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SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMETAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND GEOINFORMATION SCIENCES

PATTERNS AND PROCESSES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

(GEO2641)

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2021

(COMPILED BY MOKGOEBO, MJ.)

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Table of Contents
CLIMATOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 1
FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE OF SOUTH AFRICA ............................................. 1
The role of latitude ........................................................................................................ 1
The role of altitude ........................................................................................................ 2
The role of topography .................................................................................................. 3
Oceans and large lakes .................................................................................................. 4
Atmospheric circulation ................................................................................................ 5
STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE ............... 6
THE HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE ....................................................................... 8
Specific heat capacity .................................................................................................... 9
Thermal conduction ....................................................................................................... 9
The effect of long-wave (earth) radiation ...................................................................... 9
Figure H. Radiation of the incoming solar energy ...................................................... 10
Greenhouse effect ........................................................................................................ 10
Convection ................................................................................................................... 10
The release of latent heat ............................................................................................. 11
Atmospheric heating and the condition of the atmosphere ......................................... 11
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND DENSITY RELATIONSHIP .............................. 11
EQUATION OF STATE ............................................................................................. 12
ADIABATIC PROCESSES ............................................................................................. 13
CONDITIONS OF STABILITY AND INSTABILITY ............................................. 15
Brain teaser .................................................................................................................. 19
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE AND PRECIPITATION ................................................ 19
Cold-cloud precipitation ................................................................................................... 21
THUNDERSTORMS (Life cycle) .................................................................................... 23
TYPES OF THUNDERSTORMS .................................................................................... 26
LIGHTNING..................................................................................................................... 29
TYPES of LIGHTNING .............................................................................................. 30
Ground-to-cloud .......................................................................................................... 31
Intracloud ..................................................................................................................... 32
WEATHER PATTERNS OVER SOUTHERN AFRICA ................................................ 36
Basic summer patterns ................................................................................................. 36
Basic winter patterns ................................................................................................... 38
COASTAL LOWS ............................................................................................................ 39
FORMATION AFTER FOUR DAYS ........................................................................ 43
WINDS AND GLOBAL CIRCULATION ...................................................................... 43
LOCAL WINDS ............................................................................................................... 49
Mountain and valley winds ............................................................................................... 50
AIR MOVEMENTS THAT AFFECT SOUTHERN AFRICA ........................................ 51
GEOMORPHOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 54
WEATHERING ................................................................................................................ 54
Physical/ mechanical weathering................................................................................. 55
Chemical weathering ................................................................................................... 57

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1.3 Factors controlling weathering ................................................................................... 59
WEATHERING UNDER DIFFERENT CLIMATIC REGIONS .................................... 59
LANDFORMS OF TECTONIC ACTIVITY ................................................................... 64
FOLDS......................................................................................................................... 66
FAULTS ...................................................................................................................... 67
TOPOGRAPHY ASSOCIATED WITH HORIZONTAL ROCK STRATA ................... 73
PLAINS AND INSELBERGS .......................................................................................... 76
COASTAL LANDFORMS .............................................................................................. 80
Coastal landforms ........................................................................................................ 82
FLUVIAL LANDFORMS ................................................................................................ 87
BIOGEOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 93
VEGETATION EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY .............................................................. 93
MODERN BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS ..................................................................... 95
COMMON BIOGEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTIONAL PATTERNS........................ 100
PHYGEOGRAPHY OF SOUTHERN AFRICA ............................................................ 103
BIOMES OF SOUTH AFRICA ..................................................................................... 106
Fynbos biome ............................................................................................................ 106
Savanna biome ........................................................................................................... 107
Grassland biome ........................................................................................................ 108
Nama-Karoo biome ................................................................................................... 109
Succulent Karoo ........................................................................................................ 109
Forest biome .............................................................................................................. 109
FACTORS AFFECTING SPP DIVERSITY AT REGIONAL SCALE ........................ 110
INVASIVE ALIEN PLANTS (CONSEQUENCES & CONTROL) ............................. 111
References ....................................................................................................................... 116
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 CLIMATOLOGY
FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE OF SOUTH AFRICA
The role of latitude
• The sun’s electromagnetic energy is continuously sent into space.
• About 30% of the radiation that reaches the earth’s atmosphere is reflected back
into space (dust particles, clouds).
• The remaining 70% is absorbed by the earth’s surface.
• However, the intensity of the solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface decreases
with increasing latitude.
• The intensity depends on high in the sky the sun climbs.
• Radiation that reaches the earth’s surface between latitude 231/2ºN and 231/2ºS is
more intense.
• In other areas the rays arrive at an angle to the surface and are therefore less
intense (FIGURE A).
• The closer a place is to the poles, the smaller the angle the angle, and therefore the
less intense the radiation.
• This means that average temperatures decline from equator to the poles.
• Seasonal changes in solar radiation and the number of hours of sunlight also vary
with latitude.

•
Figure A. Angle at which the sun rays strike the ground during equinoxes at noon
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 • In tropical latitudes (those near equator) there is little difference in the amount of
solar heating between summer and winter FIGURE B

• Outside the tropics (from Capricorn to Arctic circle/ Cancer to Antarctic circle)
solar heating is greater in summer FIGURE B.

• In high latitude areas (from Arctic to North Pole/ Antarctic to South Pole) the sun
never rises during large portions of the year FIGURE B

• This makes summers in these areas cool or mild, but winters are extremely cold.

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Figure B. Seasonal variation of incoming solar radiation (insolation)
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The role of altitude
• The higher the place is, the colder it is (Himalayas, Free State/ KZN along
Drakensberg) (FIGURE C for South Africa).
• Air temperature drops at an average of 6.5ºC per 1000m.
• The air temperature determines how much precipitation falls as snow, rather than
rain.
• This explains why snow is also found on mountain tops of the tropics (Mt
Kilimanjaro).

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 •
FIGURE C: Map showing altitude (height above sea-leavel)

The role of topography

• The surface features of the earth influence the development of clouds and
precipitation.
• When air rises along the slopes of valleys and mountains, it cools and leads to the
development of clouds (FIGURE D).
• The windward facing slopes are rainier.
• The leeward side of the slopes are dry and are usually characterized by the
absence of clouds

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Figure D: Role of topography (rainfall)

Oceans and large lakes

• Oceans and large lakes make the air temperature less extreme.
• Water bodies warm up and cool down slowly than land surfaces.
• Between summer and winter, the temperature of the water varies less than the
temperature of the land.
• Places that are adjacent to large lakes and oceans have mild winters and cooler
summers than places at the same latitude but well inland. (FIGURE E)
• E.g. Durban and Richmond lie at about the same latitude and therefore receive the
same amount of insolation, but Durban’s winters and summers are milder because
of its seaward location (Indian Ocean)

FIGURE E: Role of oceans

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Atmospheric circulation
 This influences climate by producing winds that distribute heat and moisture.
 There are six belts of winds that encircle the earth: (FIGURE F1 and F2)
- trade winds that blow b/n 30° north latitude and the equator
- trade winds that blow b/n the equator and 30° south latitude.
- westerlies that blow b/n 30° and 60° north of the equator

Figure F1: Six belts of winds

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Figure F2. General air circulation

- westerlies that blow between 30° and 60° south of the equator

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 - polar winds north of 60° north latitude, and;
- polar winds south of 60° south latitude
 The north-easterly trades and south-easterly trades meet near the equator, causing
air to rise.
 As rising air cools, clouds and rain develop. This leads to the formation of bands
of cloudy and rainy weather area called the doldrums
 Westerlies blow from the south-west in the S. Hemisphere. They steer storms
from west to east across the mid latitudes
 Westerlies and trade winds blow away from 30° latitude belt.
 Over broad regions centred at 30° latitude, surface winds are light or calm.
 Air slowly descends to replace the air that blows away. The descending air is
warm and dry.
 The tropical deserts such as the Sahara and the Sonoran of Mexico, occur under
these regions of descending air.
 Polar winds blow away from the north-east in the Arctic and from south-east in
the Antarctic.
 In the N. Hemisphere, the boundary between the cold polar easterly winds and the
mild westerly winds is known as the polar front
 Where the two air masses overlap, storms can develop and move along the polar
front, bringing cloudy weather, rain, or snow.
 As the seasons change, the global wind belts shift north and south. In spring they
move towards the poles. In autumn they shift toward the equator.
 This shifts help explain why some areas have distinct rainy seasons and dry
seasons. This explains why the Mediterranean coast and western Cape have dry
summers and wet winters while North Africa, India, and South-East Asia have
wet summers and dry winters.
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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE

ATMOSPHERE
• The earth’s atmosphere is an anomaly in the solar system. The atmospheric
composition of planets differs as the distance away from the sun increases.
• The force of gravity holds the atmosphere to the earth and this explains why the
higher one goes, the less dense the atmosphere becomes.
• The present day atmosphere consists of the following gases: oxygen (21%),
nitrogen (78%), argon (1%).
• Of the 1% of argon only 0.033% is carbon dioxide and other elements such as
neon, krypton, helium, hydrogen, methane and zenon.

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 • The present atmosphere is made up of the following layers: (troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere) (FIGURE G).

Figure G. Structure of the atmosphere

• Troposphere: Stretches from sea level to about 10 000 meters above the earth.
Most of the earth’s weather takes place in this zone.
• It varies in thickness by latitude and season. The elevation of the tropopause
decreases from 15-16km over the tropics to 5-6km over the poles.
• More than 80% of the air is found in this layer and is heated from below by
earth’s infrared radiation. Almost all the water vapour is contained in this layer.
The water vapour density decreases with height in this layer.
• In this layer temperature decreases with height at an average lapse rate of 6.5ºC/
1000m

• Above 10 000m is the stratosphere. It is separated from the troposphere by a

tropopause. The stratosphere stretches from 10 000m to about 50 000m above the
sea.
• The stratosphere is characterized by a temperature inversion (increase with
increase in altitude.).

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 • The temperature increase in the stratosphere is due to the absorption of UV-
radiation by the ozone
• Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere, separated from the stratosphere by the
stratopause.
• The ionosphere extents from above 60 000m to about 700 000m above the earth.
This region contains electrically charged layers which reflect radio waves back to
earth.
• The clouds that are found in this region (noctilucent) are formed from cosmic
dust.
• Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere. The two regions are separated by the
mesopause.
• This region is characterized by increase in temperature with height.
• The temperature increase in this zone is not a result of earth’s infrared radiation,
but a function of the energy of individual particles.
• The density of individual gas molecules at this elevation is extremely low so that
the number of inter-molecule, heat-producing collisions is very small.
• The air is relatively cooler even though the energy of individual particles is
extremely high.
• It stretches between 50 and 80km above sea level. In this zone temperature
decreases with height with an average lapse rate of 3ºC/ 1000m.
• The thermosphere, stratosphere and the mesosphere make up a region called the
homosphere or the turbosphere.
• Within the homosphere atmospheric constituents are well mixed by turbulence
and convection.
• This leads to an almost constant distribution of each gas through the homosphere.
• Above the homosphere is the heterosphere which extends above the mesosphere
to an altitude of approximately 700km above sea level.
• In this region mixing is controlled by molecular diffusion and the stratification of
gases occurs in accordance to their weights.

THE HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is heated by various processes:

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 Specific heat capacity
• The amount of energy in joules required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a
substance by 1ºC
• Some substances require large amounts of energy to raise their temperature. E.g.
4200 joules are needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1ºC, but only
400 joules are required to heat the same amount of copper by 1ºC.
• This means that water has a high SHC than copper. This means that large amounts
of energy can be stored in water.
• Since water vapour is present in the atmosphere, it is responsible for raising its
temperature.
Thermal conduction
• Many substances are good conductors of heat. Water also falls into this category.
• Air is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore, air at the surface is heated through
conduction by the ground radiation.
• Since soil contains large quantities of air, heat is conducted upward and is
therefore trapped in the top layer, raising the temperature appreciably.
• Soil liberates heat faster than water because of its low specific heat capacity.
• However, conduction accounts for a small percentage of atmospheric heating
because air is a poor conductor of heat.
The effect of long-wave (earth) radiation
• The sun is the main source of heat energy for the earth.
• Its surface is at 6000ºC. It radiates electromagnetic waves with different
wavelengths.
• Shorter wavelengths are ultraviolet wavelengths (less than 0.4 microns.
• Visible light wavelength ranges from 0.4 to 0.7 microns and infra-red waves have
lengths greater than 0.7 microns.
• Of all the sun’s energy, that reaches the outer limits of the atmosphere, only 47%
reaches the earth’s surface (FIGURE H)

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Figure H. Radiation of the incoming solar energy

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 The rest is scattered by dust, or reflected by clouds, or absorbed by the
atmosphere.
 The air absorbs very little short-wave (solar) radiation and more long-wave
(earth) radiation
 Long-wave radiation from the earth is mostly absorbed by CO2 and water vapour.
However, long-wave radiation of a wavelength b/n 10-11 microns is not absorbed
by the atmosphere, and usually escapes to space.
 Therefore, it is the long-wave radiation (earth) that heats most of the atmosphere.
Greenhouse effect
• The incoming solar (short-wave) radiation easily passes through the atmosphere,
but the outgoing (long-wave) radiation is trapped and absorbed by water vapour
and CO2.
• Therefore the atmosphere traps the heat and re-radiates it in all directions.
Convection
• When air is heated is becomes less dense and rises. This rising air is known as
convection.
• Convection currents transfer warm air into the atmosphere, when air is heated by
conduction.
• Convection accounts for about 19% of the atmosphere’s heat.
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The release of latent heat
• When water evaporates heat is stored in water vapour. This heat is known as
latent heat.
• It is latent because it is stored energy that will be released later as sensible heat
when vapour condenses into liquid (clouds)
• This loss of sensible heat accounts for heating of the atmosphere and helps to
retain a small proportion of heat in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric heating and the condition of the atmosphere
• Cloudy conditions during the day will block incoming solar radiation.
• This will create low day temperatures than usual. However, cloudy conditions at
night will trap heat and re-radiate it back to earth.
• Water vapour traps heat. The trapped heat is re-radiated back to the earth.
• Areas with dry air lose heat rapidly at night since there is insufficient water
vapour to trap heat.
• Carbon dioxide absorbs radiation. Places with high air pollution will generally
have higher temperatures than those without.
• E.g. The central areas of large cities such as Johannesburg are warmer.

PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND DENSITY

RELATIONSHIP

Pressure:- the mass of a column of air of unit cross-section or the force acting on a unit area.
Since pressure works on a given unit it goes without say that it sets weight on an object. In short,
it applies force on an object. Therefore, pressure can be defined as the product of mass and
acceleration. It is then expressed as follows:
p = ma ÷ area or p = ma

Where p = pressure, m = mass, a = acceleration

Therefore, the unit of force applied to a mass of 1kg to produce an acceleration of 1ms-2 is a
Newton (N).
Therefore, atmospheric pressure is measured as follows:
N = Nm-2 = kgms-2m-2 = kgm-1s-2
m2
Thus newtons per square meter are defined as follows

100 Nm-2 = 1hPa (hectopascal) or millibar (mb)

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Therefore, hectopascal is a standard measure of atmospheric pressure shown as isobars on a
synoptic or weather maps.
Tempearature:- Temperature measures the average energy of molecular motion and is
independent of mass.
It is measured on a scale 0 (melting of ice) to 100 (boiling point of water) as ºC on a Celsius scale
or as above the absolute zero of temperature, -273 ºC, on the Kelvin scale such that
TK = 273 + t ºC
NB: To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius subtract 32 and multiply by 0.55
To convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit multiply by 1.8 and add 32.

EQUATION OF STATE
The relationships between temperature, pressure and volume are expressed in laws developed by
Boyle, Charles and Gay-Lussac. According to Boyle, if the temperature of a gas was kept
constant while its volume varied, the pressure varied in a manner so as to keep the product of
pressure (p) and volume (v) the same. This means that the temperature and mass remain
unchanged and can be expressed as follows:

pv = c1
Where c1 is a constant.
From the equation above if the volume is doubled pressure is halved. Therefore, Boyle’s law
states that the pressure of a given mass of a gas at constant temperature varies inversely with
volume.
Charles and Gay-Lussac explain what happens when to volume at a constant pressure when
temperature is varied. From their explanation, with each degree Celsius rise or fall in temperature,
the volume increased or decreased 1/273 of its volume. Therefore, 1/273 becomes the volume-
expansion coefficient which is the same for all gases. This means that in terms of the absolute
temperature scale the volume-expansion coefficient is such that 273ml of gas at 273K become
274ml at 274K and so on. Therefore, according to Charles’s law the volume occupied by a given
mass of gas at different temperatures is directly proportional to the absolute temperature if
pressure is kept constant.

It is expressed as follows: v = c2T where c2 is a constant.

Naturally, pressure and temperature usually vary together so that a formula connecting
temperature and volume changes at constant mass may be deduced by combining Boyle’s and
Charles’s laws as follows

pv ÷ = c3 or pv = c3T
According to Avogadro’s law one gram atomic weight of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023
molecules (mole). Therefore one 1 mole of gas molecule occupies 22.414 liters at a pressure of
one atmosphere (1013.25 hPa) and a temperature of 273K. According to Avogadro’s law this
means that gases containing the same number of molecules occupy the same volumes at the same
pressure and temperature. According to Avogadro, for one kilomole of any gas the value of the
constant (c3) is the same and is called the universal gas constant.
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The gas constant for air is the universal gas constant divided by the molecular weight of air:
pv = RT
where R is the gas constant for dry air: 287 Jkg-1K-1

Where the density of air is defined as:

Ρ = m/v
If the unit mass is considered, the specific volume, α, is given by:
α = 1/ρ
From the above formula, the equation becomes:
pα = RT
This then becomes the equation of state. It is important in determining the relationships between
air density and temperature.
For example, the greater the temperature of a parcel of air, the lower will be its density and the
greater will be its buoyancy. This is expressed as follows:
ρ = p/RT

Hydrostatic equation
To understand this one has to understand that atmospheric pressure is simply the force per unit
area exerted by the mass of the atmosphere above that point. Pressure always decreases with
height. Therefore, if a vertical column of air of unit area (1m x m) two forces will act on it.

Gravitational pull and vertical pressure gradient force.

