600)

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Main Components
The Compressor
The compressor is of a very sophisticated design with the purpose to continuously
compress the airflow to a desired pressure. Two basic types of compressors exist,
one giving a radial flow and the other an axial flow. The axial flow compressor can
easier be designed for high pressure ratios, is more efficient and is thus common in
high performance units and therefore normally used in gas turbine applications.
This primer only describes the axial flow compressor.
Axial Flow Compressor Design

An axial flow compressor consists of two main features, one or more rotor discs
carrying airfoil shaped blades and one or more stator vanes stages mounted inside
the turbine casing, one stage between each rotor stage. The rotor is mounted on
bearings fixed to the casing
The compressor is a multi-stage unit as the pressure increase by each stage is

relatively small (pressure ratio 1.15 - 1.30). A compressor stage consists of a disc
with rotating blades followed by a carrier with stator vanes. The compressor stator
vanes can be designed as single vanes or as segments with several vanes in one
physical unit. An additional row of stator vanes, known as inlet guide vanes, is
normally used to guide the air on to the first row of rotor blades.
From the low pressure end to the high pressure end of the compressor there is a
gradual reduction of the annular area where the air flows. This is necessary in order
to maintain a constant axial velocity of the air as the volume decreases during the
compression.
To prevent air leakage there are seals between the compressor stages as well as at
the inlet and outlet ends of the compressor.
Figure 9: Axial Flow Compressor

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Function Principle
During operation, the compressor is turned at high speed by the turbine.
Air is continuously sucked into the compressor where it is accelerated by the
rotating blades and swept rearwards. In the subsequent stator vane passages, shaped
as diffusers, the air velocity is decreased and thus the air pressure is increased. A
similar process takes place in the rotor blade passages.
The stator vanes correct the deflection given to the air by the rotor blades and
present the air at a correct angle to the next stage of rotor blades. The last stator
vane row usually acts as an ”air straightener” so that the air enters the exit diffuser
and the combustion chamber(s) at a fairly uniform axial velocity (no rotation
around the rotor axis).
Compressor Stall and Surging

The airfoil sections, the blade angles, and the reduction of the annular area are all
designed to give best performance at full load (full speed), i.e. for a certain
relationship between airflow and blade velocity and for a certain compression ratio.
If the airflow velocity is too low in relation to the blade velocity, which occurs if
the compressor rotor accelerates too quickly or if the air intake filter is clogged, the
airflow will break away from the blades. That phenomenon is known as stall (when
only a few stages are concerned) and as surging (when the complete airflow
through the compressor is broken down). Stall or surging is a serious problem since
the blades get exposed to oscillating forces which create unwanted stresses. The
compressor is designed to operate below its surge limit but if the airfoil sections are
spoiled by excessive fouling (dirt) the surge limit is lowered so that stall or surging
can occur even at normal operating conditions. Thus, regular compressor cleaning
is a necessity.
Airflow Control
At low compressor speeds, i.e. during start and stop, the compressor delivers a
lower compression ratio and that calls for a smaller degree of annular duct
convergence. That means that at lower speeds, the front stages of the compressor
tend to be stalled and the rear stages tend to be choked. This problem increases
with the number of stages and the pressure ratio, but can be managed by using
bleed-off valves and/or variable guide vanes. Both means are used when needed.
Simplified, the bleed-off valves cut off a part of the front stages by bleeding air
from an intermediate stage, the variable guide vanes decreases the airflow to the
rear stages by throttling the first stage(s).
A twin-spool compressor (each of the two compressors driven by its own turbine)
allows the relationship between the capacity (speed) of the two compressors to alter
without need of variable guide vanes or bleed valves.

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The Combustion Chamber

Fuel is continuously injected in to the combustion chamber through the burners and
combustion takes place using oxygen in the air supplied by the compressor. Heat is
released and the gas is expanded and accelerated to deliver a smooth stream of
uniformly heated gas to the turbine for all operating conditions. Combustion must
be accomplished with a minimum loss in pressure and with a maximum heat
release within the limited physical space available. Efficient combustion is
necessary to obtain high thermal efficiency and to minimize emissions (CO, CO2
and NOx) in the exhaust gas.
Design
A combustion chamber can be designed in several different ways. The following
description refers to the annular type.
A number of burners are fitted in the forward end, known as the front panel, of a
annular casing The compressor outlet is connected to the front panel, and each
burner, via a diffuser. The liners at the rear end of the combustor are then
connected to the turbine inlet.

