International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100346

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijgfs

Culinary Concept

Nudging plant-based meals through the menu

Federico J.A. Perez-Cueto
University of Copenhagen, Future Consumer Lab - Department of Food Science, Rolighedsvej 26, 1958, Frederiksberg C, Denmark

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A nudge experiment was performed to evaluate the effectiveness of presenting a menu with the dish-of-the-day
Nudging (DoD) vs. a menu with free choice to facilitate consumer choice towards a fully plant-based, nutritious and tasty
Plant-based meal in foodservice setting. A menu card in control condition included the appetizer, the three mains and a
Meals
dessert. The menu card in the intervention included the appetizer, eggplant lasagne as the DoD, and the dessert.
Foodservice
Thirty-three volunteers ate twice at Future Consumer Lab in Copenhagen, once in each condition (67% women;
mean age 25y; SD2.1). Three innovative 100% plant-based main courses were designed for the purpose of this
study, Black bean & quinoa burger, Lentil curry and Eggplant lasagne. Compared with the control situation, DoD
was successful in achieving 85% of the choice. Menu design and innovative meal design can contribute jointly to
the uptake of plant-based meals in foodservice.

Introduction catering services e.g. to promote meat alternatives (Appleton et al.,

Changing food behaviour is one of the current key societal chal­
lenges, in particular as we need to move quickly towards the production
and consumption of more sustainable healthy foods and meals (Asche­
mann-Witzel et al., 2020; Hallström et al., 2015; Perez-Cueto, 2020;
Saxe et al., 2019). This great food transformation requires structural
changes and innovative strategies (Mete et al., 2019; Willett et al., 2019)
to facilitate the uptake and consumption of foods with low environ­
mental footprint while reducing (or eliminating) those with high envi­
ronmental footprint (Herrero et al., 2021; Poore and Nemecek, 2018). Of
particular interest are foods of plant origin that are considered beneficial
to health as they are associated with reduced risk of chronic disease and
improved quality of life (Bouvard et al., 2015; Campbell, Fidahusain, &
Campbell II, 2019; Choi et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2019; Schulze et al., 2018;
Varraso et al., 2019). Moreover, compared with foods of animal origin,
plant-based foods require considerably less water and land while they
produce less greenhouse gases (Chai et al., 2019; Poore and Nemecek,
2018; Rabès et al., 2020; Springmann et al., 2018; Willett et al., 2019).
Lastly, plant-rich diets are gaining momentum among consumers pur­
suing ethical choices that are more compassionate towards animals
(Beck and Ladwig, 2021; Guachalla, 2021; McKeown and Dunn, 2021;
Nierenberg, 2005). The most common strategies for food behaviour
change have been usually nutrition education and labelling with
different degrees of success (Perez-Cueto, 2019). Choice architecture or
nudging is one of the complementary strategies acknowledged for suc­
cessful behaviour change and that can be easily implemented by
2016; Attwood et al., 2020; Bauer and Reisch, 2019; Bianchi et al., 2018;
Bucher et al., 2016; Dinnella et al., 2016; Nørnberg, Houlby, Skov and
Peréz-Cueto, 2016; Nørnberg, Skov, Houlby and Pérez-Cueto, 2016). In
foodservice, the dish-of-the-day (DoD) or the recommendation of the
chef has been recognised as facilitating healthy consumer choices
(Lachat et al., 2011).
Our previous work on using the DoD as nudge to introduce plant-
based meals focused on replacing meatballs in tomato sauce with
pulses-based patties in very similar, well-known and familiar dish pre­
sentations, namely with pasta for adolescents, and with rice for older
consumers. In restaurant setting, the menu card was used to perform the
choice task, where all dishes were usually visible, and the intervention
consisted of surrounding the DoD by a box (Hartwell et al., 2020).
However, the interventions were not successful among adolescents (dos
Santos et al., 2020) or older consumers (Zhou et al., 2019) in 4 EU
Countries. Upscaling nudges from living labs to real life situations is still
a challenge (Hartwell et al., 2020). DoD is more efficient if it is in a
context with more than two choices, and when the choices are very
different from each other (Saulais et al., 2019). Moreover, food choices
can be influenced by restaurant menu design such as the visual design of
the menu, how the items are described and the location of the items on
the menu (Bacon and Krpan, 2018). Therefore, the objectives of this
study were twofold, first to investigate the effectiveness of presenting a
menu with a pre-selected DoD vs. a menu with three main course options
on actual consumer choice; second, to refine the mode of DoD nudge
administration through the menu card.