Gravitational pull from the earth exerts a downward force equal to the mass of the slice of air
multiplied by the gravitational acceleration g(9.8ms-2). Since pressure decreases with height
across a column of air then the pressure gradient will also act on the column of air. Therefore, the
vertical pressure gradient can be expressed as follows:
_ 1 Δp
ρ Δz
Since this force equals the gravitational pull, their relationships can be expressed as follows:
_ 1 Δp = g
ρ Δz

In mathematical notation the hydrostatic equation above can thus be:

бp = - gρ
бz
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ADIABATIC PROCESSES
• When air rises the pressure exerted on it decreases. This decrease in pressure
causes air to expand and results in cooling.
• However, when air subsides the pressure on it increases, which causes an increase
in temperature of air.
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 • Therefore, any parcel of air that cools or warms without any transfer of heat from
or into the environmental air, occurs adiabatically.
• If there is adiabatic cooling of a parcel of rising air without condensation taking
place, the air cools at a uniform rate known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate
(DALR). This is approximately 1ºC for every 100m (10ºC/1000m) of ascent
(FIGURE I).
• If the rising parcel of air is cooled sufficiently the water vapour it contains will be
cooled to dew-point and condensation will result.
• When this occurs latent heat, which was taken up at the time of evaporation, is
released into the atmosphere.
• This will cause a slight decrease in the rate of cooling. This slower rate of cooling
is known as the wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR).
• The average of the WALR is 0.6ºC per 100m of ascent. The WALR is also known
as the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) (FIGURE I).
• While the DALR is a uniform lapse rate, the WALR changes with altitude.

•
Figure I. Adiabatic processes
• Since the air next to the ground is less dense, it has more temperature than when
one goes up.

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 • Therefore, in theory, the temperature of the stationary atmosphere decreases with
altitude. This is known as the environmental lapse rate (ELR) and averages
approximately 0.65ºC per 100m of change. (range = 0.6ºC – 0.8ºC/ 100m)

CONDITIONS OF STABILITY AND INSTABILITY

 A parcel of air starts moving up at a temperature of 20ºC (a1). The air rises and
cools at the DALR.
 The temperature at 1000m will be 10ºC (a3).
 However, if the temperature of the stationary environment (E) is 20ºC at E1, it
will drop with height depending on the rate of the ELR.
 Suppose the ELR is 0.8ºC/ 100m. The temperature of the environment at 1000m
will be 12ºC.
 Once this happens the rising parcel of air will be denser than the environmental
air.
 The parcel of air will tend to sink back to its original position or on the other side
of the mountain top if there is a mountain.
 Such air is known as stable air. (Figure J)

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 Figure J. Conditions of stability (stable air)

• Stable air, under certain conditions is accompanied by the formation of lenticular

wave clouds forming over mountains.
• They are common over the Western Cape mountains and the Drakensberg
• When the ELR and the DALR are equal, the condition is known as neutral
stability, and is one in which vertical motion is neither favoured nor resisted.

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 Lenticular cloud

 However, if the lapse rate of the environmental air is greater than that of a
moving parcel of air (cooling at DALR), then the parcel of air will tend to be
buoyant and rise.
 Such air is called unstable air (instability). This condition seldom occurs in a free
atmosphere (FIGURE K).
 Such a condition may develop when the earth’s surface is heated very strongly
(summer day).
 The air immediately above the ground becomes very hot and there is a high
environment lapse rate (10ºC/ 100m).
 Under these conditions any air lifting off the earth’s surface will be unstable from
the moment of lift off.
 In the case of unstable air, dew point may be reached and condensation may
occur.
 From this point onwards the air would cool at the WALR.

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Figure K. Condition of instability (unstable air)

Example 2
• A parcel of air starts moving up at a temperature of 20ºC (a1). (Example 1 figure)
• An external agent (mountain) forces air to rise and starts cooling at the DALR.
• Suppose the dew point is 19ºC. (Dew point temperature: temperature to which air
at constant pressure and water vapour content must be cooled in order to become
saturated and for dew to precipitate)
• This means that condensation will occur at 100m (a2).
• From a2 the air will continue to rise, but cooling at the WALR/ SALR.
• If the WALR is less than the ELR the rising air will cool more slowly than the
environment.
• From level a2 onwards the parcel of air will be warmer than the environment and
will tend to rise on its own without help of an external agent.
• The air in the parcel is known as conditionally unstable air.
• It is conditionally unstable since it is dependent upon:
• The amount of water vapour in the parcel of air, and
• The environmental lapse rate.

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Example 3
• The temperature of the air near the surface is 20ºC (TWS). Suppose the dew-point
temperature (Td) is 15ºC.
• A parcel of air (B) is forced to rise orographically.
• Since the parcel of air is not saturated it cools at the DALR. After 500m its
temperature will be 15ºC.
• Because this is the dew-point temperature, condensation will occur and clouds
may form at 500m altitude.
• Assume that the environmental lapse rate is less than the DALR and the
environmental air temperature at B2 is 17ºC (TW2)
• If the initial cause of uplift were to cease when the air reaches B2, the parcel of air
will be cooler than the environmental air and will return to B.
• Suppose the air is further lifted from B2 to B3.
• Since it is saturated, it will cool at the WALR, while the environment cools at the
ELR.
• Above B3 the temperature of the parcel of air would be higher than that of the
environment, and from that point on it would rise under its own buoyancy.
• This atmospheric condition is referred to as conditionally stable or unstable, since
it is stable for dry air and unstable for saturated air.
• At level B2 clouds will form, but they will not develop further unless taken
beyond B3. Above B3 clouds will grow spontaneously to B4.
• From B4 the rising air will be cooler than the environment, will tend to be stable
and will suppress vertical motion.
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Brain teaser
What will happen to a parcel of air with a temperature of 32°C (dew point temperature =
12°C) as it ascends from the ground to the level where condensation takes place under
both conditions of stability and instability? Use appropriate diagram/s to illustrate these
processes. Explain your diagram/s accordingly.
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ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE AND PRECIPITATION
 The amount of water vapour that may be present in the air at a given time varies
from place to place. Therefore, the amount of water vapour in the air is referred to
a humidity.
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  At any given temperature there is an amount of water vapour that can be held by
the air, and this has a definite limit. This limit is the saturation quantity.

 Therefore, the amount of water vapour present at a given temperature relative to

the maximum quantity that could be present is the relative humidity (expressed as
%). For saturated air the relative humidity is 100%.

 However, the mass of water vapour in grams contained in a kilogram of air is the
specific humidity.

 Dew-point is the critical temperature at which air becomes saturated during

cooling.

 Before the precipitation occurs, clouds have to form. Therefore, a cloud is a dense
mass of suspended water or ice particles.

 Each cloud particle is formed on nucleus of solid matter commonly referred to as

condensation nucleus. This nucleus is hygroscopic in character.

 Condensation nuclei sizes range from a diameter of 10-4 μm to tens of

micrometers and are generally grouped into three size categories:
- Aitken nuclei (<0.2 μm)
- large aerosols (b/n 0.2 & 2 μm)
- giant aerosols (>2 μm)
• When the ground is heated there is rapid ascent of mass of air (convection
currents) in the saturated state. As air rises it starts to cool at the DALR.

• Once rising air reaches dew-point temperature, cloud particles start to grow
rapidly and attain a diameter of 50 100 microns.

• The growth of cloud particles takes place through sublimation and aggregation
(coalescence).

• The process of coalescence takes place in warm clouds in which the ambient
temperature is greater than 0ºC. and the condensation particles consist of liquid
water.

• The cloud particles then coalesce through collision and grow rapidly into droplets
of about 500 microns in diameter.

If the temperature of the cloud particles of this diameter (500microns) is lower

than that of ELR, they fall as precipitation in the form of drizzle.
• Further coalescence increases the size of cloud particles and produce rain.
• Average raindrops have diameters of about 1000 to 2000 microns (1 t0 2mm), but
sometimes reach a diameter of 7000 microns (7mm).
20

 • Above this value they drop into smaller drops while falling.

Cold-cloud precipitation
• Clouds with temperatures lower than 0ºC are cold clouds and those with
temperatures between 0ºC and - 40Cº have water droplets known as supercooled
droplets.

• Supercooled droplets coexist with ice crystals in this temperature range, giving
rise to mixed clouds. At temperatures below -40ºC only ice crystals occur in
clouds. These ice crystals play an important role in the precipitation process from
such clouds.

• Ice particles in clouds can form in various ways:

• A pure water droplet with a radius between 20 and 60 microns freezes by

homogeneous (spontaneous) nucleation at temperatures below -40ºC.

• A droplet containing a freezing nucleus freezes by heterogeneous nucleation at

temperatures determined by the drop size, but warmer than -40ºC. The larger the
droplet the lower the freezing temperature.

• Contact between freezing nucleus and a droplet causes freezing by contact

nucleation

• The direct conversion of water vapour to ice on deposition nuclei occurs when air
is supersaturated with respect to ice

• This process of sublimation is particularly effective when temperatures are low.

• In cold layer-type clouds ice crystals grow into snowflakes.

• Ice crystal growth processes take place by sublimation and collision (collision
with ice crystals and supercooled droplets).

Sublimation

21

 • The high super saturations that occur with respect to ice enable ice nuclei,
whether formed by freezing nuclei, contact nuclei or deposition nuclei, to grow by
sublimation more rapidly than water droplets.

• Ice crystals grow at the expense of liquid water drops in a mixed cloud and may
do so until the cloud is completely converted to ice particles.

Collision with ice crystals

• Ice crystals grow by collision with other ice crystals due to stirring within the
cloud and the differences in the terminal velocities of the crystals.

• This is growth by aggregation and occurs when collisions take place b/n crystals
with intricate habits which allow them to become entangled and entwined.

Collision with supercooled droplets

• When ice grows by collision with supercooled droplets they grow by riming as
the supercooled droplets freeze on to the ice crystals.

• This process normally obscure the original shape of the ice crystal at which point
the particle becomes graupel (soft, small hail particles).

• The extreme type of growth is the hailstone with clear and opaque layers.

• These layers depict the growth history of the stone as it falls (or rises) in vigorous
convective clouds.

• The hailstone may rise and fall many times within the cloud while trapped within
the updraughts, with each cycle producing one clear and one opaque layer.

• Opaque layers form when hailstones collide with ice crystals.

• A clear layer occurs when the stone collects supercooled droplets so rapidly that
its surface temperature rises to 0 ºC allowing the stone to become covered with a
layer of liquid water which freezes as clear ice.

• The growth of cloud crystals by sublimation and aggregation and water droplets
by collision and coalescence reaches a stage where particles in the form of ice
(snow or hail) or liquid droplets (rain) can no longer be sustained by updraughts.

22

 • Precipitation then occurs from the cloud.

• According to Bergeron-Findeison theory, all precipitation from cold clouds

relies upon the growth of ice crystals by aggregation to form snow-flakes.

• This precipitates to the surface when the air temperature between the cloud base
and the ground below is below 0 ºC, the snow-flakes melt into water droplets and
precipitate as rain.

THUNDERSTORMS (Life cycle)

• Thunderstorms are produced by heavy updrafts and are normally associated with
lightning, thunder and heavy downpour. They develop when air is unstable or
conditionally unstable.

• Types of thunderstorms depend on processes of uplift. They are usually

accompanied by strong surface winds. A single thunderstorm consists of
individual cells

Developing stage
• During summer, under daytime conditions of unequal heating, convection
currents develop.

• The rising air may cause small cumulus to appear. The cloud develops upwards.

• Its edges are sharply defined by continuous evaporation off the sides. All
movement in the cloud is upward at this stage.

• The water droplets in the cloud are below precipitation size. The cloud may go
through the freezing level, but little or no freezing of water droplets takes place

23

 DEVELOPING STAGE

Mature stage
• At the stage, the most important changes have taken place inside the cloud.
• Some water droplets have begun to freeze. This sets off important drop-growing
processes
• The top of the cloud has lost its sharpness because the frozen droplets are
evaporating slowly. Precipitation begins.
• Both upward and downward motions now occur in the cloud. A drop may move
upward and downward in the cloud several times.
• Hailstorms may form. The cloud has now reached its maximum development.

24

 MATURE STAGE

The decaying stage

• The top of the cloud develops a characteristic “anvil head”.
• The movement in the cloud becomes mainly downward and the intensity of
precipitation decreases

25

 The complex stage
• This happens when all three stages of development take place in close proximity
and nearly simultaneously.
• It is now difficult to distinguish one stage from another.

COMPLEX STAGE

TYPES OF THUNDERSTORMS
Convection:
• It originates due to an unequal heating of the earth’s surface.
• This results in isolated or scattered thunderstorms developing seemingly at
random during the afternoon and decay rapidly in the early evening.
•

26

 CONVECTION

Orographic uplift:
• Conditions of instability may be reached when air is forced over a mountain.
• The storm will then occur near the peak of the mountain, and this storm may
occur at any time of the day or night.

OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT

27

Frontal uplift:
• Similar to orographic uplift.
• Air ascends ahead of a cold front as the cold front wedges in beneath.
• Thunderstorms may develop if the air ahead of the front is conditionally unstable
and sufficiently moist.
• These storms tend to occur in long lines parallel to the front.
• A continuous wall of thunderstorms may stretch over hundreds of kilometers.
Large-scale convergence:
• Ahead of a trough line or east of a low pressure area uplift is intense (southern
hemisphere).
• This type of uplift is sufficient to trigger a thunderstorm.
• Other factors such as convection or upper air divergence, frequently contribute to
this type of storm development.
Line storms:
• They are caused by large-scale convergence.
• It is most common in South Africa in summer.
• The storms usually align themselves parallel to the trough line over the country.
• They may occur at any time of the day or night.
• They are generally accompanied by strong gust winds (line squalls) ahead of the
storms.

28

 LINE STORMS

•
• Air rises within each cell as a succession of bubble-like air bodies.
• As each bubble rises air is brought in from the surrounding region, a process
called entrainment.
• Rising air in the thunderstorm cell can reach vertical speeds up to 40km-60km/hr.
• Precipitation is in this form of rain in the lower levels, mixed water and snow at
intermediate levels, and snow at high levels.
• Upon reaching high levels (6-12km) the rising rate diminishes and cloud top is
dragged downwind to form an anvil top.
• Ice particles falling from the cloud top act as nuclei for condensation at lower
levels, a process called cloud seeding.
• The rapid fall of raindrops adjacent to the rising air bubbles exerts a frictional
drag on the air and sets in motion downdraft
• The downdraft is accompanied by very strong winds that are capable of felling
trees and damaging buildings.

LIGHTNING

• Water and ice move around inside the cloud; forced up by warm air currents,
down by gravity, and compressed in the cloud.

29

 • Just as rubbing a balloon can create static electricity, the particles in the cloud
become charged.
• It’s not clear how it happens, but charges separate in the cloud. Positive charges
move up, and negatives move down.
• Lightning happens when the negative charges (electrons) in the bottom of the
cloud are attracted to the positive charges (protons) in the ground.
• The accumulation of electric charges has to be great enough to overcome the
insulating properties of air.
• When this happens, a stream of negative charges pours down towards a high point
where positive charges have clustered due to the pull of the thunderhead.
• The connection is made and the protons rush up to meet the electrons. It is at that
point that we see lightning and hear thunder.
• HOW
A bolt of LIGHTNING DEVELOPS
lightning heats the air along its path causing it to expand rapidly.
Thunder is the sound caused by rapidly expanding air

TYPES of LIGHTNING
Cloud-to Ground (Negative)
• Negatively-charged stepped leader (-CG) (forked lightning). These types are more
common than positive CGs.

30

 • Can be identified by distinctive downward branching. Consist of multiple return
strokes.
Cloud-to Ground (Positive)
• Initiated by a downward-moving positively-charged leader (+CG)
• They are less common than negative CGs.
• Can be identified by their distinctive lack of branching, but occasionally have
branching at higher altitudes.
• Consists of one return stroke. Characterized by extremely loud thunder,
sometimes with a series of deep, low frequency sonic boom
Cloud-to-ground (positive)

Ground-to-cloud
• This involves a dischage between clound and ground, initiated by an upward-
moving leader originating from an object on the ground
• Common on tall towers and skyscrapers
• Can be either positive or negative in polarity
• Characterized by upward branching, but can be branchless below the cloud base.
•

31

 Ground-to-cloud

Intracloud
• Referred to as sheet lightning, and takes place inside a single storm cloud,
jumping between different charge regions in the cloud.
• This is because it lights up the sky with a “sheet” of light.
• Parts of the actual channel are obscured inside the cloud and may not be visible to
the observer on the ground. Not to be confused with cloud-to-cloud lightning

INTRACLOUD

Anvil crawlers
• They are horizontal, tree-like, in-cloud lightning discharges.
• Often cover very large distances, resulting in vast, spectacular sky-filling
discharges
• They are very high altitude events, resulting in soft, rolling thunder due to their
great distance from the observer.
32

 • Anvil crawlers

Bolt from the Blue

• Sometimes referred to as anvil lightning or anvil-to-ground lightning
• It strikes away from its parent thunderstorm.
• It originates in the highest regions of the cumulonimbus cloud, travelling
horizontally a distance away from the thunderstorm before making a vertical
descent to earth
• This means that this lightning can occur at locations with clear skies overhead.

33

 BOLT FROM THE BLUE (No clouds visible in the horizon)

Cloud-to-air
• A discharge jumps from the cloud into clear air.
• Cloud to air discharges also occur in some cloud-to-ground lightning (forked)
• A long bright lightning channel jumps out of a cumulonimbus cloud and
terminates in the clear air surrounding the storm.

Bead lightning
• It is the decaying stage of a lightning channel in which luminosity of the channel
breaks up into segments.
• It is a stage of a normal lighting discharge rather than a type of lightning in itself.

34

 
CLOUD-TO-AIR BEAD LIGHTNING

Ribbon lightning
• In this lightning individual return strokes are separated by visible gaps on the final
exposure.
• This is caused by wind blowing the lightning channel sideways during the
exposure.
• The stronger the wind and closer the lightning strike, the more horizontal
displacement will exist on the recorded image.

RIBBON LIGHTNING
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

35

WEATHER PATTERNS OVER SOUTHERN AFRICA

Basic summer patterns

• The Atlantic and Indian high pressure systems have moved southwards.
• This causes the westerlies to blow well to the south of the continent
• The Indian high has its centre well out to the sea. The winds originating from this
high travel across the warm Indian ocean, picking up moisture as they go. This air
influences the eastern parts of Southern Africa
• The south-east Trade winds (A) influence the north-eastern part of the region.
• These winds which are moisture-laiden, invade the country from the east,
sometimes recurving southwards over Mpumalanga, Limpopo and Gauteng
regions, as well as the Free State, sometime moving further northwards over
Zimbabwe, Zambia and southern DRC (Z).
• When moist air is in circulation, either from the Indian high or from the south-east
Trades, uplift will cause condensation, cloud formation and rainfall.
• The Atlantic high, which has its centre near the west coast of southern Africa, is a
source of dry, subsiding air. Air from this high carries little moisture and
generally invades the country from the south-west (B).