During start the combustion is initiated by one or more electrical spark plugs or
torch igniter(s) fitted to the combustion chamber. The flame is then spread to the
other burners.
Figure 10: Annular combustion chamber

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Function Principle
The air leaves the compressor outlet at a velocity of 100 meter per second, but the
speed of burning fuel at normal mixture ratios is only a few meter per second.
Thus, not to blow out the flame, the airflow must be decelerated. A region of low
axial velocity and re-circulating flow has to be created inside the combustion
chamber allowing the flame to remain burning throughout the normal engine
operating range.
In order to obtain efficient combustion the flame temperature must be 1000-
2000°C. Since no known material can withstand these temperature in such
environment, the liner walls must be cooled by excess air. Some of the air is also
used to dilute the hot gases, lowering the temperature to a level which the material
in the turbine parts can withstand.
The combustion takes place in the combustion zone near the front panel. A proper
fuel air mixture in the zone is generated by a swirl in the burner. The fuel air
mixture supplied creates a region of re circulating gas that takes the form of a
torodial vortex, similar to a smoke ring, which stabilizes and anchors the flame in
the centre of the combustion zone. The re-circulating hot gases also re-ignites
which assists in atomizing the fuel and mixes it with the incoming air/fuel mixture,
thereby maintaining the combustion.
At full load, only about 25% of the total airflow from the compressor is supplied to
the combustion zone (depending on type of gas turbine). This is sufficient to obtain
complete combustion. The remaining airflow, the excess air, is used for cooling of
the combustor walls and to dilute the hot gases. The film cooling air is supplied in
such a manner that a comparatively cool air stream is created nearest the liner wall.
If no excess air is available the combustor walls will be cooled by the compressor
air, using convective or impingement cooling before entering the burner. The
dilution air is supplied through large holes downstream the flame.
In order to minimize NOx emissions, the Gas Turbine can, as an option, be
equipped with dry low emission (DLE) combustors. A major difference between
conventional and DLE combustion is that the DLE burner uses all air for the
combustion (cooling air for hot areas is bled off from the compressor instead). The
burners work on the lean premix principle, using the unique double cone “vortex
breakdown” AEV-burners (Advanced Emission Vortex Burners). In order to ensure
stable operation over a wide load range, the main fuel supply along the air slots are
supported by a primary fuel injection at the cone tip.
Figure 11: Double cone burner

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The Turbine
The turbine provides the power for the compressor(s) and the mechanical output.
The power is produced by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the
combustion chambers and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature.
High stresses are involved in this process. Since the turbine operates at high speed
it is exposed to large centrifugal forces. The gas enters the turbine at a very high
temperature which also causing stress.
Two basic types of turbines exist, the radial flow turbine and the axial flow turbine.
In the radial flow turbine the gas enters the turbine in radial direction and in the
axial flow turbine the gas flow passes the turbine in axial direction. Except from
use in very small units the axial flow turbine is totally dominating the market. Only
the axial flow turbine is dealt with in this primer.
Axial Flow Turbine Design

The turbine normally consists of several stages. Each stage consists of a row of
stationary guide vanes followed by a row of rotor blades. The guide vanes are fixed
to the turbine casing and the rotor blades are fitted to turbine discs. The rotating
blades are fixed to the disc using a special technique called fir-tree roots.
Figure 12: The turbine blades are fitted to the turbine discs, mostly by means of fir-tree
roots
Turbine rotor blades normally have some kind of inner seal decreasing the leakage
of hot gases under the blade and also protecting the rotor. Sometimes they also
have a tip seal to improve the dynamic behavior and to decrease the leakage of
gases (generally used for long blades and low gas temperature).
The discs are mounted on one or more shafts, depending on the configuration.
To prevent gases from leaking out, there are seals to prevent leakage of hot gases
toward the shafts and bearings as well as seals between the stages . The seals are
often supplied with air bleed off from suitable compressor stages. The sealing air is
lead along the turbine discs for cooling and to prevent heat transferring to the shaft
and the bearings.