E-mail address: apce@food.ku.dk.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100346
Received 2 March 2021; Received in revised form 7 April 2021; Accepted 11 April 2021
Available online 15 April 2021
1878-450X/© 2021 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
F.J.A. Perez-Cueto
Methods
A cross-over design study was conducted at the Future Consumer Lab
in May 2019. Participants were volunteers recruited through adver­
tisement posters, social media (e.g. Facebook) and followed a snowball
effect. Data were collected anonymously, and in compliance with Gen­
eral Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Volunteer participants were all
adults, gave consent to participate in the study and were given a unique
identification number that they had to bring in each of the two free meal
occasions. The number was also used to label the plate where the dish
was served. To mirror the usual customers of restaurants, no exclusion
criteria for recruitment was specified. Each participant attended one
control and one intervention session. The order of the sessions was
randomized. In total, there were 4 test days, two control days and two
intervention days with a week of “washout” in between each treatment
session. Participants could show up between 11:30 a.m. and 2:00 p.m.
The nudge intervention consisted of using a simplified menu card with
fixed menu options; it also stated that customers could choose something
else by calling the staff.
Briefly, a three-course menu was presented in both eating sessions as
illustrated in Fig. 1. Each meal was designed taking into account three
principles first, all dishes had to be plant-based or explicitly vegan
hence, everyone could eat all meals independently of their food lifestyle.
Second, they had to be innovative, nourishing and provide hedonic
pleasure. Third, meals had to be alternatives to those that are familiar to
the general population. Menus contained the name, description and al­
lergens of the dishes. Appetizer and dessert were the same in both ses­
sions as illustrated in Fig. 2, namely tricolour arepas filled with cashew
avocado paste and a raspberry pudding with chia seed respectively. In
the control condition, participants were asked to select the main course
from the three following options 1) eggplant lasagne, 2) black-bean and
quinoa burger, or 3) lentil curry. The nutritional composition of the
meals is provided as supplementary material. In the intervention condi­
tion, eggplant lasagne was termed as the DoD with no other options
being visible on the menu. Nonetheless, participants could easily opt-out
of the pre-set choice if desired, by asking the staff for the alternatives.
Additionally, eggplant lasagne was less energy dense option (Supple­
mentary materials).
Participants filled a before and after questionnaire (Supplementary
materials). The “before” questionnaire provided general sociodemo­
graphic information, specifically sex (female, male), age in y, education
level (primary, secondary superior), eating lifestyle (omnivorous,
vegetarian, flexitarian, vegan), hunger level estimated on a 10 points
Fig. 1. Three course menu presentation.
2
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100346
scale from starving to full, and attitudes towards plant-based meals.
Attitudes towards plant-based meals were measured using Likert scales
from fully disagree to fully agree on the importance given to meals being
a) healthy, b) environmentally friendly, c) tasty, d) cheap, e) filling, f)
easy to cook and g) conscious of animal welfare. The “after” question­
naire included hedonic evaluation (5 points liking scales for appearance,
odour, texture, taste, and overall liking), satiety (same 10 points scale as
for hunger) and satisfaction with the meal (10 points scale from fully
dissatisfied to fully satisfied). Lastly, an open question allowed partici­
pants to state why had they chosen the given main dish in either
condition.
Statistical analyses were performed with the software IBM SPSS
Statistics version 25.0. Continuous variables are presented as means (M)
and standard deviations (SDs); their comparison between conditions
were performed using paired samples t-test. Categorical data are pre­
sented as counts or proportions. Pearson’s Chi-square test was used to
assess the difference in the choice of the main course between control
and intervention conditions. In all tests, a p-value of <0.05 was
considered as statistically significant.
Results
Participants (N = 33) were relatively young as their age ranged from
22 to 29 y (M = 25y, SD = 2.07). Participants were 22 women (66.7%)
and 11 men. All participants were MSc students. Participants catego­
rized themselves as omnivores 45.5% (n = 15), flexitarians 42.4% (n =
14), vegetarians 3.0% (n = 1) and vegans 9.1% (n = 3).
Table 1 shows the proportion of dish choice between conditions.
Nudging the eggplant lasagne dish resulted in 85% of consumers
choosing this dish, compared to 9% in the control situation. There was a
significant association between the intervention condition and the
nudged dish choice (Chi2 = 42, p < 0.001). The more frequently stated
reasons for choosing the dish in control situation were a) liking of the
description (n = 10); b) wanting to try the plant-based version of a
known dish (n = 6); c) willingness to try new dishes (n = 4); d)
considering it more fulfilling or appealing than other options (n = 4). In
the intervention situation, less people reported the reasons, but they
specified a) they had a similar dish before and like it (n = 4); b) lack of
visible options (n = 3) and c) not realising they could have asked for
other dishes (n = 2).
A paired-sample t-test was conducted to compare hunger, satiety and
hedonic evaluation of the meal in control and intervention conditions.
There was no difference between conditions neither in the hunger scores
F.J.A. Perez-Cueto International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100346

Fig. 2. Menu choices in control and intervention.