36

 • Where the air from the Indian high meets the air from the Atlantic high a moisture
boundary (front) is formed. The Atlantic air undercuts the Indian air, causing
uplift , condensation and cloud formation
• The position of the moisture boundary often affects the distribution of rainfall
over the whole region.
• When the moisture boundary lies to the north, drought conditions prevail, when to
the south, widespread rains are possible.
• However, when the Atlantic high moves further south of the region winds travel
longer distances and carry moisture along with them (C). This brings rain in the
south-eastern section of the region
• Strong summer heating causes the development of a heat low over northern
Angola.
• Over the Atlantic the south-east Trade winds blow north of the Atlantic high,
picking up moisture from the Atlantic.
• Some of this air curves clockwise around the tropical low, invading Angola and
DRC from the south-west.
• These winds are known as south-west Monsoons. Where these winds meet the
south-east Trade winds from the Indian Ocean, a convergence zone is formed.
This is known as the Congo Air Boundary
• The NE Monsoon is closely linked with the great monsoon systems over India
and Asia. NE Trade winds (E) cross the equator and where they meet the SE
Trades a convergence zone, known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), is formed.
• The presence of the shallow low pressure over the Kalahari is due to a build-up of
heat. This low sometimes influences movement of the air originating from the
east, and may cause a northerly flow of air over the southern Free State and west
of the Northern Cape
• Coastal lows may occur along either the east or the west coast.
• In the east they cause cloudy, rainy conditions, while in the west overcast
conditions with fog and mist being common.

37

Basic winter patterns


• The high pressure systems have moved northwards bringing Westerlies to the
south-western and southern coasts of the region
• The interior of the region is generally cool to cold. The absence of the heat-
induced lows over the continent often causes the Indian and Atlantic highs to be
linked across the land.
• A separate cell of high pressure often forms over Gauteng, Limpopo,
Mpumalanga, North-West, Free State and Northern Cape.
• The presence of this high leads to subsidence of air, which leads to clear skies and
calm conditions over the interior.
• North of the subsidence zone the SE Trade winds (A) still occur, but the NE
Monsoons have disappeared from the system.
• There is therefore no ITCZ in the southern Africa.
• The SE Trades often cross the equator, recurve to the north and east and become
part of the great summer Monsoon over India
• The SW Monsoon (D) also moves north and crosses the African coast over
northern Angola.

38

 • As a consequence the Congo Air Boundary has also moved much further north.
• With the northward movement of the pressure systems the Westerlies now reach
the southern parts of the region.
• Mid-latitude depressions, often with cold fronts, frequently invade these areas.
• These cold fronts occasionally reach as far as southern Zambia.
• Therefore, cloudiness and rainfall are restricted to the south-western, southern and
south-eastern coasts.
• Uplift in these regions is mainly of the cyclonic or frontal type, although
orographic uplift is important along the escarpment.
• Snowfalls occur along the escarpment and, more rarely, over the interior.
• Interior snowfalls are usually associated with the presence of a strong high
following closely behind a cold front (pushing the cold air into the interior), as
well as strong upper air low which enables uplift, condensation and cloud
formation to take place.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COASTAL LOWS
• A coastal low is one of the low pressure cells (cyclones) that affect the weather of
southern Africa.
• Other low pressure cells include (1) tropical cyclone, (2) temperate cyclones, (3)
Weak heat lows and cut-off lows.
• A coastal low is a small weakly-developed low pressure cell, usually less than
100km in diameter.
• Usually indicates an approaching cold front
• Usually occurs in winter but can cause very dry and hot days during summer or
transition seasons.
• It frequently occurs along the coastline of southern Africa.
• It is often associated with a cold front, and frequently develops along the west
coast from where it travels around the coastline, dissipating along the coast of
KwaZulu-Natal
• Along the western coast they generally move southwards, while along the
southern and eastern coast they move in a north-easterly direction.
• The passage of a coastal low is sometimes associated with localised overcast
conditions, accompanied by light showers or drizzle.
• The development of a coastal low is associated with a strong flow of air off the
land at plateau height.

39

 • As air moves outwards it removes air above the coastal regions, causing pressure
to drop and low pressure cell to form.
• Life cycle of the coastal low can be summarised diagrammatically as follows:

Development stage
• A cell of high pressure has broken away from the Atlantic high and has moved to
the south-east of the country with its centre over the southern Western Cape
Province (850-mb level).
• There is a strong pressure gradient over Namibia, and off-land winds are found at
E.
• Strong berg winds occur.
• A coastal low forms off the coast of Namibia.
• At F air from off the Atlantic is flowing in behind the low.
• This air contains sufficient water vapour to form fog when it is cooled as it moves
over the cold Benguela current.

40

 •

Two days after formation

• After two days all the pressure systems have moved eastwards.
• The off-land wind has backed from north-easterly to northerly and the low has
moved southwards.
• Fog and low clouds are still at F. At I the off-land flow of air continues, although
the 850 hPa contours are more widely spaced (pressure gradients weaker) and the
wind speeds lower.
• The weather between G and I will be fair to warm, becoming hotter as the berg
winds develop at I. A new cold front (J) is approaching from the south-west.

41

 •
TWO DAYS AFTER FORMATION

Four days after formation

• Four days later the pressure systems have moved further eastwards.
• The cold front has reached Cape Town. The coastal low is now east of the Cape.
• The off-land flow of air is now at K. The landward flow of air behind the coastal
low continues at F.
• A new off-land flow at M has resulted in the formation of another coastal low.
• Later on, the coastal low will weaken as off-land winds weaken along the east
coast and the low will disappear completely of the northern Kwazulu-Natal coast
as the high along the KZN coast moves away.

42

FORMATION AFTER FOUR DAYS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WINDS AND GLOBAL CIRCULATION

• The movement of air over the entire earth surface is very important in our daily
lives.
• Air always moves from place to place, and this movement is important in the
transportation of heat and water vapour.
• Global heat balance is therefore, maintained by earth circulation system of the
atmosphere and oceans.
• Air in motion is called wind. The movement of wind occurs horizontally and
vertically.
• Then the question is what causes air to move from one place to another and at
different speeds?
• The atmospheric pressure imbalance controls wind speeds and movements.
• Since environmental temperature differs from place to place so does atmospheric
pressure.
• Pressure decreases with height above the earth surface.
• For example, atmospheric pressure tends to be higher in coastal areas than over
the plateau.
• This is because coastal areas like Durban lie at a much lower altitude than inland
areas such as Johannesburg.
43

 • Therefore, the rate of upward pressure decrease will differ from place to place.

• Pressure gradient

B 120km apart A

800hPa
1000m

900hPa

•
• In area A the rate of pressure decrease with height is higher than in area B.
• In area B the height at which pressure has decreased to 860 millibars (mb) is 1000
meters (m).
• In area A the pressure at the same altitude is 820hPa. Pressure is higher at area B
at 1000m than at A.
• This change in pressure along a horizontal surface leads to the development of
what is called a pressure gradient.
• This means that air molecules tend to move from higher pressure area (B) to a
lower pressure (A).

44

 •

Pressure gradient

900 880 860 820 800 780

B A

Pressure at B and A at 1000m altitude

• This pressure gradient above resembles a hill slope where water will move from
upslope to downslope at a particular speed.
• The steeper the slope the higher the speed of water down slope.
• The same applies to pressure gradients.
• The steeper the pressure gradient the higher the velocity of air motion from B to
A.
• Therefore, air molecules will tend to move in the direction of the pressure
gradient and this motion is caused by what is known as the pressure gradient
force.
• From the difference in air pressure from B to A the horizontal pressure gradient
(HPG) can be expressed as:

860mb – 820mb
120 000 meters
= 40mb
120 000m
= 4000Pa (1hPa = 100 Pascal)
120000m

45

 = 0.03Pa/ m
• Therefore, horizontal pressure gradient = 0.03 Pa/ m
• A point to note is that in most weather charts the movement of wind is either
across or parallel to the isobars.
• The change in the direction of air movement is a function of what is called the
Coriolis force.
• Since the earth rotates, the movement and direction of wind differs from place to
place or from region to region.
• Winds tend to change direction from source of origin veering either to the left in
the southern hemisphere or right in the northern hemisphere
• According to the Ferrel law, any object or fluid moving horizontally in the
northern hemisphere tends to be deflected to the right of its path of motion of the
compass direction of the path. In the southern hemisphere a similar deflection is
towards the left of the path of motion.
• One thing to note is that the effect of the Coriolis force is stronger as one moves
poleward.

46

 • From the figure above the motion of air in a straight line is due to Pressure
Gradient Force (PGF) across the isobars.
• Once movement starts Coriolis force (CF) comes into play deflecting the wind
either to the left or right (curved lines).
• The CF always acts at right angle to the motion of wind.
• The CF will act on the parcel of air to make it change direction.

47

 • CF 800

• PGF 820
• pgf cf
• 840
• pgf CF
• 860

EFFECT OF CORIOLIS
FORCE
• In the diagram above the Coriolis force acts on the moving parcel of air veering it
to the left (Southern hemisphere).
• The force continues to act until the motion of air is parallel to the isobars and the
force is equal to the PGF.
• The two forces are now equal and opposing. Once this occurs a geostrophic wind
is produced.
• Near the earth surface air that is in motion encounters frictional drag.
• This means that apart from the Coriolis and Pressure gradient forces another
force, frictional force, comes into play as air motion progresses.
• This force also reduces wind speed.
• Once wind speeds are decreased, the effect of the Coriolis force becomes less, but
the horizontal pressure gradient remains the same.
• Now consider how the isobars are arranged around a high or low pressure cells.
• They appear circular.
• If Coriolis force makes the wind to blow parallel to isobars then the movement of
air around pressure cells will be circular in motion.
• This means, around a high pressure cell the movement of air will be circular in a
anticlockwise direction, while clockwise around a low pressure cell (southern
hemisphere).
• Once air moves along isobars in a circular motion another force comes in.
• This force is called the centripetal force which is counteracted by another force
known as the centrifugal force
• These two forces work together with the coriolis and pressure gradient forces.

48

 • For a flow around a low pressure cell the coriolis and centrifugal forces oppose
the pressure gradient force.
• In a high pressure cell, the pressure gradient and centrifugal forces act together to
oppose the coriolis force.
• The centrifugal force acts radially outward at right angles to the axis of rotation.
• Winds around a high pressure are stronger than around a low.
• However, in a normal situation pressure gradients tend to be larger around low
pressure areas creating stronger winds.
• These winds are called gradient winds

LOCAL WINDS
• These winds are triggered by local surrounding and their effectiveness is controlled by
terrain characteristics (even or uneven).
• These are winds that control movement of pollutants in the atmosphere.
• Examples of such winds include land and sea breezes.

• Land breeze (A)

760mb
780mb
800mb

1000m
820mb
840mb

860mb
880mb

900mb

Ocean
Land

49

 • Sea breeze (B)

760mb
780mb
800mb
1000m 820mb
840mb
860mb
880mb
900mb

Land Ocean

• During the day the land is heated faster than water bodies (oceans).
• The pressure gradient from sea to land is formed (diagram B)
• Because of the landward gradient air moves from sea to land to form what is called a sea
breeze. At higher altitude the flow is reversed.
• During the night the land cools faster than the ocean because water has a high specific
heat capacity.
• Lower air becomes colder over land than the ocean.
• A high pressure then develops over the land. Air now moves from land to sea (diagram
A). This is called land breeze.

Mountain and valley winds

50

 • day

• night

• During the day when valley bottoms are heated air moves from the valleys upward over
rising mountain slopes, towards the summit (Upper diagram). This is because hillslopes
are heated by the sun during the day.
• At night cold air above valley slopes move down slope. This motion of air within valleys
is triggered by local pressure gradients caused by heating or cooling of lower air (Bottom
diagram).
• In some areas, when cold air flows under the influence of gravity from higher to lower
regions (not pressure gradients) a drainage or katabatic wind is produced. This wind
normally blows in winter.
• Another type of local wind is főehn and Chinook. These result when strong regional
winds pass over a mountain range and are forced to descend on the lee side and are dried
and heated adiabatically as they descend.

AIR MOVEMENTS THAT AFFECT SOUTHERN AFRICA

The factors that cause the development of pressure and wind systems over Southern
Africa are dependent on seasons. Different pressure and wind systems differ both in
summer and winter.

51

During the January circulation the vertical noon sun is in the S. Hemisphere (Figure 25). This
leads to the build-up of solar energy in the vicinity of 15°S. At the surface warm tropical air from
southern tropics meets warm tropical air from the north and a zone of convergence is created
(Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone = ITCZ). The air from above the ITCZ moves towards the
polar regions in the upper atmosphere (at an altitude of approximately 15km).
As the air moves polewards it radiates heat, cools and becomes denser. It sinks
downwards in the vicinity of 35° N and 35° S to form cells of high pressure known as
subtropical highs (south Atlantic high and the South Indian high). Surface winds from the
subtropical highs move from the east on the equatorward side of the highs, and from the
west on the poleward side. For southern Africa this generally means easterly winds over
most of the region, although westerlies may be experienced in the south. The vertical and
horizontal movements of air form cells of circulation. Those formed in association with
the ITCZ are known as Hadley cells, and those formed on the poleward side of the
subtropical highs are known as Ferrell cells.

52

Diagram showing July circulation

In July the vertical noon sun is in the N. Hemisphere. There is a build-up of solar energy in the
vicinity of 15°N. The ITCZ now lies near 20°N. The Hadley cells have moved northwards, and so
have the subtropical highs. There is a high pressure cell over southern Africa. Air over southern
Africa is mainly divergent. Air movement over the southern regions is mainly from the west and
south.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

53

 GEOMORPHOLOGY

WEATHERING

The term “weathering” can be defined as the physical disintegration and chemical decomposition
of rocks because of exposure at or near the earth surface (Strahler & Strahler , 1987). It can also
be defined as the sum of physical, physio-chemical and biochemical processes that alter the state,
composition and properties of rocks in the upper part of the earth’s crust (Moon & Dardis, 1988).
Ollier (1984) defines weathering as the breakdown and alteration of materials near the earth’s
surface to products that are more in equilibrium with newly imposed physico-chemical
conditions.
Since most rocks are formed at higher temperatures, pressure, absence of air and water, they are
therefore not chemically stable at or near the surface of the earth. This involves igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Weathering of rocks is the response of materials which were more in
equilibrium within the lithosphere to conditions at or near its contact with the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere and the biosphere.
The term “weathering” is not synonymous with “erosion”. Weathering is therefore the forerunner
of erosion and mass wasting. Weathering has a static character because it does not involve
transport of material; rather it prepares materials for transport by agents of erosion like water,
wind and glacier. The products of weathering tend to accumulate in a soft surface layer called
regolith. Regolith grades downward into solid, unaltered rock (bedrock) and always provides the
source of sediment. On steep slopes, the movement of weathered materials will obviously be
governed by gravity (mass-wasting). Weathering alone is not responsible for the formation of
many landforms, but with the aid of erosion and transport, various landforms are generated.
Therefore, weathering has three important results:
- it is the process by which resistant rocks and partly weathered rocks are rendered into
a state of lower strength and greater permeability to facilitate the process of erosion.
- it is the first step in the process of soil formation
- during weathering the accumulation of iron, silicon and aluminium form oxide shells
on rocks or in soil which become resistant to erosion and weathering.
It can therefore be assumed that weathering is entirely negative in that it has a destructive
function. It renders a small contribution to the formation of landforms.
The two main processes of weathering are physical (mechanical) and chemical. Biological
weathering is the subset of both chemical and physical weathering because it operates through
chemical and physical effects.
Physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks/ material by mechanical methods brought about by
various forces. These forces involved in the breakdown of rocks sometimes originate within the
rock while others are external. These forces lead to continuous stresses which lead to strains and
finally to rupture. Such physical disruption of rocks does not involve alteration of the nature of
mineral constituents.
Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rocks by chemically altering or removing some of
the mineral components of the rock.
Weathering processes operate either in series or in parallel. Most rock disintegration is effected
by a complex interplay of processes. For example, chemical weathering cannot take place without
the production of physical stresses, i.e. the disintegration of rocks by thermal expansion (physical
weathering) cannot occur in the absence of chemical processes associated with the presence of
moisture.

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Physical/ mechanical weathering

Insolation weathering
This involves the volumetric changes in rocks due to day-time heating and night-time cooling.
It is most effective in rocks that have fissures and moisture.The rate of expansion (day-time
heating) and contraction (night-time cooling) depends on the physical and chemical properties of
a rock. This means that expansion and contraction of rocks also depends on the rock’s surface
albedo. Dark-coloured rocks (olivine) expand faster than light-coloured rocks (quartz) (Figure 1).
Rocks that are large, but characterized by a higher degree of moistures are likely to fracture or
develop cracks caused by expansion and contraction. Insolation weathering is effective in semi-
arid and desert area (Namib), where diurnal temperatures can rise the rock surface temperature to
79 ºC, but drop by 50 ºC during the night. Once this happens the surface of the rock expands
faster than the interior. This leads to the creation of a temperature gradient within the rock. The
repeated cycles of expansion and contraction lead to the development of cracks or fissures which
reduce the tensile strength of the rock.

Dark rock expands faster

than light-coloured rock

Point of Thermal
stress

Top surface expands faster than interior of rock

Dark Light coloured rork

Figure 1. Insolation weathering

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
Frost weathering

This involves the expansion and contraction of rocks due to freeze-thaw cycles. It is most
common in peri-glacial & alpine environments (Drakensberg). It is also common in rocks that are
characterized by high degree of jointing and moisture. For freeze-thaw cycles to be effective,
freezing starts from outside to inside the rock crack. This only occurs when temperatures are
between -4 ºC and -22 ºC. Once this occurs the moisture inside the cracks freezes and expands by
9%, exerting pressure of up to 220hPa. The frozen ice within a crack exerts pressure on the
confining walls of the crack and increases the crack size (Figure 2). The repeated freeze-thaw
cycles therefore increase the size of the rock crack and the tensile strength of the rock is
weakened, and the rock fails and shatter/ break. Rock fragments produced by freeze-thaw cycles
are found at the foot of mountains, and are usually angular in character. These angular rock debris
found at the base of mountains or slopes are known as felsenmeer.

Freezing direction

Direction of exerting force

Figure 2. Frost weathering

Salt weathering
It is most common in areas characterized by high temperature, evaporation and
availability of salts. It is effective in desert areas adjacent to seas and oceans like Dead
Sea, Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Namib Desert etc, or areas where saline solutions are
drawn from the surface by capillary action. Just like frost weathering, it is effective in
rocks that are characterized by a high degree of jointing/ cracks. It involves three
processes:
(1) The precipitation of salts into rock voids
(2) The heating of salt crystals inside rock voids
(3) The hydration of salt crystals inside rock cracks. The most common salts are NaCl,
KCl, Na2SO4, NH3. K2So4. Once salt crystals are precipitated into rock voids they are
heated and expand.
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
This exerts force on the confining wall of crack. The same is true about expansion of salt
crystals due to hydration. Some salts like Na2SO4 can expand ten times upon hydration
and this will exert force against the confining walls of a crack. The repeated cycles of
expansion and contraction due to salt crystals accompanied by chemical weathering
weaken the tensile strength of the rock and it will ultimately fracture. On the ground frost
weathering leads to ground patterning and cracks.