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Figure 13: Axial flow turbine
Function Principle
The hot gases are expanded in the convergent passage between the guide vanes and
the turbine blades. Pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy and the gases
are accelerated. At the same time the gas is spinning and swirling in direction of
the turbine blades. The turbine blades force the gases to deflect and as the passage
is convergent the gases are further expanded. On impact with the turbine blades
and during the subsequent reaction through the passage, energy is absorbed. This
energy causes the turbine to rotate and provides the power for driving the turbine
shaft. The guide vanes in the following stage expand the gases further and direct
them to the next row of blades.
Figure 14: The gas-flow through the turbine

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The number of turbine stages depends on the number of shafts and on the pressure
ratio. Several stages were required to compress the air, but since the gas expansion
is a spontaneous process (in contrast to the forced compression), less stages are
required to expand the gas back to atmospheric pressure. If the energy is absorbed
efficiently in the turbine, the rotating motion will be removed from the gas stream
leaving the last turbine stage and the flow exiting the turbine will be substantially
straightened out, resulting in an axial flow into the exhaust system. To further
increase the available pressure ratio across the turbine, the annular exhaust duct
connected to the turbine is shaped as a diffuser.
Figure 15: The annular exhaust duct connected to the turbine is shaped as a diffuser

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Gas Turbine Configurations

The main parts of the gas turbine can be arranged in different configurations with
additional components and driven equipment. Some examples are given below:
Terminology
C Compressor
LPC Low Pressure Compressor
HPC High Pressure Compressor
CC Combustion Chamber
T Turbine
CT Compressor turbine
HPT High Pressure Turbine
LPT Low Pressure Turbine
PT Power Turbine
Driven Object Gas compressor, generator, air compressor or water jet

(All depending on application)
Single shaft gas turbine (SGT-800)

The single shaft gas turbine is the simplest, but is only suitable for driven objects in
a fixed speed applications i.e. power generation.
Figure 16: Single shaft gas turbine

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Single shaft gas generator with power turbine (SGT600, SGT-700)

The free power turbine combined with a single shaft gas generator allows the speed
of the driven object to be varied within a wide range making this model very
suitable for mechanical drive applications (compressors). It is also used in power
generation applications.
Figure 17: Single shaft gas generator with power turbine
Dual shaft gas generator with power turbine (SGT-500)

The free power turbine combined with a dual shaft gas generator is a very versatile
unit. The dual shaft gas generator delivers reasonable performance over a very
wide PT speed range without the need to bleed off air at part loads.
Figure 18: Dual shaft gas generator with power turbine

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Gas Turbine Performance

The factors effecting the gas turbine thermal efficiency and specific output
(specific output = output per kg/s of gas flowing through the engine), can be
divided into two groups, thermodynamic factors and the influence of ambient
conditions.
Thermodynamic Factors
These factors, which are component efficiencies, compressor pressure ratio and
turbine inlet temperature are mainly determined by the design of the engine.
The component efficiency depends on the type of component used and its design.
Improved component efficiencies give higher unit thermal efficiency and higher
output.
Typical figures are:
• Axial flow compressor efficiency ηc = 0.87 - 0.92

• Combustion chamber efficiency ηcc = 0.98 - 0,997

• Axial flow turbine efficiency ηt = 0.87 - 0.90
The compressor pressure ratio and the turbine inlet temperature have a great
influence on the unit thermal efficiency and the specific output. Further those two
factors interact in such a way, that a certain pressure ratio is optimum for a certain
turbine inlet temperature.
The allowable turbine inlet temperature depends on the material used in the ”hot
section” of the engine and the desired lifetime. Sometimes more than one
temperature limit is stated, giving different performance and different lifetime.
Increased temperature gives shorter lifetime, and even a small temperature increase
can give a substantially shortened lifetime.
The hot section materials and the desired hot section lifetime determine the
allowable gas temperature which in turn, for an optimized unit, calls for a certain
pressure ratio. The combination of gas temperature and pressure ratio gives a
specific output, exhaust temperature and thermal efficiency, which also are
influenced by the component efficiencies.

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Ambient Conditions
Ambient Air Pressure P

The nominal ambient air pressure, to which the gas turbine nominal output is
related, is 1.013 bar and the actual air pressure normally varies within 1.013 ± 0.05
bar. As the pressure affects the air density and thus the massflow through the
engine, it also affects the actual output from the engine according to the following
formula.
p act
Pe act = Pe nom ×
p nom
Pe nom = nominal output
Pe act = actual output
pnom = nominal air press
pact = actual air press

At fixed rating (constant gas temperature), increased ambient air pressure gives:
• Increased output
• Unchanged unit efficiency
At fixed output, increased air pressure gives:
• Decreased gas temperature
• Decreased unit efficiency
Ambient Air Temperature T

The gas turbine performance is normally related to +15 °C and especially the
available output is very much influenced by the ambient air temperature.
At fixed rating (constant temperature), increased ambient air temperature gives:
• Decreased output
At fixed output, increased ambient air temperature gives:
• Increased gas temperature

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Ambient Air Relative Humidity RH