Discussion and conclusion

Table 1
Proportion of choices in each condition.
This paper contributes to the current studies on nudging as tool to
Main course Control (%) Intervention (%) p-valuea promote healthier eating in food service and addresses some of the issues
choice choice
stated by previous work (Bauer and Reisch, 2019; Bucher et al., 2016; T.
(n = 33) (n = 33)
R. Nørnberg, Houlby, Jørgensen, He and Pérez-Cueto, 2014; Trine
Lentil curry 21.2 12.1 0.325 Riebeling Nørnberg, Skov, et al., 2016; Perez-Cueto, 2019). First, it
Eggplant lasagne 9.1 84.8
shows that designing the menu card has a quantifiable and significant
<0.0001
Black bean & quinoa 69.7 3.0 <0.0001
burger influence in the choice made by customers, and the effect is of similar
a magnitude as reported previously (Saulais et al., 2019). Second, it shows
Chi square test.
that the implementation of the nudge can be refined. In the studies
performed earlier we chose to simply adding a bold line box around the
(p = 0.304), nor in the satiety scores (p = 0.702). Furthermore, there chosen item to the control menu (Hartwell et al., 2020), with limited
were no differences in the hedonic evaluation performed on the overall effect among adolescents (dos Santos et al., 2020) or older consumers
liking of the meal, the odour or the texture in either situation (inde­ (Zhou et al., 2019). In this case, we preselected the choice, and addi­
pendently of what it was). Nevertheless, the evaluations of the appear­ tional to the bold box around the DoD, we specifically indicated that the
ance (p < 0.001) and the taste (p = 0.03) were significantly different participants could ask for alternatives, but those alternatives were
between the two sessions, being higher in the control situation. Attitudes intentionally not shown on the intervention menu card. It required
towards plant-based meals were assessed in each condition. As there actively pursuing the alternative. Third, it shows that the effect of this
were no statistical differences in the attitudinal scale, the mean between kind of nudge is independent of the dietary lifestyle, as participants were
both sessions is presented in Table 2. It is noticeable that the largest mainly self-reported omnivores or flexitarians, and congruent with other
importance given was to the taste of a plant-based meal, and followed by studies (Bacon and Krpan, 2018).
healthiness, environmental friendliness, filling/satiating capacity and This paper has strengths and limitations. The usual limitation of
animal welfare. Furthermore, participants considered that the 3 course observational laboratory is the sample size and the external validity of
meals were well balanced in both situations (p = 0.184), and that they the study. For the sample size we calculated that the number of paired
did not miss animal sourced foods in their meals (p = 0.724). observations needed to achieve a power of 0.844 is of minimum 11 while
the study included 33 paired observations. Therefore, this is a robust
experiment, and overcomes the initial limitation. The issue of scalability
to real life operations remains unknown. The study, however, is robust
Table 2 enough to suggest that simple measures implemented by foodservice,
Attitudes towards plant-based meals. such as redesigning the menu, could achieve more sustainable or
“When choosing a plant-based meal, it is important to me that the Mean SD healthier food choices even in larger settings, as findings are aligned to
food is …”a what has been reported elsewhere (Bergeron et al., 2019; Saulais et al.,
Healthy 4.12 0.84 2019). Moreover, it was carried out at the Future Consumer Lab, and as
Environmentally friendly 4.11 0.54 such, it provided a unique setting that is very similar to a real restaurant
Takes into account animal welfare 3.86 0.80 in terms of preparing, serving, eating and evaluating meals.
Tasty 4.54 0.59
In conclusion, menu design and innovative meal design can
Cheap 3.69 0.80
Filling enough 3.98 0.70 contribute jointly to the uptake of plant-based meals in foodservice. The
Easy to cook 3.78 0.87 nudge strategy resulted in 85% of participants choosing the DoD. This is
a a simple way to involve foodservice in transforming its offer towards
Measured on a 5-point Likert scale from fully disagree (1) to fully agree (5).

3
F.J.A. Perez-Cueto
more sustainable and healthy meals.
Implications for gastronomy
This paper provides insights on how gastronomy offerings can be
made more sustainable and healthy without compromising taste. It
showcases how the Gastronomy sector can respond to growing con­
sumer demand towards plant-rich foods.
Moreover, by facilitating the choice through simple strategies as
menu design and strategic selection of the dish of the day, the sector can
contribute to the desired societal shift towards mainstream consumption
of foods with lower environmental impact, namely using more vegeta­
bles and pulses in the offer.
The communication provides example of designed meals (3 course
meals) with a single appetizer colored arepas filled with caju cream,
three main plant-based dishes, eggplant lasagna, black bean & quinoa
burger and a lentil curry, and finally, a dessert based on fruits and chia
seeds.
From a nutritional perspective, it is possible to nudge a dish that has
less energy than the others, without compromising the consumer he­
donic evaluation of the meal, the perceived satiety and satisfaction.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Federico J.A. Perez-Cueto: This paper is based on a MSc thesis by
Nuria Castellanos-Feijoo supervised by FJAPC as stated in the
acknowledgement.
Declaration of competing interest
No financial conflicts of interest to declare.
Acknowledgements
This project did not have external funding. Thanks to Nuria
Castellanos-Feijoo for collecting the data in the frame of her MSc thesis,
and for allowing the use of Figs. 1 and 2 in the present manuscript.
Thanks to Sanne Sansolios for her support with the logistics at the
laboratory.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100346.
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