(Note that hydration weathering has been excluded)

Chemical weathering

It involves the breakdown of the primary minerals in the rock to new secondary minerals that are
more stable in the surface environment or to material that may be carried away in solution. Water
or abundant moisture is the essential agent in chemical weathering. Water either reacts with
minerals directly or carries dissolved elements which react with minerals. The reactions involved
in chemical weathering are many and complex:

Solution
This is the first step in chemical weathering where water acts as a solvent. The dissolution of
quartz can be demonstrated as follows:
SiO2 + 2H2O → Si(OH)4
(quartz) (water) (silicic acid)

The extent to which minerals can dissolve in water is dependent on its equilibrium solubility. It is
expressed in parts per million by volume). The solubility of minerals also depends on the pH of
solution and the environment, as well as the temperature of solution and environment.

E.g. Quartz (>10), ferrous iron (FeO)(7), Ferric iron (Fe 2O3)(<3.5), Alumina (Al2O3)(insoluble
b/n 4&10), Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)(6.5-9).

Hydrolysis
It involves the reaction between water and mineral elements, that is between the hydrogen ions
(H+) of water and the hydroxyl ions (OH-)of the minerals. It is a major process in the
decomposition of feldspars (KAlSi3O8, Na/Ca AlSi3O8) important minerals in igneous rocks
(Quartz – SiO2). It usually affects silicate and carbonate minerals. During the reaction, pure water
ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate minerals. It involves the replacement of metal cations (K+,
Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+) in a mineral lattice by H+ ions and the combining of these released cations with
hydroxyl ions (OH-). Feldspars break down to produce potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide
and alumino silicic acid.

During hydrolysis of potash feldspar (KAlSi3O8) the aluminosilicic acid further decomposes into
clay minerals and silicic acid, while potassium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide (present in
water) to produce potassium carbonate. The potassium carbonate is removed in solution, leaving
silica and residual clay materials as the end products.

2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2O + CO2 → Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + K2CO3 + 4SiO2

(feldspar)(water) (carbon minerals) (kaolinite) (potassium carbonate) (Silica)

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Aluminosilicates when subjected to the hydrolysis reaction produce a secondary mineral.
Kaolinite is the secondary mineral.
4NaAlSi3O8 + 6H2O → Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 8SiO2 + 4Na+ + 4OH-
(Albite) (water) (Kaolinite) (Silica) (Dissolved hydroxyl sodium ions)
Hydration
Some minerals can absorb water into their crystal structure through reversible reaction known as
hydration.
E.g.
2Fe2O3 + 3H2O ↔ 2Fe2O3.3H2O
(iron oxide)(water) (hydrated iron oxide)

Carbonation
This is the process by which carbonic acid changes calcium carbonate (CaCO3) into calcium
bicarbonate.
E.g. H2CO3 + CACO3 → Ca(HCO3)2
(calcium carbonate)
Carbonic acid is produced when water reacts with carbon dioxide
E.g. CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
(carbonic acid)
It is active on rocks that have abundant calcium carbonate (limestone & Chalk)
This process produces dissected limestone pavements on well-jointed limestone (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Typical limestone pavements attacked by carbonation and salt weathering

Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation is the process whereby an atom loses an electron and thus acquires an increase in its
positive charge or a decrease in a negative charge. The most oxidizing agent is the dissolved
oxygen. The reaction can be reversed by reduction which involves the gaining of an electron.
Various elements such Fe, Mn, S can be oxidized to form oxides or hydroxides
E.g. 4Fe2+ + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
(iron oxide)

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Oxidation and reduction produce red colour on rocks and soil (Figure 4)

Oxidation surface

Figure 4. Oxidised surface of a rock

Cation exchange
Involves the substitution of one cation for another of a different element in a mineral structure.
This can occur in any mineral, but most common in clay minerals. Each type of clay mineral has
a different propensity for the exchange of exchange of cations which can be measured by its
cation exchange capacity (c.e.c) in units of milliequivalentss per 100g of clay. The mechanism is
important in the alteration of clay minerals. Depends on the pH of the environment.

1.3 Factors controlling weathering

Rock weathring is controlled by various factors. These factors include the nature of the rock (rock
properties, rock moisture content, and rock chemistry), climate, time, topography and vegetation.
Climate is the major driving force behind weathering processes. The major climatic controls are
temperature and precipitation. Precipitation is important in weathering because it is the main
source of moisture (due, fog & sea spray) and running water. Variations in climate cause
differences in the rate and type of weathering. These differences can be seen when looking at
weathering processes under various climatic regions.

WEATHERING UNDER DIFFERENT CLIMATIC REGIONS

Equatorial regions:
High temperatures and rainfall are characteristics of the equatorial regions. Chemical
decomposition is very active due to high temperature and high rainfall. This is because chemical
reaction depends heavily on the supply of moisture and higher temperatures. The availability of
moisture reduces the tensile strength of the rock. Moisture within the rock voids can exert tensile
stresses that are of significant magnitude to shatter the strongest rock. In these regions, for every

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
10C rise in temperature, the rate of chemical weathering doubles or triples. This is why a deep
weathering profile sometimes exceeding 50m in depth characterizes these regions. The action of
bacteria in these regions is also very high.
The thick layer of waste debris of the rainforest decreases the rate of physical weathering because
most rocks are protected from the intense sun’s heat. The action of bacteria on waste debris
produces acids that are precipitated on rocks to weaken them by dissolving or altering certain
minerals. At these higher temperatures of the equatorial regions most clay minerals are formed
and altered. It is in these regions where quartz (SiO2) is dissolved because silica is readily soluble
at higher temperatures. At higher temperatures the solubility of iron and aluminium hydrous
oxides is reduced, i.e. iron and aluminium oxides tend to accumulate in these regions. The
production of organic matter is also higher. However, physical weathering in these regions is
active when there is a sudden change in temperature. This happens when rain suddenly cools a
previously heated rock surface. This leads to exfoliation of most inselbergs in these regions
(Figure 5).

Figure 5 Exfoliation dome

Savanna region
Both chemical and physical weathering are dominant in this region because of the alternating wet
and dry climates. Wet climates are characterized by higher rainfall and dry climates by low
rainfall. During dry climates, the ground finds little or no protection against changes in
temperature because of the availability of sparse vegetation. This makes the ground to look more
like a desert area. During dry seasons, rocks are exposed to the intense sun heat that promotes
expansion and contraction that will ultimately lead to disintegration. This process is only active in
rocks that can retain moisture for a long period. Since temperatures can reach a maximum of

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30C exfoliation and block disintegration are promoted. A major result of the weathering
processes in the savanna regions is the development of lateritic (ferretic) duricrust (cuirass). This
is a hard crust just below the ground surface. It first develops as a clay horizon rich in iron oxides
within the soil profile (about 2 – 5m thick). This is formed in depressions where weathered layer
becomes filled with iron solutions. It normally consists of nodular, massive oxides and hydrous
oxides of iron with little amount of kaolin and other minerals. These iron solutions are washed
away in the weathered layer by water that moves laterally to the ground surface. Once the topsoil
has been removed the laterite is exposed to air and heat and hardens into a crust due to wetting
and drying which wash out the clay and crystallize the iron. Once formed it becomes immune to
weathering and erosion. Their profiles have four zones, i.e.
- a soil sometimes sandy, but with nodules
- a crust of reddish or brown, but hardened (sometimes slightly hardened) materials
with tube-like cavities (vermicular structure; 20-30mm in diameter) which are
sometimes filled with kaolin.
- a mottled zone of white clayey kaolinitic material with yellowish iron patches and
aluminium oxides.
- a pallid zone of bleached kaolinitic material.
Laterites are not confined to savanna or temperate regions only, but are also found in the tropical
and sub-tropical regions. Other synonyms for laterites include ironstone, murram and ferricrete.

Desert region
These are regions characterized by high temperature, low rainfall, high evaporation rates and
absence of vegetation. This implies that mechanical weathering is dominant in desert regions like
the Sahara and the Namib. The absence of vegetation exposes rocks to heating by the sun. The
lack of vegetation cover also promotes high evaporation rates. Depending on the nature of the
rock, high temperatures of the desert can increase surface temperature of rocks up to 79C.
Once rocks are heated, they expand and during the night when temperature drops by 30C
contraction occurs. Expansion and contraction of rocks cause rocks to develop fissures or
discontinuities. This ultimately produces angular boulders. High evaporation rates cause
dissolved salts to be drawn to the surface of rocks by capillary action to facilitate further
mechanical weathering. When salt crystals are heated, they expand and exert tensile stresses
against the confining walls of rock cracks. This process further weakens the rock. Moisture which
carries dissolved salts weaken the rock and this lead to the formation of small cavities called
taffonis. Again, moisture that is drawn to the surface by capillary action aids in the destruction of
crystalline rocks, i.e. the process of chemical weathering is promoted. This process takes place on
rocks that can retain moisture for long periods. High evaporation rates sometimes draw moisture
containing iron and manganese oxides which are deposited on rocks to form a shiny, dark brown
coating called desert varnish (5mm thick) which makes rocks immune to weathering.

Mountain regions
Low temperatures accelerate mechanical processes of weathering. The main weathering process
that is dominant in this region is frost action. This is active at altitudes above 4300m in the tropics
and 3000m in the subtropics. The products of frost weathering are angular rock debris found at
the foot of mountain peaks (Drakensberg & Cape Mountains). Frost weathering is essential in the
formation of periglacial landforms.
The absence of liquid water in mountain regions decreases the rate of chemical weathering. Only
carbonation becomes active in this region because carbon dioxide (CO2) is soluble at
temperatures less than 25C. The action of carbon dioxide is shown in the active decay of rocks
beneath snow patches – a process called nivation. This is most common in the south-facing slopes
of the little Caledon valley in the Free State Province.

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Subtropical region
Both physical and chemical weathering processes are active, but chemical weathering is more
dominant in higher rainfall regions such as the KwaZulu-Natal coasts. The weathering profile in
the subtropics is not as deep as in the tropics.

WIND
Wind promotes cooling and desiccation. It transports moisture from nearby oceans to the adjacent
land. Wind promotes chemical weathering when gases such as sulphur dioxide and sulphur
trioxide are precipitated on rocks. After day-time heating wind can cool the rocks, thus promoting
exfoliation of inselbergs. It also promotes dirt cracking. Particles that have been deposited inside
the rock cracks may inhibit the cracks to close during cooling. The sediments deposited inside
rock cracks will exert tensile stresses against the confining walls of the partings.

TOPOGRAPHY/ ASPECT
Topography controls the rate of removal of weathered material. On steep slopes material tend to
move downward under the influence of gravity (mass wasting) or is removed by agents of erosion
such as water, ice and wind. When weathered materials have been removed new surfaces become
exposed to weathering processes, i.e. if there is no removal of material or removal is slow then
the rate of weathering will be decreased.
Topography also controls the movement of water through regolith. Steep well-drained slopes
promote absorption and accelerate the processes of weathering. Weathering rates are high on
steep well-drained slopes than in flat terrain with very poor drainage. In the Southern Hemisphere
the freeze-thaw cycle is active on the north-facing slopes. Again, north-facing slopes will have
more vegetation and more plant cover. In the northern hemisphere the south-facing slopes will
experience freeze-thaw cycle than north-facing slopes. Chemical weathering in northern
hemisphere is active on south-facing, but becomes active on the north-facing slopes of the
southern hemisphere.
The slopes which constitute less vegetation cover – south-facing slopes in the southern
hemisphere and north-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere – promote erosion and removal of
weathered debris which may lead to greater total weathering.

VEGETATION
The production of vegetation is dependent upon climate. Dense vegetation will produce more
organic matter. For example, in tropical climates the production of organic matter is higher (3300
– 13500kg/ha) than in temperate forests (900 – 3100kg/ ha). The presence of vegetation controls
the type and rate of weathering. Changes in plant type and density affect the rate and type of
weathering. Again, the introduction of another plant species may affect the rate and type of
weathering. When dead leaves are being consumed into organic matter by decomposing bacteria
(endolithic and chasmolithic) some acids may be introduced in rock fissures to promote chemical
weathering.
The presence of vegetation decreases the rate of erosion and physical weathering. Thus, the rate
of weathering will be decreased by the presence of the already weathered material. Vegetation
aids in water retention, thus permitting further chemical processes. Plants may introduce acids
into rock cracks through their roots. This may take place during the fixation of gases such as
nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

PARENT MATERIAL

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 This includes properties of rocks such as strength, thermal properties, size, colour, permeability,
porosity, microporosity, discontinuities, water absorption co-efficient, saturation co-efficient,
inherent residual stresses within a rock and isotropy.
The assemblage of minerals in a rock determines the strength of the rock. Strength controls the
rate of weathering. The harder the rock, the greater the force is required to shatter the rock. If
minerals are tightly interlocked with no preferred orientation, the rock has a high tensile strength
(Quartz). Rocks with minerals arranged with preferred orientation have lower tensile strength.
This means that such rocks are susceptible to rapid weathering processes (shale, slate etc.).
The character and rate of weathering varies from rock to rock. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
are susceptible to chemical weathering because they were formed under temperature and pressure
different from those operating at or near the earth’s surface. Once they are exposed to the
atmospheric conditions their original minerals are chemically altered into secondary ones. The
rate of these changes is faster when acids like carbonic acids are present in water. The weathering
of one mineral alone can weaken the rock, depending on the size of grains. Normally, rocks with
larger grains are weathered faster. Rocks with high silica content like quartz (SiO 2) are stable
under atmospheric conditions and are immune to chemical action. However, chemical stability is
controlled by climate. For example, silica becomes less stable under hot, tropical climates and it
is easily destroyed.
Sedimentary rocks are more stable than igneous and metamorphic rocks because they have been
formed by the deposition of previously weathered material. The factor that controls the rate of
weathering is cement that binds them. Rocks that have been cemented by iron are attacked by
oxidation, which may sometimes change iron into a brown substance which is more resistant to
weathering. Rocks with calcite (CaCO3) are attacked by carbonation.
Rock mineralogy is important in both chemical and physical weathering processes. Most minerals
expand when heated. Minerals expand at different rates because of the difference in colour, size
and composition. This means that their albedo differs. For example, olivine (Mg2SiO4) expands
faster than quartz because it has dark-coloured minerals. This kind of a rock can attain surface
temperatures of approximately79C when heated. The expansion and contraction that cause
stresses within a rock lead to the physical disruption of the rock. This weathering process attacks
igneous and metamorphic rocks because they contain a variety of minerals. Permeability and
porosity are very important in weathering because the strength of the rock is reduced by the
presence of moisture. Moisture enhances the expansion and contraction of rocks such as
limestone. The amount of water that can be moved through rock pores depends on the pore sizes
and the connectivity with other pores.
Plane of weakness/ discontinuities also control the rate of weathering. The terms “fracture”,
“partings” and “discontinuity” are synonyms for planes of weakness/ separation in rocks. Planes
of weakness include joint, fissure, cleavage, faults and foliation. The terms “joint”, “cleavage”,
“fault”, “fissure” and “foliation” have specific definitions.
Joints are breaks of geological origin in the continuity of a body of rock occurring singly or in a
system or set.
Faults are planes of displacement within rocks or soils.
Cleavage is the tendency of a rock to split along secondary aligned fractures that are planar,
persistent and closely spaced. Cleavage is produced by deformation or pressure metamorphism
and is visible in rocks such as slates in which alignment of mineral grains has occurred.
A fissure is a fracture where there is a distinct opening that may become filled with secondary
deposits.
Foliation is set of short, planar or wavy, closely spaced laminae, usually showing mineral
alignment as in schistose and gneissic rocks.
It should be noted that partings might be formed during sedimentation, metamorphism and shear
stresses.

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The rate of mechanical collapse of rocks is controlled by characteristics of discontinuities cutting
through the rock and the intact strength of the rock. These lineaments within the rock provide
channels for water movement within the rock mass. Their occurrence increases the permeability
of rocks and the presence of water decreases the overall strength of the rock. Permeability aids in
the removal of weathered material from within the rock, either in solution or in suspension. The
intact strength of the rock is increased with the decreasing number of discontinuities. Frost
wedging is dependent on the availability of discontinuities. The degree of jointing is the major
factor influencing the rate of freeze-thaw weathering (frost weathering). Many igneous rocks are
attacked by chemical action in the joints to produce rectangular blocks of many inselbergs.

LANDFORMS OF TECTONIC ACTIVITY

Tectonic activity includes all forms of breaking and bending of the entire lithosphere, including
the crust. The breaking and bending of the lithospheric plates result from volcanic activity,
folding and faulting. Faulting is usually associated with tensional stresses (breaking) (Figure 6)
and folding compressional stresses (bending) (Figure 7).

•
• Horst Fault scarp/ plane Horst
• Graben


Figure 6a. A normal fault

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
 
Figure 6b. A normal fault

Anticline
Syncline
(upfold)
(downfold)

Figure 7a. Folding (compare with Figure7b below)

Figure 7b. Folding

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
Figure 7c. Folding

Landforms produced directly by volcanic and tectonic activity are initial landforms. Initial
landforms include dropped-down rift valleys and alpine elevated ranges of crustal deformation.
Landforms shaped by processes and agents of denudation (weathering, erosion, mass movement)
are sequential landforms.

FOLDS
Folds are produced mostly during continental collision (convergent boundaries). When collision
occurs, weak rock strata undergo tremendous stress and they yield by bending (folding). A wave-
like undulation of land surface is produced. The upfold is known as an anticline and a downfold a
syncline. Associated with an upfold is an anticlinal mountain and a downfold a synclinal valley.
An example of a folded landscape is the Cape Folded Ranges and the Atlas mountains (highest
fold mountains in Africa > 4000m). The Cape Ranges include Cedarberg, Olifants mountains,
Swartberg, Kougaberg and the Langeberg (anticlinal mountains). An example of a synclinal
valley is the Hex River Valley bounded on either side by the Hex River Mountains and the
Kwadouw Range. After the formation of initial landforms the anticlines and the synclines
experience denudation processes that modify them into secondary landforms (sequential
landforms). The tops of the anticlines are eroded to produce beep ravines and valleys.
Valleys that are cut along the anticlines are known as anticlinal valley, bounded on either side by
the anticlininal ridges. An example of an anticlinal valley is the Tulbagh Valley along the Cape
ranges. Mountains that are formed when erosion carves the synclines are called synclinal
mountains (Figure 8). An example of a synclinal mountain is the famous Table Mountain (W.
Cape). Streams that manage to maintain their original course of flow during folding or faulting
are known as antecedent streams (Figure 9).