The gas turbine nominal performance is related to 60% relative humidity in the
ambient air. The gas turbine performance is influenced by the humidity, but the
influence is of importance only at high ambient air temperatures.
At fixed rating (constant gas temperature), increased relative humidity gives:
• Increased output
At fixed output, increased relative humidity gives:
• Decreased gas temperature

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Operating Condition
An example of a dual shaft gas turbine performance diagram is given in Figure 19.
The diagram shows the generator electrical output versus ambient air temperature,
with the thermal efficiency as parameter.
At low ambient air temperature the output is limited by the gas generator speed and
at higher temperatures it is limited by the turbine inlet temperature and the gas
generator speed. The shown output and efficiency are of course affected by the
ambient air pressure and humidity as previously described.
As shown in the performance diagram the unit efficiency is influenced by the
loading rate. Increased load at constant ambient air temperature gives higher
efficiency by virtue of the increased compressor delivery pressure and the
increased turbine inlet temperature. Two load limits, Base load and Peak load, are
given. Operation above Base load gives shorter service intervals due to the
increased stresses and according to the formulas explained on next page.
The performance curve is normally a nominal curve and the true curve can deviate
more or less depending on individual engine qualities. During commissioning the

engine, if deviating from nominal performance, can be adjusted either to nominal
turbine inlet temperature or to give nominal output.
To check the condition of a unit, e.g. if the compressor have to be cleaned, an
output check can be carried out. Such a check means that the actual output is
measured, corrected due to deviating ambient air conditions, and then compared to
a reference value. Allowable output loss is stated in a compressor cleaning
instruction.
Other reasons of output loss are clogged air intake filters, worn down or damaged
turbine blading, air/gas leakage, etc.
Figure 19: The generator electrical output versus ambient air temperature, with the thermal
efficiency as parameter.

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Service intervals are related to operating time and number of starts.

Since the stresses to which the gas turbine is exposed varies with the load rating
and if fast or normal start is chosen, the number of operating hours and starts are
given in form of equivalent operating hours and equivalent starts according to the
maintenance program. The following is an example.
H0 = Cf x Cx x H + 5S0
S0 = Cy x S
H0 = Equivalent operating hours
Cf = Fuel factor
1 for gas fuel acc. to BA-241-6E
1.2 for type 1 fuel acc. to AA-243-9E
1.5 for type 2 fuel acc. to AA-243-9E
2.0 for crude oil and sour gas
Cx = Stress factor
Exponential factor 0.9 - 4.0 depending on load rate. The factor is

automatically calculated and updated by the unit control equipment.
H = Operating hours.
S0 = Equivalent starts.
Cy = Start factor
1 for a normal start
5 for a fast start
S = No. of starts.

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Gas Turbine Primer

GAS TURBINE PRIMER

Gas Turbine Primer ........................................................................................................... 2

Operating Cycle Main Parts.............................................................................................. 3

Function Principle ............................................................................................................. 4

Main Components ............................................................................................................. 7

The Compressor ...................................................................................................... 7

Function Principle ....................................................................................................8

Gas Turbine Performance .............................................................................................. 16

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GAS TURBINE PRIMER

Figure 1: The general gas turbine principle

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Operating Cycle Main Parts

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Figure 4: Simplified model of a gas turbine

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Heating of the Air Flow

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Figure 8: Typical gas turbine structure (SGT-600)

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Axial Flow Compressor Design

The compressor is a multi-stage unit as the pressure increase by each stage is

Figure 9: Axial Flow Compressor

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Compressor Stall and Surging

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The Combustion Chamber

connected to the turbine inlet.

Figure 10: Annular combustion chamber

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Figure 11: Double cone burner

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Axial Flow Turbine Design

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Figure 13: Axial flow turbine

Figure 14: The gas-flow through the turbine

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Gas Turbine Configurations

Driven Object Gas compressor, generator, air compressor or water jet

(All depending on application)

Single shaft gas turbine (SGT-800)

Figure 16: Single shaft gas turbine

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Single shaft gas generator with power turbine (SGT600, SGT-700)

Figure 17: Single shaft gas generator with power turbine

Dual shaft gas generator with power turbine (SGT-500)

Figure 18: Dual shaft gas generator with power turbine

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Gas Turbine Performance

• Axial flow compressor efficiency ηc = 0.87 - 0.92

• Combustion chamber efficiency ηcc = 0.98 - 0,997

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Ambient Air Pressure P

pact = actual air press

Ambient Air Temperature T

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Ambient Air Relative Humidity RH

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more or less depending on individual engine qualities. During commissioning the

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Service intervals are related to operating time and number of starts.

H0 = Equivalent operating hours