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 ERODED ANTICLINES AND SYNCLINES

• Anticlinal ridges (homoclinal ridges)

• Anticlinal valley Synclinal mountains

Figure 8 Anticline and synclines

1
2 1
Antecedent
stream

Figure 9. Antecedent stream

FAULTS
Faulting is accompanied by the displacement along the plane of breakage known as the fault
plane. They are normally accompanied by earthquakes. There are four types of faults (normal,
reverse, transcurrent, and low-angle overthrust fault.)

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Normal fault
It is characterized by a steep or nearly vertical fault plane. Movement of plates during faulting is
predominantly vertical. One plate is upthrown and the other downthrown. A normal fault results
in a deep fault scarp. Fault scarps range in height from a few meters to several hundred meters.
Their lengths are measurable in km. They often attain lengths of 100km or more. The upthrown
fault forms mountain called a horst while the downthrown fault results in a valley called a graben
(rift valley).
Horsts make block-like plateaus or mountains with flat tops and steep sides. Grabens make
conspicuous trenches, with straight parallel walls. The Red Sea graben is the biggest rift valley
produced by continental rifting. Other rift valleys include the Great East African Lakes.
They are categorized into four main sections
(1) Ethiopian Rift, from Afar Triangle south to Lake Turkana (Rudolf)
(2) Eastern Rift, in Kenya and Tanzania, including the branches in which lie Lake Eyasi
and the Kavirondo Gulf of north east Lake Victoria,
(3) Western Rift, from Lake Mobutu (Albert) to Lake Tanganyika
(4) Malawi Rift, bounding Lake Malawi and the Shire Valley.

Figure 10a. Normal fault

Figure 10b. Normal fault

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Figure 10c. Normal fault (Graben - Lake Tanganyika)

Reverse fault
With the reverse fault movement is triggered by colliding plates such that crustal shortening
occurs. Instead of bending, the plates yield to stress by breaking and a fault characteized by
overhanging cliff is formed. The overhanging cliff is characterized by intense mass wasting
(Figure 11).

Overhanging cliff

Valley

Figure 11a. Reverse fault

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 Initial layer level Fault plane Raised layer

Figure 11b. Reverse fault

Transform/ transcurrent fault

Movement is predominantly horizontal (Figure 12). No fault scarp is produced by this type of a
fault. A fault line is produced by movement of plates and streams tend to follow this fault line for
a short distance. In a transform fault one plate glides past another. Earthquakes are common along
these plate boundaries. An example of the transform boundary occurs along the San Andreas
Fault of California (USA). This fault which runs north-south, separates the North American Plate
on the east side, on which San Francisco sits, from the Pacific Plate west of the fault, on which
Los Angeles sits. The Pacific Plate is moving in a northerly, and the North American Plate in
southerly direction. As the two plates grind and scrape past each other, Los Angeles slowly
moves north and San Francisco moves south. At times the edges of the plates grab and lock, and
as they do the rocks on both sides flex and bend. When the locked section breaks free, the flexed
rock suddenly snaps back and an earthquake results.

• Transform/ Transcurrent fault

Figure 12a. Transform fault

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
Figure 12b. Fracture on the ground showing a transcurrent fault (San Andreas fault)


Figure 12c. Location of San Andreas fault (USA)

Low-angle overthrust fault

Low-angle overthrust fault involves predominantly horizontal movement, but the fault plane is
nearly horizontal (Figure 13). One slice of rock rides over an adjacent ground surface. A thrust
slice may be up to 50km wide

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
 Low-angle overthrust fault
Fault plane

Figure 13a. Low-angle overthrust fault


Figure 13b. Low-angle overthrust fault

Overriding slab

Fault plane

Figure 13c. Low-angle overthrust fault

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Direct effects of faulting
• Vertical faulting across a river valley may cause a waterfall (Figure 14)
• Tear faulting, horizontal movement across a river will cause the river to be offset at the
point it crosses the fault
• Rift faulting that an enclosed basin may cause a lake if rivers flow into the basin .
• Rivers may follow straight, natural fault valleys , especially in areas of tilt-block faulting
and where differential movements have raised some parts while lowering others.
• Crustal tilting or upwarping across a river valley will gradually force the river to reverse
direction and run backwards if it is unable to maintain its original flow.

Waterfall Lake

Rift valley

Figure 14. Direct effects of faulting

TOPOGRAPHY ASSOCIATED WITH HORIZONTAL

ROCK STRATA

• The African continent is characterized by horizontal layers.

• These rock layers were deposited in the geological past at the bottom of inland seas,
developed on land, as stream deposits forming large alluvial plains , were developed as
large-scale lava flows.
• Almost all of these horizontal layers were deposited during the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic ages (Refer to geological time period chart)
• If these layers are uplifted, with little change in their horizontal position, the normal cycle
of erosion would begin
• In the initial stage the landscape is very even, but running water is able to find weak
places on the surface and erode them.

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 • In the youthful stage the rapid downward erosion leads to the development of V-shaped
or steep-sided valleys (canyons – narrow valleys) to be incised into softer underlying
layers.
• In this stage very few large rivers occur. This might be caused by low precipitation
amounts to supply more water for stream erosion.
• The rock layers are characterized by alternating weak and resistant parts that produce
terraced valley slopes (step-like).
• An example of a canyon produced is the Fish River Canyon (Namibia) which is 65km
long, 450m deep and 10km wide. This is relatively small compared to the Grand Canyon
which is 350km long, 2km deep (in some places) and 30km wide.
• With the passage of time continued erosion reduces plateaus to small isolated landmasses
called mesas (Figure 15).
• An example of a mesa is the Tafelberg bear Middelburg (Eastern Cape).
• Continued erosion will further reduce these landmasses to very small isolated features
capped by resistant caps.
• These small land features are called buttes (Figure 15)

Figure 15a. Residual landforms

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Figure 15b. Dissected horizontal rock strata (canyon)

• An example of a butte is the Three Sisters near Beaufort West, Teebus and Koffiebus
(Figure 16).
• The elevation of the resistant cap lies at the same level as graded plateaus before erosion
reduced them to isolated landmasses.
• These resistant caps are formed from resistant sedimentary layers or sills of igneous rocks
such as dolerite. If erosion becomes intense, these caps are removed to form conical hills.
Mesas, buttes and conical hills are a characteristic of the Great Karoo.
• Hills with steep rounded slopes are formed in regions where rock layers are horizontal
and resistant to erosion.
• Examples of such hills are Swartland near Malmesbury and the Rûens area near Caledon
and Bredasdorp in the Western Cape.
• In arid and semi-arid regions there is very little rainfall water that enters the streams from
the banks. This makes hillslopes in this area to be rugged and steep. These landscapes are
known as the “badlands” in the USA.
• Regions of horizontal strata have branching stream networks formed into Dendritic
drainage pattern. The smaller streams in this pattern take a variety of directions.

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Figure 16. Three Sisters near Beaufort West, Teebus and Koffiebus

PLAINS AND INSELBERGS

4.1 ORIGIN OF PLAINS AND INSELBERGS
A plain is an extensive tract of flat land or gently undulating terrain without prominent
hills or depressions. Some plains have been formed by deposition of sediments. An
inselberg (a German term referring to an island mountain) – is a prominent steep-sided
hill of solid rock, rising abruptly from a plain of low relief. It is characteristic of tropical
landscapes particularly in the savanna zone, and is generally composed of a resistant
rock, such as granite. An inselberg is derived by the process of parallel retreat of slopes in
which pediments encroach into residual uplands during the process of pediplanation.
An inselberg is the end-product of the pediment encroachment, and may occur as an
isolated hill or in a residual group of hills. They generally look like huge rounded domes
or piles of rocks and boulders. There are generally two types of inselbergs:
(a) Bornhart: high steep-sided dome-shaped hill formed mainly in massive
crystalline rocks such as granite or gneiss (Figure 17). Domes are generally
less upstanding features with rounded outline. Low elongated domes are
called whalebacks.

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 Figure 17a. A typical bornhart

Figure 17b. A typical bornhart

(b) Castle kopjes: a steep sided pile of massive crystalline boulders. They often
have castle-like profile. In many African countries they are called tors
(Figure 18)

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 Figure 18a. Typical kopjes or tors

Figure 18b. Typical kopjes or tors

Pediplanation accounts for the origin of plains and inselbergs by the process of scarp
retreat and extension of the pediment. A plain is formed by the destruction of an older,
higher plain along the scarp. At the scarp, where waterfalls sometimes occur, erosion is
active and in conjunction with weathering. This causes the gradual retreat of the scarp
(Figure 19).

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Figure 19. Formation of a plain and an inselberg through scarp retreat (parallel slope
retreat)

At the foot of the scarp a rock surface of low gradient, called the pediment, slopes gently
down to the plain. On the pediment erosion, erosion is less active and sheet flooding
becomes the main process. This is sufficient to cause the extension of the pediment, a
process called pedimentation, as the scarp retreats. Over the level surface of retreating
pediments (plains) erosion is limited and rivers tend to develop wide shallow channels.
This is due to low gradients. The lower plain is enlarged at the expense of the higher
plain. The scarp face is worn down rather than the whole landscape as in the case of
peneplanation (the lowering of the landscape by subaerial denudation to form a
peneplain→ undulating surface of low relief, interspersed with occasional residual hills
known as monadnocks – formed by the widening of of the floodplains and the wearing
down of interfluves by subaerial denudation).

As the scarp retreats pediments are gradually extended until all that remains between two
encroaching pediments is a final remnant (inselberg/ tor) of an original higher planation
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surface. The inselbergs that are produced are large and of bornhart variety, but they are
eventually worn broken down into castle kopjes by weathering attacking the joint planes.
When the inselbergs are worn away the pediments coalesce to form a continuous plain
called a pediplain.
In the savanna regions plains are the result of deep weathering followed by stripping of
the weathered layer and scarp retreats. The deep weathering by chemical decomposition
(humid tropics feature) produces a layer of rotted rock up to 60m thick. However, the
depth differs from place to place according to the mineral composition and jointing of the
rock. Streams that flow across the plains develop wide shallow channels and due to both
the low gradient and fine nature of chemically weathered load, vertical erosion is limited.
Where weathering was deep the material is easily stripped off by streams, and a new
lower plain is formed which is gradually extended by a scarp retreat. In areas where the
rock was resistant, inselbergs of hard unweathered rock will rise above the plain. The
actual form an inselberg/ tor will take depends on the spacing of the joints. Wide-spaced
joints produce bornharts, and close-spaced joints produce castle kopjes.

COASTAL LANDFORMS

The coastal environment can be defined as the area lying at the interface between the land and the
sea. It includes both the zone of shallow water within which waves are able to move sediment and
the area landward of this zone, including the beaches, cliffs and coastal dunes. The coastal
environment is sometimes referred to as the littoral zone. Coastal landforms are a result of the
actions of waves, tides and currents. Waves are characterized by their length, height (amplitude)
and velocity, and periods. Waves that are actively generated by wind are called sea waves (if they
occur over oceanic surfaces). In deep water of the oceans there is little actual forward motion of
water in waves because it is the wave that moves rather than the water. Such deep-water waves
are called oscillatory waves since the individual water particles move with a virtually circular
motion, oscillating around more or less fixed point. Motion declines rapidly downwards, and at a
depth approximately one half of that of a wave length, known as wave base (Figure 41). As
waves move shallower water their mode of movement changes dramatically and the sea flow
starts to interfere with their oscillatory motion and the orbit of individual water particles become
more elliptical. Once this happens oscillatory waves are transformed into translator waves. As
water depth becomes increasingly shallow, the wave velocity and length decrease, but wave
height increases and it consequently steepens. It becomes over-steepened and eventually breaks
as its crest crashes forward to create surf. After breaking, the remaining water moves up the shore
as swash and returns under force of gravity as backwash.

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 Wave length

Wave height

Figure. 41. Major characteristics of waves

Oscillatory wave

Plunging breaker

Figure 42. Development of a plunging breaker

There are various types of breaking waves known as plunging, spilling and surging
breakers. Waves occur in a continuous spectrum of forms related to the gradient of the
shore and wave period. Gentle gradients tend to be associated with spilling breakers
where water from the crest cascades down the wave front. Plunging breakers occur when
the crest curls over and crashes down on the advancing wave base and they are associated
with steeply sloping shores (Figure 42). Where waves of low steepness encounter high
gradient shores they may fail to break fully but form instead surging breakers in which
the crest collapses and the base advances up shore.

Tides result from the gravitational attraction exerted on ocean water by the Moon and the
Sun. They are associated with the rise and fall of sea water level in a day (Figure 43). The

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motion of the Earth, moon and sun with respect to each other produces the semi-diurnal
tides (two highs and two lows every 24 hours). Tides higher than normal are called
spring tides (occur every 14-17 days when the sun and moon are aligned. Neap tides
(lower than normal) occur when the sun and the moon are positions at an angle of 90°
with respect to the Earth. Mixed tides are characterized by different highs and lows every
24 hours. Diurnal tides are characterized by one high and one low per 24 hours. Apogean
tides occur when the lunar attraction has been reduced (when the moon is at its apogee –
far from the Earth). The resulting low tides are higher and high tides are lower. They
occur during summer solstice. Perigean tides occur when the moon is in perigree. This
results in an increased high tide and a decreased low tide. This happens when the moon is
closest to the Earth (348 292 km). Tides are also characterized by the range. Tidal ranges
that are less than 2 m are known as microtidal (rise and fall of water level is less than 2
m). They are common along enclosed water bodies such as the Mediterranean Sea and
the Black Sea. Tidal ranges between 2 and 4 m are known as mesotidal (rise and fall of
water level is between 2 and 4 m). Those that extend beyond four meters are known as
macrotidal range.

High water mark (High tide)

Low water mark (Low tide)

Figure 43. High and low water levels resulting from tides

Coastal landforms
Destructional coastal landforms
Cliffs: Cliffs that rise sheer from deep water are called plunging cliffs. These cliffs are
formed by fault scarps, volcanic masses and drowned glaciated valleys and they are

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generally affected by swell waves. Such cliffs suffer minimal erosion. Where water depth
is shallow they are usually attacked by plunging breakers. Plunging breakers increase
basal erosion of cliffs in addition to sub-aerial weathering and mass movements. Where
wave action is capable of removing all the debris accumulating at the base of the cliff,
lithological and structural controls become significant in determining cliff form (Figure
44).
Mass movement: Slow
attrition and removal

Undercutting and
removal

Active mass mavement

Figure 44. Forms of cliff retreat

Shore platform forms at the level of wave action and it normally forms as the cliff
retreats under the combined effects of quarrying (combined effect of air compression and
mass of water) and abrasion (combined effect of water and sediments) (Figure 45). Wave
platform reduces the intensity of wave action.

Shore platform
Retreating Cliff

Figure 45 Shore platform and a retreating cliff

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There are three types of shore platforms; intertidal, high-tide and low-tide platforms.
Intertidal platforms extend between the high and low water marks, and are formed
primarily by abrasion and quarrying. They are often referred to as wave-cut platforms.
They are common in areas where wave energy is high. They usually exhibit a slight
seaward slope termed the abrasion ramp with gradients in the region of 1°. They extend
up to 500m in width in microtidal environments and 1000 m in macrotidal environments.

Shore platforms that have been developed by water-layer weathering are called high-tide
platforms. They are formed at high-tide level. They develop in permeable rocks along
coasts experiencing low to moderate wave energies, microtidal regimes and high
evaporation rates.
Low-tide platforms are associated with calcareous rocks (limestones) rich in calcium
carbonate (CACO3). Solution and biological erosion are key formative processes. These
platforms are common in microtidal environments with low wave energies. The action of
algae seems to be important in developing the basal cliff notches.

Constructional coastal landforms

Beaches: They are characterized by most conspicuous accumulations of sub-aerially
exposed sediment along coasts. They are composed of material ranging from fine sand to
boulders, but most consist of sand or pebbles, intermediate particle sizes being rare. They
are also composed of a variety of organic and inorganic particles. A distinction can be
made between carbonate and non-carbonate beaches. Carbonate beaches are developed
in the tropics where there is a greater abundance of organic carbonate remains. Under
certain conditions, beach sediments can be lithified through precipitation of CACO3 to
form beach rock. This rock is a common feature of tropical beaches. Micro-organisms
are involved in the precipitation of CACO3.
The profile of the beach depends on the size, shape and composition of beach material,
the tidal range and the type and characteristics of incoming waves. The upper section of
many beaches consists of a horizontal to slightly landward sloping surface called the
berm (beach ridge (Figure 46)). A berm usually marks the limit of swash at each high
tide, so that it forms at the uppermost limit of a spring tide. On the seaward side of the
berm, separated by berm crest, is the beach face. Its gradient is dependent on the caliber
of material, and ranges from approximately 2° in fine sand to as high as 20° in coarse
pebbles.

Beach face Berm crest Berm

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 Low water mark High water mark

Figure 46. Beach profile

Barrier beach (barrier island, barrier bar, offshore bar: This is an elongated sand or
shingle bank lying parallel to the coastline and is not submerged by the tide. If it is high
enough to permit dune growth it is termed barrier island. The barrier beach is separated
from the mainland coast by a lagoon. They vary in size from small features to
comparatively large features (up to 1 km wide and hundreds of km long, up to 100m
high.) They are features of gently sloping coasts.

Spits: A spit is an elongated embankment of sand or shingle, attached to the land at one
end and extending seaward (Plate 2). Some spits form parallel to the coast and may be
tens of kilometers long, while others grow at an angle, , often projecting across an
estuary. The Langue de Barbarie is an enormous linear sand spit parallel to the coast at
the mouth of the Senegal River.


Plate 2. Pictures showing spits

Tombolo: A tombolo is a spit that grows out from the coast and links an island to the
mainland (Plate 3).

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Plate 3 A tombolo connecting islands to the mainland

Cuspate foreland: This is a large triangular-shaped deposit of sand or shingle projecting

seawards. It is formed only rarely, and then largely as a result of the coalescence of two
spits growing towards each other at an angle.

Tidal flats: Tidal flats are depositional forms composed of muddy sediments formed in
lagoons and tidal estuaries. There are three types of tidal flats; high-tide flat which has a
very gently sloping surface, some of which is partly submerged at high tide. The
intertidal flats is more steeply inclined though still gently sloping zone between the high
tide flat and the lower tidal limit. A subtidal zone is submerged even at low tide.

Deltas: These are protuberances extending out from shorelines formed where a river
enters the ocean, particularly enclosed seas, barrier sheltered lagoons or lakes. They are
confined to regions with mature drainage systems where major river channels reach the
coast and supply sediment to a limited area. Deltas form because when a river enters a
lake or the sea the outflow of river water expands and decelerates and its load is
deposited (Figure 47). Deltas are formed under three situations. Homopycnal flow occurs
where both river and oceanic waters are of equal density. Hyperpycnal flow occurs when
the river water is denser and Hypopycnal flow occurs where river water is less dense.
Deltas consist of two fundamental components: a delta front comprising the shoreline
and the gently sloping submerged offshore zone, and a delta plain which forms an
extensive lowland area lying landward of delta front and is made up of active and
abandoned distributary channels.

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Figure 47. A river delta

Coastal dunes: Coastal dunes develop the same way desert dunes develop. There are two
types of coastal dunes, primary and secondary dunes. Primary dunes are fed directly by
beach sand and they can be categorized into free dunes and impeded dunes. Impeded
dunes form when vegetation or other obstacles trap sand to form a dune mount.
Secondary dunes develop from the erosion of impeded dunes. Free dunes are most
abundant along deserts such as the Namib.

Reefs: Reefs are rocky, shallow water submarine ridges. They are most commonly found
in the tropical areas. The minimum sea temperature of 18°C is required with optimum
development occurring between 25 and 29°C. Light requirements limit the depth at which
corals grow to around 90 m, but the most vigorous depth is confined to 20 m. Normal
ocean water salinity is required along with a moderate amount of water movement and a
firm substrate on which the coral can establish itself. Two common coral reefs can be
identified: fringing reefs which are separated from the mainland or island by a shallow
channel; barrier reefs which are separated by a deep channel. Coral reefs influence
coastal processes along the adjacent mainland; especially through the large amount of
wave energy they are capable of dissipating.

FLUVIAL LANDFORMS

Running water acts either in sheet over relatively large areas, or by means of streams in
gullies and river valleys. The latter process is known as river or stream erosion and is of
importance in humid areas. The other fluvial process includes deposition. The erosive
effect of running water may be viewed in terms of thousands, even millions, of years.

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Landforms formed by erosive action of running water
Waterfalls: These are typical phenomena in the course of a youthful river. Waterfalls
result where weather-resistant horizontal rock layers are undercut to form a vertical drop
(Figure 48). As erosion works differently on hard and soft layers of rock, the type of rock
affects the nature of the waterfall.

Hard layer

Soft layer

Hard layer

Soft layer

Figure 48. Waterfall.

Rapids: Rapids occur when the weathering-resistant rock layer lies across the path of the
flow of water.

Canyons: A canyon is a deep narrow valley in which the sides may be terraced as a result
of alternating layers of hard and soft rock (Figure 49). A young river flowing in an arid
region across a plateau causes vertical erosion at a faster rate than erosion of the valley
sides. In this way a canyon is formed. E.g. Fish River Canyon in south west Africa and
the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River. The Grand Canyon is over 1500 m deep and
only 6 to 8 km wide.

Hard layer
Figure 49. A canyon

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Cliffs: Steep rock faces or precipices in the mountains or side of a deeply incised valley
form on solid rock in humid areas where vertical erosion exceeds lateral erosion.

Mesas and buttes: Mesas and buttes are residual landforms that remain after the rest of
the landscape has eroded away. When hard dolerite layers protect the softer underlying
layers from erosion, structural plain results, with flat –topped hills (mesas) and
spitzkoppen (buttes) (Figure 50). When the width of these hills is smaller than their
height, they are known as buttes. If the width is greater than the height they are known as
mesas.

Resistant rock Butte

Mesa

Figure 50. Structural plain with residual mountains

Water gaps: Water gaps are formed where streams cut through hill ranges. They are
usually connected with superimposed and antecedent drainage (Figure 51).

1
2 1
Antecedent
stream

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Figure 51. A antecedent stream cutting through weak rock strata

Dongas: Dongas develop on the lower sides of mountain slopes. When the ground
surface is saturated with water, layers of water move across one another. The result is that
there is no erosion. On the other hand, if the flow of water is obstructed by rocks or
shrubs, turbulence is set up, ultimately causing dongas.

Earth pillars: Earth pillars are formed where stones and rocks protect the earth directly
beneath them and the rest of the earth is eroded by water.

Escarpments: Escarpements divide lowlands from highlands. In Mpumalanga and

KwaZulu-Natal, the Great Escarpment is a prominent feature (Figure 52).

Coastal area (lowland)

Escarpment Plateau (highland)

Figure 52. An escarpment

Peneplains: All stream flow ends at the mouth of a river. Sea-level is therefore the lowest
level at which a river can erode. Sea-level is thus the base level and all rivers tend to
erode the landscape to this level. Eventually a balance between erosion and deposition
can be achieved. The plains formed by this balance are known as peneplains. The
peneplain is a low undulating plain formed when all resistant features have been leveled
by stream erosion. Depending on climatic conditions these peneplains may be subjected
to further erosion. This is referred to as rejuvenation. After rejuvenation has taken place,
rivers become youthful again. They no longer erode laterally but start to erode vertically.
In this manner incised meanders are formed such as those found in the Bashee River of
the E. Cape.

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River terraces: They occur where a river has carved out its channel but then carves out a
new course to form a new lower course. The old courses remain on either side of the new
course, forming river terraces (Figure 53).

River terraces

Figure 53. River terraces

Fluvial landforms formed from depositional material.

Alluvial fans: These result when a fast flowing river reaches a more level area. The speed
and force of the river are lessened, causing it to deposit rocks and mud in the form of an
alluvial fan (Figure 54).

Piedmont alluvial plain: A river deposits heavier material along mountain slopes while
lighter material is deposited further away from the mountain. Alluvial fans develop more
easily in dry or semi-arid regions. A whole series of these forms may combine to form a
piedmont alluvial plain at the foot of a mountain range.

Alluvial fans

Figure 54. Alluvial fans

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Meanders: A river may start to meander due to depressions in the stream, turbulence in
the water itself or an obstruction in the river course. Deposition takes place on the inside
of a bend where water is calm and erosion takes place on the outside of a bend where
water is turbulent (Figure 55). In this fashion the loop gets larger and as the meander
grows the undercut slope gets narrower and narrower until the two sides of the loop
almost meet. If the river comes down in flood it takes a short cut and cuts across the
narrow neck between the two loops isolating the meander. The ends of the loop silt up,
forming an ox-bow lake. Excellent examples of these lakes are found between Leslie and
Standerton in Mpumalanga.

Deposition
Ox-bow Lake

Erosion

Figure 55. Formation of meanders

Levees and floodplains: When a river starts flooding it carries large amount of silt and
debris. When it overflows its banks it deposits silt on these banks where its velocity
becomes lower. The continual deposition within the stream bed and on the banks causes
them to rise above the level of the surrounding countryside. In this manner levees are
built up. Their heights might range from 1 to 14 m. The area that is subjected to flooding
is called a floodplain. Rivers that have natural levees are the Hwang Ho, Ganges, Tugris,
Euphrates and Po.

Deltas: At the mouth of a river the momentum of its flow carries the river water some
distance into the sea or estuary. The speed decreases as the river enters the sea and
deposition occurs. This deposition blocks the mouth of a river causing the river to break
up into tributaries. This process is repeated many times to form a delta. However, the

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formation of deltas in only possible where the amount of material deposited is greater
than the amount carried away. There are different types of deltas: Arcuate delta, Bird’s
foot delta and Cuspate delta (Figure 56).

Arcuate delta: This is formed when the river develops many tributaries as it enters the
ocean. This makes the river to spread out radially. This delta resembles an alluvial fan.
This type of a delta is sometimes referred to as fan-shaped data and develops from the
continual deposition of coarse material in the middle of the stream. E.g. Nile Delta.

Bird’s foot delta: They are also known as mud or silt deltas. This is formed when the
main stream channels are continually being built by sedimentation, making the alluvial
dykes project into the sea (Mississippi delta)

Cuspate delta: All flow is confined to one single-stream channel which lengthens rapidly
in the direction of the sea. Ocean currents spread the stream load away from the mouth
and build up concave beach-lines in the direction of the original shoreline.

ARCUATE DELTA BIRD’S FOOT DELTA CUSPATE DELTA

(Mediterranean) (Gulf of Mexico) (Mediterranean)

Nile river Mississippi river Tiber river

Figure 56. Deltas

BIOGEOGRAPHY
VEGETATION EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY

 Vegetation development and distribution is a function of factors such as environmental

characteristics (atmospheric & crustal changes).

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  These changes (atmospheric & crustal) are natural and anthropogenic.

The Pangaeic Phase (420mya) to Neogene era (2mya)

 Vegetation of this era was dominated by vascular land plants with very few flowering
plants.
 These plants existed as early as 400mya and were dominant between 390-360mya.
 The earliest vascular plants of the Cape Devonian flora were small herbaceous
psilophytes.
 The herbaceous psilophytes colonized the Cape flora in the late Silurian (420mya)
 The environmental conditions of that time restricted the Cape Flora to 19 species.
 Rare pro-gymnosperms and unassigned forms also occurred. Plant associations were of
lower diversity and generally monospecific
 The only other known tree genus of the ancient Cape flora is the pro-gymnosperms
Archaeopteris.
 The coal-forming Glossopterid forests were dominant around 280mya. They were most
dominant around the margins of the seas.
 The coal-forming forests of South Africa of the Middle Ecca flourished on the deltas, and
swamps along the northern margins of southern African seas.
 Two plant associations were evident during the existence of these coal-forming forests:
(1) medium to diverse glossopterid forest and woodland along river banks (levees) and
other elevated ground, (2) dense monospecific lycopod (primitive evergreen moss-like
plant with spores in club-shaped strobiles) fringing pans and swamps
 The late Triassic plant communities were habitats and source of food for earliest
dinosaurs, and mammals.
 During the late Triassic conifers were abundant, but not diverse.
 Ferns, cycads and ginkgos were relatively rare.
 Mosses, liverworts and lycopods were also rare.
 Six broad vegetation types were recognized:
 Dicroidium high-diversity, mulity-storeyed, riparian forest on the old eroded
landscapes;
 Dicroidium medium-diversity single storeyed riparian forest on the young
floodplain landscape;
 Dicroidium low to medium-diversity woodland on the open floodplain
 Sphenobaiera medium-diversity woodland on lake margins of the floodplain
 Hydiphyllum monospecific thicket of herbaceous conifers in depressions on the
floodplain
 Equisetum monospecific thicket on sandbanks within braided river or in wet land
areas on the floodplains

 The Bennettitalean heyday was the dominant flora between 140 to 120mya (Lower
Cretaceous). These flora were strongly characterized by the extinct cycad-like
Bennettitales.
 Their development coincided with the fragmentation of Gondwana during the Lower
Cretaceous.
 The bennettitale flora (32 species) dominated the coastal plains of KZN and a string of
intermontane basins within the Cape Fold Belts
 The Bennettitales coexisted with ferns, cycads, fynbos and conifers, however the Lower
Cretaceous was dominated by conifers.

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  The spread of flowering plants existed from the mid-Cretaceous to early Tertiary period
(120-60mya).
 Due to fragmentation of continents, climate patterns changed and by mid- and late
Cretaceous angiosperms were well established worldwide.
 Other several types of gymnosperms and primitive angiosperms were found during the
late Cretaceous
 The vegetation of early Tertiary contained mainly trees, lianas, epiphytes, forest floor,
mosses and forest margin elements.
 The vegetation of Neogene (20-2mya) resembled that of modern biomes.
 Due to continuous climate change southern Africa was dominated by angiosperms and
antelopes
 Quaternary vegetation evolved around 1.8mya and is characterized by the following
biomes: desert, succulent karoo, nama-karoo, grassland, savanna & forest.

MODERN BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS

When a species, genera or family is restricted to one or few geographic regions, it is referred to as
being endemic. Widely distributed families, genera, or species are said to be cosmopolitan.
Since many families, genera, or species of plants and animals are endemic, it is necessary to

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divide the earth into geographic regions that have similar species, genera or families within each
region. To determine quantitative estimates of floral or faunal similarities between regions,
biogeographers use mathematical indices called coefficient of similarity. Two of the most
commonly applied coefficients of similarity are the Jaccard and Simpson. The Jaccard coefficient
has the form :

C
N1 + N2 – C
Where C is the number of families, genera, or species found in both regions, N1 is
The number of families, genera, or species found in region 1, and N2 is the number of
families, genera, or species found in region 2.

The Simpson has a simpler form:

C
N1

The results are interpreted as follows: A value of 1 indicates that the flora and fauna of both
regions are identical (they are in harmony). The value of 0 indicates that there is no similarity.
Therefore, the modern biogeographical regions are the (1) Nearctic and Palearctic (The
Holarctic), (2) Neotropical, (3) Ethiopian (African), (4) Oriental and the (5) Australian
(Figure 20).

Figure 20 Modern biogeographic regions

Nearctic and Palearctic (The Holarctic)

The two areas have been treated as one super region or realm called the Holarctic. The Nearctic
region includes all of North America, Greenland, and most of Mexico. The Palearctic region
includes Europe, northern Africa, and northern Asia. The mammal fauna of these two regions is
smaller than that of tropical regions. The Nearctic supports 13 families of terrestrial mammals,

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while the Palearctic supports 18 families. Twenty-one species of native mammals are found in
both regions (realms). The Nearctic fauna is dominated by placentals. The one living marsupial
genus is the opossum. There are some 111 different genera of placental mammals in the Nearctic.
The well-known species include North American Buffalo (Bison bison), muskox (Ovibos
moschatus), pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra Americana), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis),
North American elk (Cervus candensis), the praire dog (Cynomys spp), grizzly bear (Ursus
horribilis), and coyote (Canis latrans). During the Pleistocene, the number of large mammal
species in the Nearctic was much larger than it is today.
Many genera of mammals that are found in the Palearctic also occur in the Nearctic. Examples
include buffalo (Bison bonansus- called bison in Eurasia), moose (Alces alces – called elk in
Eurasia), bear (Ursus species) and lynx (Lynx spp). The Palearctic contains genera that do not
occur in the modern native fauna of the Nearctic. Examples are monkeys, pandas (Ailuropoda),
tigers (Panthera), horse (Equus) and camels (Camelus).

The angiosperms of the Nearctic shares many of its families and genera with the Palearctic.
However, the Nearctic has 94 different native angiosperm families compared to 69 in the
Palearctic. The deciduous forests of the two regions are dominated by the species of maple, oak,
ash, elm, hazel, birch, basswood, poplar, and beech. However, the desert flora of the two
regions is different in composition. Cacti for example, are found only in the Nearctic region. The
Nearctic region has endemic tree like tulip tree (Lirodendron tulipifera), coastal redwood
(Sequoia sempervirons), and Douglas fur (Pseudotsuga manziesii). The endemic trees of the
Palearctic region include the olive (olea europaea), pistachio (Pistacia vera) and old world cedars
(Cedrus spp).

As the North Atlantic ocean grew, the barrier between N. America and Eurpe increased over time.
As the same time, the European and Asian plates fused, allowing dispersal of land plants and
animals across Eurasia. Sea level changes due to glaciation during the Late Tertairy and
Quartenary produced intermittent land connections between northwestern North America and
northeastern Asia in the area of Beringia. This allowed the important exchanges between Late
Tertiary Palearctic and Nearctic mammals. E.g Horses. The ancestor of the grazing horses was
the genus Hipparion. It first evolved in North America about 13 million years ago. A general
decline in sea level about 11.5 million years ago (mya) allowed the Hipparion horses to migrate
across the Bering landbridge and enter Eurasia. The drop in sea level during that time led to the
extinction of deciduous trees such as beech and other terrestrial organisms in Antarctica. The
spread of horses and other herbivores between Asia and North America, was aided by the first
development of grasslands in the Tertiary.

The current distributions of many of the mammal genera found in the Nearctic and Palearctic
occurred during the Late Tertiary period when dispersal occurred across Beringia. Bears
originated in Eurasia in the Late Tertaiary and spread to North America in a number of different
dispersal events. Dogs and cats evolved in Eurasia and dispersed to North America. Buffalos,
moose, pronghorn antelope and caribou originated in Eurasia and arrived in North America
through the Beringian route during the Late Tertiary and Early Quaternary. Camels evolved in
North America about 50million years ago and dispersed to Eurasia via Beringia during
Quaternary period. Polar bears evolved in the Palearctic about 1 million years ago and dispersed
across the northernmost portions of of the two regions.

Neotropical Region

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It includes South and Central America and the adjacent islands. It consists of 23 mammal
families. Well known mammals of the area include llamas (Lama), guinea pigs (Cavia), and
chinchillas (Chinchilla). It shares many families and genera with the Nearctic, including rabbits,
shrews, squirrels, cats, foxes, raccoons, mountain lions (pumas) and deer. Some other mammals
include ilamas, which belong to the Camelidae and are related to the Palearctic camels. The
Neotropical region supports two families of native monkeys that are more primitive but distantly
related to those found in the Palearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. The region also contains
the highest diversity of marsupial mammals next to Australia. The marsupials contribute three
families and 84 different species to the mammal fauna of the Neotropical region

The region contains 137 different families of flowering plants. Over 50 of angiosperms are
endemic. A number of angiosperms are shared with the adjacent Nearctic region. For example,
cacti have continuous distributions across the isthmus of Panama. Desrt species such as creosote
bush (Larrea tridentate), are found both in the North American desert and in the desert regions at
the southern tip of South America. A large number of Neotropical plant families and genera are
also found in the Australasian or Ethiopian regions. This includes coniferous tree genera such as
Podocarpus and Araucaria and many species of the family Proteaceae. The genera Podocarpus
are found in Australian, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions.

The presence of fauna and flora typical of the Nearctic region is explained by the development of
a landbridge between the two regions which occurred with the formation of the Isthmus of
Panama about 3 million years ago. The primate ancestors of the Neotropical monkeys and rodents
arrived through biogeographic stepping stones during the Middle Tertiary. The establishment of a
landbridge around 3 million years ago allowed the northward migration of the marsupial opossum
and the southward migration of placental deer and cats.

Ethiopian (African) Region

It consists of sub-Saharan Africa and adjacent portions of the Arabian Peninsula. The island of
Madagasgar has a different geologic history than Africa and is generally excluded from the
Ethiopian region. The Ethiopian region possesses the most diverse mammal fauna of all
biogeographic regions (30 families) and has an extremely diverse angiosperm flora (117
families). The well-known endemic mammal genera in the Ethiopian region include zebras
(Equus burchelli), giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis), gazelles (gazelle subgutturose), wildebeest
(Connochaetes taurinus), African elephants (Loxodonda africana), baboons (Papio spp), chimps
(Pan trolodytes), and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). The Ethiopian region shares few land mammal
families with the Neotropical and none with the Australian region. However, it shares a number
of mammal families with the adjacent Palearctic and Oriental regions. It also shares a number of
angiosperm plant families with the Neotropical and Australian regions.

The first mammal fossils found in Africa date from about the Eocene (55 to 40 mya). The early
separation of Africa from Australia, South America and Antarctica prevented the dispersal of the
southern marsupial fauna to the Ethiopian region. By the early Miocene (20 mya), the African
continent had moved northward far enough to collide with Eurasia in the vicinity of Arabia and
Turkey. This produced a landbridge between the Ethiopian and Palearctic regions. This
landbridge facilitated the southward migration of animals such as the ancestors of the primates,
camels, and zebras, which originated in the Nearctic region, and the carnivores such as the
ancestors of lions and jackals, which originated in the Palearctic region. The connection between
Africa and Eurasia also allowed the northward migration of elephants and their relatives, the

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mammoths, the Palearctic and Oriental regions. The order Proboscidea, to which the elephants
belong, likely evolved in Africa in the late Eocene (40 mya). The mammoths migrated from
Africa to the Palearctic and Nearctic regions about 2 mya. At the same time, the genus Equus
which includes modern horses and zebras, migrated westward from the Nearctic and colonized
the Palearctic and Ethiopian regions.
The association between the Ethiopian angiospermflora and that of the Neotropical and
Australian regions reflects the fact that during the radiation of the angiosperms in the Late
Cretaceous,Africa was still close enough to these southern continets to exchange flora. This
explains the existence of many common plant genera in the Ethiopian, Australian and Neotropical
regions today.

Oriental region

It includes the Indian subcontinent and adjacent portions of southern Asia. Although it is small, it
has a very high diversity of both mammals (20 families) and angiosperms (108 families). Well
known endemics include the gibbon family (Hylobatidae), Orangutans (Pongo pygmaneus), and
the flying lemur family (Cynocephalidae). The well-known species from the Oriental have
relatives in the Ethiopian region. This includes the Indian elephant (Elephas maximus), and the
Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), which have relatives in Africa. The Bengal tiger if
India (Panthera tigris tigris) has a close relative in the Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica),
which is found in the south-eastern portion of the Palearctic. The tropical angiosperms of the
Oriental region have many relatives in the Ethiopian and Australian region, while montane
vegetation contains Palearctic_Nearctic elements, including pines. A well-known endemic tree of
the Oriental region is teak (tectona grandis).
The mammalian fauna of the Oriental region has close ties to the Ethiopian and Palearctic regions
and none with the adjacent Australian, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions. By Late Cretaceous
(90 mya) the Indian landmasses had separated from the rest of the southern continents and had
begun a northward movement. By this time, the Indian flora contained many elements of the
Australian and African angiosperm floras. When India eventually collided with the Asian
continent, these plants were able to expand to other portions of the Oriental region. This is
evident in the similarity of floras between the Oriental, Neotropical and Australasian floras. By
the Middle Miocene, Australia and New Guinea had moved northward and were in close
proximity to the Malaysian Archipelago. However, Australia was never directly connected to the
Oriental region via a landbridge. This has prevented a natural exchange of mammal fauna.
However, species of the palnt family Proteaceae dispersed and colonized southeastern Asia from
Autralasia. Angiosperm families that evolved in Asia dispersed southward to Australasia. At this
time, bats and birds also dispersed across the stepping stone route from the Oriental region to
Australasia. However, many of the Oriental mammals and angiosperms evolved in the Southeast
Asia. The primate ancestors of the Asian monkeys, gibbons and orangutans migrated from the
Palearctic during the Tertiary.

Australian region

It includes Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea and in some regional subdivisions New Zealand.
Despite its relatively small size, it is the most distinct o all the biogeographic regions. Its native
mammal fauna is dominated by marsupials. It is possible that the only native placental mammals
not introduced by humans are bats. Other placental mammals such as the dingo dog and rats were
likely brought to Australia by humans. Unique and well-known edmic mammals include
kangaroos (Macropus), wallabies (Wallabia) and koala bears (Phascolartos cinereus). The region
also contains the only surviving egg-laying monotremes, including the duckbill platypus
(Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and the echidnas (Tachyglossus and Zaglossus). Although Australia
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and Tasmania have a rich marsupial fauna, the islands of New Zealand, because of their early
separation from Gondwanaland, had no non-flying mammals until the arrival of humans. The
mammal diversity of Australian region is relatively small and contains only 10 families.
The angiosperm diversity is slightly lower than that of any other continental region (90 families)
and shows affinities with the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical regions. However, only 18 of
the angiosperm families are endemic to Australasia. Two main endemic genera are Eucalyptus
and Melaleuca. The Eucalyptus is the quintessential Australian tree. It occurs in Australia, New
Guinea, Tasmania and smaller adjacent islands. Eucalyptus accounts for about 95% of the tree
biomass in Australia. It does not occur in New Zealand. There are many different species that
grow from alpine tundra to dry savanna to tropical forests.
Family plants to which Eucalyptus belongs, (Myrtaceae) evolved in the Oriental region during the
Late Cretaceous and migrated to Australia following the subdering of Australia’s connection to
Antarctic and New Zealand during the Tertiary. Many modern species of Australian eucalyptus
are the result of adaptive radiation by this Asian angiosperm family. The ancestors of wide-spread
bird group, the Corvini, which include crows, ravens, and magpies, first evolved in Australasia
and then spread throughout the world after migrating across the Malaysian Archipelago in the
Miocene. These birds, which originated in Australasia, can now be found as far away as the
Arctic treeline of the Nearctic.

COMMON BIOGEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTIONAL

PATTERNS

The distributions of organisms provide important evidence regarding the ecology and
evolutionary history of organisms.

Endemic and cosmopolitan distributions

Plants and animals that possess very large geographic ranges distributed over most continents are
cosmopolitan. Taxa with restricted geographic ranges are classified as endemics. Endemics are
species that are found in one biogeographic region. Characteristic species are those found in two
regions. Species that occur in three or four regions are classified as semicosmopolitan. Species
that are found in five or more regions are cosmopolitans.
Species that have a large range (>4, 400, 000 km2 range) within a biogeographic region in which
they are found are classified as macro-areal. Those with small ranges are classified as micro-
areal (<1000 km2 range). Meso-areal species have intermediate range sizes. Macro-areal
cosmopolitan species are sometimes called pandemics. Species that have just recently evolved
and speciated often have small population sizes and geographic ranges. These species are called
neoendemics. Endemics that had large geographic ranges in the past are called paleoendemics.

Continuous zonal biogeographic distributions

Many semicosmopolitan and cosmopolitan plant and animal taxa have geographic distributions
that form broad latitudinal bands that follow large latitudinal temperature belts, and are restricted
to these bands. There are various such zonal distribution patterns. Circumpolar taxa have
distributions that circle the Arctic or Antarctic regions and lie within the colder climates of the
high latitudes. E.g. arrow grass genus (Scheurchzeria). The species belonging to this grass genus
are found growing at high northern latitudes from northern Europe to northeastern Siberia and

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from Alaska to the Atlantic Coast of Canada. The terms Boreal (N. hemisphere) and Austral
(S.Hemisphere) are used to describe plants that are distributed in the cooler areas of the mid- to
high latitudes. The spruce genus (Picea) is an example of a boreal taxon. Spruce species are
found on the northern forests of Alaska, Canada and northern Eurasia. Temperate plants and
animals are found in the intermediate zone typical of the middle latitudes. E.g. Maples (Acer).
Pantropical organisms are found in the tropical zone. E.g. palm family (Aracaceae).

Amphiregional disjunct distribution

Disjunct distribution refers to geographic ranges that are divided into two or more geographically
separate parts. Amphiregional distributions occur when macro- and meso-areal taxa have two
widely separated geographic ranges. These species are usually separated by biogeographic
barriers (e.g. mountain range). Amphitropical taxa occur on either side of the tropics but not in
the tropical zones. E.g. the Chenopodiaceae family of plants (sugarbeets and spinach).
Amphioceanic taxa occur on opposite sides of oceans. Amphiatlantic and amphipacific taxa occur
along the western and eastern coastal areas of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, respectively. E.g
butterfly species (Leptura oblitera) is found in the eastern Asia and western North Ameraica and
is a northern amphipacific species. In the South Pacific, the southern beech (Nothofagus), which
is found in eastern Australia, New Zealand and western South America, is an example of a
southern amphipacific species. Sardines are coastal dwelling marine fish and have an
amphiatlantic distribution. Terrestrial and marine species that are found in polar regions, but not
in the warmer mid- and low latitudes are called bipolar organisms. Many members of the whale
family and freshwater fish display bipolar distributions. This is because they are intolerant to
warmer temperatures.

Dispersal junctions

Dispersal junctions take place when a jump dispersal event allows a population of a plant or
animal species to become established a long distance from the main population. These types of
disjunctions are common for flying animals and plants that posses seeds prone to long-distance
dispersal. The least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis), which is found throughout eastern North America
and as disjunct populations in California and Oregon, is probably a dispersal junction. Naturally
established populations of hydrochores such as coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) found on isolated
tropical islands are examples of dispersal junctions.

Climatic disjunctions

Climatic disjunctions occurs when climatic change makes a portion of a taxon’s range
uninhabitable and splits a once continuous geographic distribution into two or more separate
parts. E.g. Magnolia family of trees and shrubs (Magnoliceae). This species were distributed over
much of the northern hemisphere during the Cretaceous. However, the general cooling and drying
of the world’s climate that occurred during the Tertiary and Quaternary eliminated magnolia from
most of its range. The family however, survives today in the Americas and in eastern Asia. The
disjunct distribution of the longhorn beetles reflects the cooling and drying of global climate
during the late Tertiary and Quaternary that caused the fragmentation of the once continuous
temperate forest that stretched across Eurasia and North America.
Climatic changes during the Quaternary caused a number of climatic disjunctions within
continents. E.g. Moles (Talpidae) were found throughout N. America during Tertiaty. Today they
occur only along the west coast and in the eastern deciduous and mixed-wood forest region. Cold
conditions prevent moles from inhabiting the northern portion of North America and the Rocky
Mountains. Dry conditions restrict moles from living in the western grasslands and deserts.
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Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) have a particularly interesting climatically disjunct distribution in
Africa. One population of the species is found in lowland tropical rainforest along the west coast
of Africa, and another disjunct population is found in upland tropical rainforest in the highlands
of central Africa. The two populations are separated by the savanna vegetation, which is
inappropriate for the forest-dwelling gorillas.

Geological disjunctions

Geological disjunctions occur when geologic processes such as plate tectonic movement split
once continuous ranges into two or more separate parts. The distribution of the southern beech
(Nothofagus) in Australia, New Zealand and South America is an example of geologic
disjunction. Fossil evidence shows that the genus was widespread on the supercontinent of
Gondwanaland. However, the breakup of Gondwanaland in the Cretaceous and Tertiary led to the
present disjunct distribution of the genus. The large flightless birds of the super order Ratites,
including the Ostriches (Struthionithidae) of Africa, and the emus (Dromaiidae) of Australia
evolved from a common ancestral lineage that became disjunct during the breakup of
Gondwanaland.

Evolutionary disjunctions

Evolutionary disjunctions occur when two new species develop in different portions of the
geographic range of a widespread common ancestor. The extinction of the common ancestral
species leaves the two new species disjunct from each other. Many amphitropical species of
plants may may have arisen in this manner. Species such as Acacia and mesquite (Prosopsis) are
found in both the deserts of southwestern North America and the deserts of Chile and Peru. The
mesquite species Prosopsis juliflora found in the southwestern United States and the closely
similar Prosopsis chilensis found in Chile are likely evolutionary disjunct species.

Biogeographic relicts

These are taxa that once had larger distributions but have become narrow endemics. Two types of
biogeographic relics are climatic and evolutionary relics. Climatic relics are species whose
geographic ranges have been constricted due to recent climatic changes. Many such climatic
relicts were created by the warming of the climate at the end of the Pleistocene. These climatic
relicts are often referred to as glacial relicts. E.g Muskox (Ovibos moschatus), is found today
only in in the arctic regions of North America. However, fossil evidence shows that muskox
ranges across large portions of central N. America and northern Eurasia during Pleistocene glacial
periods.
Many plants have glacial relict distributions. E.g. The Norwegian mugwort (Artemisia norvegica)
ranged across Europe during the last glacial maximum but today it is restricted to small
populations in the Scottish Highlands, the coastal mountains of Norway, and the Ural mountains
of Russia.

Evolutionary relics are paleoendemics that are survivors of formerly more widespread and
diverse evolutionary lineages. The tuatara (Spenodon punctatus) is a lizars-like reptile that is
found only in New Zealand. It is the last surviving species of the ancient reptilian order called the
Rhynsoles. Prior to the Cretaceous, this order had many species and was geographically
widespread. The early separation of New Zealand from Gondwanaland protected the tuatara
lineage from contact and competition with later evolving reptiles and mammals. The lack of
reptile and mammal predators on New Zealand was also an important factor in the survival of the
tuatara there.
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Other evolutionary relics among plant species include the Cycads. They were an extremely
diverse and geographically widespread group of plants prior to the Cretaceous. Fossil cycads are
found from the equatorial regions to Siberia and from Greenland to Australia. Today they survive
as about 100 species that are restricted to tropical and subtropical regions.

PHYGEOGRAPHY OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Southern African rich flora makes it one of the regions with more species that are endemic to the
subcontinent.
The spp form more than 70 major vegetation units found within six quaternary vegetation types
(biomes) of the subcontinent.
There are therefore six phytogeographical divisions of the subcontinent namely; (1) Zambezian,
(2) Kalahari-Highveld, (3) Karoo-Namib, (4) Tongoland-Pondoland, (5) Afromontane and (6)
Cape regions (Figure 21).

Karoo-Namib Region (A)

 Covers approximately 0.7m km2 of southern Africa running from southern Angola to the
Eastern Cape. It includes arid west coastal plain and the arid to semi-arid regions of the
interior plateau and the Great Escarpment.
 Divided into three major biomes namely Desert, succulent karoo and Nama-Karoo
biomes.
 Altitude ranges from sea-level to 2695m, while rainfall ranges from 50mm/yr (Namib
desert) to 300mm/yr (wetter areas of the Great Escarpment)
 Rainfall along Namibia and Cape region falls in winter, along the north & east rain falls
in summer or autumn and the remainder of the region receives rainfall at anytime of the
year.
 Coastal belt is frost-free, but interior is characterized by frost lasting from 5-6 months.
 Vegetation in the eastern sector is dominated by dwarf shrubs and ephemeral grasses, and
to the southwest vegetation is characterized by dwarf succulent shrubland with a number
of succulent spp.
 Flora of the regin exceed 7000 spp, of which 50% are endemic

Tongoland-Pondoland Region (B)

 Covers approximately 150 000 km2 of southern Africa along the eastern seaboard of the
subcontinent. It runs from the mouth of Limpopo River to PE.
 It includes the broad , sandy plains of the Tongoland in the north and a narrow belt of
mountains in the south.
 Characterized by warm climate (Mozambique current) and moderately high rainfall
(9800-1200mm/yr) along the coast and lower rainfall (400-60mm/yr) in the inland drier
areas.
 Vegetation is a mosaic of subtropical forest, thicket, savanna & grassland.
 Has 3000 spp and many endemics (40% of 200 larger woody spp).

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 
Figure 21. Phytogeography of southern Africa

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Cape Region (C)_
 Covers approximately 90 000 km2 of southern Africa in the extreme southwest.
 Vegetation runs along the parallel ranges of quartzite Cape fold Belt with altitude ranging
from 1000-1500m.
 Soils (largely sandy) are nutrient-poor.
 Climate: Mediterranean along western sector (winter rainfall of 250 to 3000mm per/yr).
Summer rainfall is experienced in summer.
 The prevalent vegetation is Fynbos sclerophyllous shrubland (evergreen).
 The flora of the Cape Region is extremely rich containing almost 8600 spp of which 68%
are endemic.

Kalahari-Highveld Region (D)

 Covers approximately 1.2m km2 of southern Africa, running from southern Angola to
the Eastern Cape.
 Most of the area occupies low relief b/n 8500-1000m on the interior plateau of the
subcontinent.
 It receives much of its rainfall in summer (b/n 250 & 500mm/yr) and winter frost is
common and severe.
 Vegetation is predominantly grassland with very few tree flora (mixture of dwarf shrubs
& grass)
 The flora is relatively poor and has few endemics.

Zambezian Region (E)

 Covers approximately 3.8m km2 of southern Africa mainly on the Great African Plateau,
running from DRC and Tanzania southwards to the northern parts of Namibia,
northeastern Botswana and the extreme northern parts of South Africa.
 Characterized by climate with summer rainfall and mild winters. The southern parts are
largely frost-prone.
 Vegetation is largely wooded grassland (Savanna)
 Only two spp are endemic to the region (Poaceae & Fabaceae)

Afromontane Region (F)

 Characterized by a series of isolated areas running from north-eastern Africa, along the
East African uplands to southeastern Africa (Lesotho & KZN Drakensberg) and the
Cape Penisnsula.
 Characterized by temperate and mostly high rainfall (1000mm/yr) conditions. Freezing
is commonly experienced in the alpine zone.
 In the tropics the Afromontane communities are found above 2000m.
 Vegetation is predominantly grassland with a mixture of temperate C3 and tropical C4
species, as well as forests.
 Local endemism is lower among trees but higher for grasses.
 It is a mixture of the forest and grassland biomes.

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BIOMES OF SOUTH AFRICA
Fynbos biome
Fybos is shrubland co-dominated by evergreen, sclerophyllous (hard-leafed) phanerophytes,
chamaephytes, and hemicryptophytes. Vegetation cover depends mainly on rainfall quantities
(Figure 21).

Figure 21. Biomes of South Africa

The maximum height of fynbos is 3 meters. It is restricted to south Western Cape. It covers about
2.7 per cent of southern Africa. It is best developed in regions with average annual rainfall
between 210-3000mm. This biome is also found in area that experience winter to all year rainfall.
The present number of species in the core biome area is approximately 73 156.
Fynbos biome includes three major forms:
 Fynbos: Evergreen and largely small-leafed shrubland with evergreen reed stratum. It is
generally restricted to the nutrient-poor soils of the Cape Folded Belt and the sandy coastal
forelands.
 Renoster shrubland: Small-leafed, evergreen shrubland with a grassy understorey. Confined
to the base-rich, shale and granite-derived soils of the coastal forelands and intermontane
valleys.
 Sub-tropical thicket: Large-leafed, evergreen shrubland. Restricted to calcareous coastal
dunes and fire-protected valleys and mountain sites.
The fynbos has the richest flora of the southern African biomes. Floristic compositions show
changes over very short distances. This means that many species are rare. Therefore, the fynbos
biome has the highest number of rare and endangered taxa for any biome in southern Africa.

Fire and fynbos communities

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  The use of fire in this biome has resulted in a complex of responses to variation in the
fire regime (frequency, type, intensity).
 Fynbos composition can be drastically altered by fire, because of their sensitivity.
 This is because proteroid shrubs that dominate many communities are killed by fire
and recruit only from seeds stored in canopy seed banks.
 Non sprouting proteas are usually eliminated from an area by burning at short fire
frequencies before plants have accumulated enough seed reserves.
 Proteas densities are also reduced by fire at long intervals (40+ yrs).
 Species with soil-stored seeds are also easily destroyed by prolonged fires.
 Increased spp densities of proteas lead to decline in cone production.
 This normally leads to density-induced population shrinkage after the next fire.
 Frequent use of fire makes ant-dispersed proteroid shrub to be suppressed by
serotinous species.
 This is because plants that grow next to serotinous species develop slow growth rates,
reduced reproduction and increased post-fire mortality relative to plants without near
neighbours.
 Proteroid overstorey normally suppresses understorey species.
 Dense proteroid stands act as nucleation sites for bird-dispersed species, thus
initiating succession towards non-flammable bush clumps or forests.
 After fire, most non-sprouting species appear to flower and set seed earlier than the
proteas.
 Long intervals without fire may cause loss of species with short-lived seed banks that
do not survive long after the parents have stopped producing seeds, either through
death or cessation f flowering as they become shaded.
 Other non-proteroid species tend to show higher densities and diversity of seedlings
after autumn and spring burns.
 Other geophytes species tend to have poor flowering after spring burns compared to
abundant flowering after autumn burns.
 Small-seeded spp normally recruit well after low-intensity burns, and large seeded
species are able to emerge from deeper levels and survive more intense fires.
 This means that low-intensity burns will tend to favour small-seeded spp while high-
intensity burns will selectively favour large seeded species.

Savanna biome
These are plant communities in the tropics and subtropics characterized by various combinations
of trees and grasses (Figure 20). They are typified by a continuos ground layer, consisting of
grasses and discontinuous woody tree or shrub. It covers about 54 per cent of southern Africa.
This is why it is thought to be making an important contribution to informal and subsistence
economies. It is most dominant in areas with average annual rainfall between 235-900mm. It is
found in regions with summer rainfall. The number of species found in a core biome area is
approximately 5 788. Soils of the savanna biome are generally weakly developed and shallow,
but there is great variation in depth that is controlled by locality. The savanna biome can be
classified into arid (nutrient-rich or eutrophic) and moist (nutrient-poor or dystrophic). Moist
savanna soils are developed under higher rainfall conditions, which means that they are mesic in
character. They are usually associated with laterite (a hardpan enriched by sesquioxides of iron
and aluminium). The arid savanna soils that are developed under lower rainfall conditions are
xeric in character. They are associated with lime-enriched hardpan (calcareous). The savanna
biome of southern Africa is very species-rich because about 43 per cent of the species are

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endemic to the subcontinent. It is also important because it is home for most mammal species.
Fire is an effective tool in controlling biodiversity. Fire influences the savanna in the following
ways:
 Tree seedlings are killed by fire, but many spp acquire resistance to burning within a year
or two of germination.
 With the exception of very young seedlings, very few woody plants are killed by fire
 Burning of the canopy causes top-kill and coppicing of the plant from the base or from
the surviving buds in the canopy
 The amount of top-kill and subsequent basal sprouting increases with flame height and
fire intensity.
 The architecture of large trees (>2-3m) is unaffected by burning.
 However, some species lose the capacity to sprout in larger size classes.
 These can be killed by fire, especially if the bark has been weakened by previous firs or
damaged by animal activity such as from termites or porcupine foraging.
 Fire can modify the savanna into a wooded grassland, closed woodland or forest,
depending on the fire frequency and season.
 The occurrence of fire soon after trees have flushed their first leaves in spring favours
grass at the expense of trees, whereas fire during or towards the end of the rainy season
favour trees at the expense of grasses.
 This normally leads to the thickening up of trees and suppression of grass layer
 In some cases, fire may help to maintain open physiognomy by (1) inhibiting seedling
establishment by killing seedlings before they have acquired the capacity to sprout, and
(2) by occasionally killing larger trees that have lost the insulating properties of their
barks.
 Top-kill normally causes reversion in height and making plants to be more prone to small
and medium-size browsers, stems are kept at lower heights where they can be shaded by
grass, and keep trees at heights that they can be vulnerable to the next fires.
 The frequency of fire tends to b highest in mesic savannas.
 In areas where trees reach the canopy at substantial heights, grasses are suppressed and
fire intensity becomes lower.

Grassland biome
This biome covers about 13.3 per cent of southern Africa. It is best developed in regions
experiencing summer rainfall, but with average annual rainfall between 400-2000mm (Figure
20). The other significant factor in the development of the grassland biome is the occurrence of
frost for a period of almost 180 days in a year. The number of species in a core biome area is
approximately 3 788. It is centered on the high interior plateau of southern Africa. The vegetation
formation is sometimes referred to as temperate grassland. A distinction can be made between
sour and sweet grassveld. The sour grassveld includes a reduction in acceptability and forage in
winter. The sourveld grasslands are developed on oligotrophic soils in the higher rainfall regions.
The sweet grassveld remains relatively the same in acceptability and forage from summer to
winter. The sweetveld grasses have low fibre content and are more palatable to livestock because
they are developed in eutrophic soils. The grassland biome of sweetveld and sourveld correspond
with arid and moist savanna in the savanna biome. Fire influences grassland dynamics in the
following ways:
 Unlike fynbos, fire does not initiate a distinct successional sequence, because the plants
recover so rapidly by resprouting.
 Changes in fire frequency cause marked shifts in grass composition

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  Changes in fire season cause marked changes in grass composition
 Vertebrate herbivory acting in conjunction with fire can cause marked changes in species
composition of the sward
 Changes in biomass are often less than changes in species composition
 The effects of fire on grass dynamics varies along a moisture gradient with greatest
effects in high-rainfall regions.
 Some species like Themeda triandra and Heteropogon contortus tend to show a decline
in numbers in the absence of fire.
 Without fire these species tend to generate chaotic or complex dynamics.
 Species that occur alongside fynbos in extensive stands that burn at intervals of decades
show no sings of decline in abundance.

Nama-Karoo biome
The Nama-Karoo covers about 22.4 per cent of the subcontinent. It is found in regions with
summer rainfall and average annual rainfall between 100-520mm (Figure 20). It occupies the
drier regions of the interior of the subcontinent. The biome is located north-east of the Cape Fold
Mountains on the central plateau. It is located on a distinctive geological and geomorphological
region characterized by undulating plains between 1000 and 1400 m. The vegetation of the biome
can be described as grassy, dwarf shrubland. Soils are generally weakly developed and rich in
soluble salts such as calcium. Calcium is strongly related to a strong degree of aridity and creates
demanding conditions for plants. Actually, there are two parts to the biome. One is in the east
with relatively high grass cover, and the second is in the west which is typically dwarf shrubland
developed under more xeric conditions. If rainfall is about 500mm with moderate grazing the rate
of regeneration is about 3 tons per hectare per year. The shrubs are generally perennial and are
able to cope with dry season by losing their leaves. The dwarf shrubs are widely spaced and
generally ephemeral in character.

Succulent Karoo
It covers about 4.3 per cent of the southern Africa. It is best developed in regions with winter to
all year rainfall and average annual rainfall from 20 to 290mm (Figure 20). The number of
species in a given core biome area is approximately 2 125. It is characterized by dwarf and low,
open perennial succulent shrubland. It is distributed on the coastal plains and intermontane
valleys lying to west of the country and rainfall in these areas is extremely low. Soils of this
biome are shallow and rich in soluble salts which contribute to ecological restrictions. The plant
life of the biome shows strong adaptations to the aridity and seasonality of rainfall. These
adaptations range from morphological to phenological and physiological. Common morphologies
include both evergreen and deciduous leaf succulence. Phenological adaptations are those related
to the timing of growth and flowering. Growth periods are designed to maximize access to the
seasonal availability of moisture and the occurrence of temperature that is suitable for growth.
Physiological adaptation can be seen when looking at a group of succulents known as the CAM
plants. These plants have developed drought tolerance mechanism of highly specialized
photosynthetic pathway system known as crassulacean acid metabolism. These CAM plants are
able to keep their stomata closed during the day and gain the competitive advantage of
simultaneously photosynthesizing and reducing moisture loss through transpiration.

Forest biome
It occupies only less than 1 per cent of the subcontinent. It is found in regions with winter to
summer rainfall with the average annual rainfall from 525 to 2000 mm (Figure 20). It is

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characterized by closed, evergreen and semi-deciduous forest of the coastal lowlands and
escarpment. Forest communities are moderately rich in species and richness increases with
decreasing latitude. South African forest occurs under a variety of climatic regions, depending on
location. For example, the afromontane forests (forest that are associated with mountains in
tropical and equatorial Africa) around Knysna are floristically similar to formations occurring
throughout the montane region of the African continent. The afromontane element is dominated
by yellowoods and other evergreen species. These forests survive under temperate climates and
all-year rainfall regime. The coastal forests of Kwazulu-Natal are associated with subtropical
conditions in a summer rainfall climate. However, all forests in South Africa are associated with
free moisture availability. Soils and geomorphology vary according to local conditions. For
example, parent materials may be dunes in the case of the sand forests of Kwazulu-Natal, or
Table Mountain Group sandstones in the Knysna region.

FACTORS AFFECTING SPP DIVERSITY AT REGIONAL SCALE

Area
 In theory spp numbers will increase when the size of an area increases.
 If spp in a given area are randomly distributes, then in creasing number of species will
correspond with an increasing area size.
 This is because the larger the area, the higher the chances of multiple habitats support
distinct biota.
 The quantity of resources in an area is a direct function of its size: E.g. Larger area will in
theory have more resources and support large population sizes

Heterogeneity (the quality of being diverse and not comparable in kind)

 Larger population sample will in theory support greater variety of habitats and species.
 This is usually a function of biological properties and geographical characteristics.
 This normally leads to the development of spp that are endemic to the area characterized
by biological and geographical diversity.

Favourableness
 Favourableness is a function of mean climatic variables
 However, favourable is also a function of species preferences within the regional pool.
 This is easily indicated by the ability of invasive alien plant species to survive in a new
area.
 Unfavorable conditions will in theory promote high species extinction and low
colonization rates of even native, well-adapted species.
Energy
 Species diversity will tend to increase with environmentally available energy
 Energy sources involve variables such as precipitation, solar radiation,
evapotranspiration, potential evaporation and primary production.
 An increase in solar radiation will increase biological productivity and photosysnthesis.
 Biological productivity is also a function of precipitation.

Seasonality and irregularity

 Seasons control the amount of solar radiation available for biological productivity.
 The effectiveness of seasonality is also a function of latitudinal and altitudinal location

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  Prolonged unfavorable seasons characterized by low precipitation and higher evaporation
rates are associated with lower species diversity due to reduced biological productivity.
 Favourable seasons promote growth and reproduction, hence higher species diversity.

Dispersal
 Dispersal has a positive effect on regional richness.
 Therefore, dispersability of organism is a function of reserve or area size, organism
characteristics and climatic conditions of the area.
 Regions located at the junction of major dispersal routes for different biotas (river
systems, mountain ranges etc) are likely to be species rich.
 This is common among species that are habitat generalists and well dispersed.

Speciation history (evolve so as to lead to a new species or develop in a way most suited to the
environment)
 Speciation usually increases regional richness and reduces extinction
 In areas where ecological factors that promote diversification of resident lineages have
persisted for a long time, species will accumulate without limit.
 Speciation is also a function of local environmental conditions in space and time.

Effect of local processes

 In theory, local richness of certain population assemblages is influenced by the size of the
regional species pool, especially when the organism involved is well-dispersed generalist.
 Ecological and evolutionary circumstances that promote high local richness of habitat
specialist will enhance the richness of heterogeneous regions.
 Therefore, habitat specialization produces a ceiling on local richness, so that it is lower
than expected from the size of the regional pool.

Convergence of regional richness

 Matched regions with biota that are phylogenetically distinct, nut poses similar array of
ecological traits, should normally support similar numbers of species.
 Convergence at regional scale results from similar local controls on alpha diversity and
similar rates of diversification of habitat specialist and ecological equivalents

INVASIVE ALIEN PLANTS (CONSEQUENCES & CONTROL)

 Invasive alien organisms can be regarded as agents of land transformation, disrupters of

ecosystem functioning and a threat to biodiversity.
 Threat to biodiversity has increased over the last 200 years throughout the world.
 Invasion of alien plant species occur alongside cultivation, deforestation, urbanization,
and chemical pollution.
 Many of these organisms persist and proliferate only in disturbed areas, characterized by
tillage, fertilization and irrigation.

Negative economic impacts

 Invasion of grassland, Karoo, and savanna biomes by alien plants causes the degradation
of semi-natural rangelands with obvious economic implications as a result of loss of
grazing land.

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  Another impact is the alteration of hydrology caused by dense stands of Acacia, Hakea
and Pinus species in the fynbos biome.
 Runoff from catchment with dense stands of aliens is between 30% and 70% lower than
for uninvaded fynbos, depending on the annual rainfall and the age and density of the
alien stand.
 In dry summer months alien species can reduce catchment runoff to zero.
 This converts perennial streams into seasonal streams.
 Reduced stream flow has impact on water production in the Western Cape, and leads to
negative impact on the management of fynbos communities.
 It costs more than R1.32million to clear alien plants in an equivalent area of 57 851 ha in
fynbos catchments.
Positive economic impacts
 Pines form the foundation of the commercial forestry enterprise.
 Acacia mearnsii and A. melanoxylon are also important forestry spp, the former being
cultivated for its bark, which is used in tanning leather, and the timber from the latter
usually making up more than half the total amount of timber harvested from southern
Cape forests every year.

Control measures
 Three methods: mechanical, biological and incineration.
 Ordinary method is by felling and leaving plants lying for 12-18 months to allow the
serotinous cones to open the seeds to germinate.
 The area is then burnt to kill regenerating seedlings.
 Regular follow-ups are done to remove seedlings that establish after fire

Biological control
 This involves the use of natural enemies to regulate about 38 troublesome alien plant
organisms in SA.
 Seventy-three species of herbivorous natural enemies have been introduced into SA for
biological control.
 Of these, Coleoptera, 34 species (47%), and Lepidoptera, 16 species (22%)
 Other controls include the use of microbial pathogens, particularly fungi.
 The microbial pathogens are utilized classically (released and left to proliferate on the
weeds) or formulated and applied regularly as mycoherbicides.
 Some of the introduced species primarily destroy the reproductive parts of the weeds (i.e.
flowers, fruit and seeds)
 The other 38 target weed species embrace a vairiety of growth forms in 12 different
families.
 Of the 38 alien species targeted for biological control, the agents have (1) completely
controlled seven species, (2) substantially reduced the density and invasiveness of eleven
species, (3) caused negligible levels of damage on five species and contributed little or
nothing to control of weeds, (4) not been fully evaluated for 13 species, (5) failed so far
on two species.
 The most intensive biological control programme has been that against Lantana camara.
On which 17 insect species have been released.
 All in all, one of the benefits of biological control is that weeds can be suppressed over
much of their range, even though selective control is required.

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Integrated control
 This involves the integration of biological control, improved land management practices,
herbicides, burning and other mechanical methods.
 In the fynbos biome, the serotinous shrub Hakea sericea is managed by a combination of
mechanical clearing, burning and biological control.
 Mechanical clearing, burning and chemical control in the fynbos biome are applied where
harvesting is impractical, and several potential biological control agents have been
identified.
 Mechanical and chemical controls of Sesbania punicea have been applied to destroy the
flowers and seeds of the weeds.
 This led to the decline in the S. puncea species so that there was little or no colonization
by the weeds in areas where stands have been erected.

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Glossary

Bush clumps – Bushes growing in clusters or group

Bushveld – A type of savanna vegetation in Africa in which the ratio of trees to grassland varies
from near-forest conditions to open, grassy parkland
Dolerite - a medium grained basic igneous rock that is intruded in a hypabyssal
Dolomite – A limestone rock containing calcium magnesium carbonate [CaMg (Co3) 2 ]
Forbs – A broad-leafed herb, e.g. nettle
Granite – An igneous rock of coarse grain consisting essentially of quartz
Herbaceous plants – Plants that have stems that are not woody
Illite – one of the groups of clay minerals. Normally called hydrous mica
Ironstone – a hard crust formed from the accumulation of aluminium and iron oxides. Once it is
exposed to heat, it hardens to form a layer that inhibits weathering and other denudation
processes.
Leaching – Pedogenic process in which material is lost from the soil by downward washing out
and removal by percolating surplus soil water.
Liana – Climbing and twining woody tropical plant
Mica group – Aluminosilicate mineral group of complex of complex chemical formula having
perfect cleavage into thin sheets.
Prickle pear – Cactus covered with prickles.
Quartz – The crystalline form of the mineral silicon dioxide (SiO2).
Quartzite – A hard impermeable whitish or greyish quartzitic rock cemented by silica.
(Metamorphic and in parts of sedimentary rocks)
Sandstone – Variety of sedimentary rock consisting dominantly of mineral particles of sand grade
size.
Scrub – trees and bushes of poor quality
Schist – Foliated metamorphic rock in which mica flakes are typically found oriented parallel
with the foliation surfaces
Shrub – Plants with woody stem, lower than a tree, and usually with several separate stems from
the root
Succulents – Plants that have fleshy leaves and stems, e.g. cactus
Tangled - plants growing in a disordered manner.
Till – a type of sediment in which the components have been brought into contact by the direct
agency of glacier
Tillite – a former till that has become compacted and lithified to form hard sedimentary rock
Tufa – A sedimentary deposit formed around a spring of calcareous groundwater and comprising
calcium carbonate (CaCo3) derived by solution of calcium bicarbonate.
Tufted – Grass growing, or held together at the base.

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Turf – A layer of grass and herbaceous plants which, together with their root system, create a mat
of vegetable material on the soil surface.
Veld - An Afrikaans name for open grassland in South Africa. In addition to a distinction being
made by altitude (Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld), it is also classified according to the character
of the grassland, e.g. Grassveld, Bushveld and Sandveld)

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References
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Longman

Chorley, R.J., Schumm, S.A. & Sugden, D.E. 1984. Geomorphology. New York:
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Cox, C.B. 1993. Biogeography: an ecological and evolutionary approach. Britain: Cambridge

Hugget, R.J. 1998. Fundamentals of biogeography. London: Routledge

Hurry, L & Van Heerden, J. 1989. Southern Africa’s Weather Patterns: A Guide to the
Interpretation of Synoptic Maps. Goodwood: Via Afrika Ltd

MacDonald G.M. 2003. Biogeography: Space, Time and Life. Los Angeles: John Wiley & Sons
Inc.

Tivy, J. 1993. Biogeography: A study of plants in the ecosphere. New York: Longman

Tyson, P.D. & Preston-Whyte, R.A. 2000. The weather and climate of Southern Africa. Cape
Town: Oxford University Press.

Selby, M.J. 1993. Hillslope material and processes. New York: Oxford University Press.

Summerfield, M.A. 1993. Global Geomorphology. New York: Longman Group.

Whittow, JB 1984. Dictionary of Physical Geography. Great Britain: Penguin Books

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