r FlaktWoods St FANS IN FIRE SAFETY FIRE SMOKE VENTING A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SMOKE CONTROL FOR ENCLOSED CAR PARKS By James Allen CEng MIMechE MCIBSE October 2016 - (Version 1.1) Copyright Flakt Woods Ltd, England 2016Table of Contents INTRODUCTION .... CHAPTER 1. Types of Ventilation System CHAPTER Vehicle Fires .... CHAPTER 3... Jet Fan Performance. CHAPTER 4... Effect of Heat on jet Performance...... CHAPTER 5... Estimating Jet Induced Flowrate .. CHAPTER 6... Balancing Flowrates..... CHAPTER 7... ‘Smoke Control Design Steps... CHAPTER 8... Estimating Smoke Control Exhaust Flowrates....... STEP (9): ESTIMATE SMOKE VELOCITY... STEP (6): ESTIMATE SMOKE PRODUCTION AND TEMPERATURE RISE.. STEP (7); ESTIMATE SMOKE TEMPERATURE DOWNSTREAM OF THE FIRE. STEP (@): ESTIMATE THE AVERAGE SMOKE DENSITY DOWNSTREAM OF THE FIRE ‘STEP (@) A: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN AMBIENT AIR * STEP @ B: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN HOT SMOKE STEP (0); ESTIMATE THE TOTAL VOLUME FLOW RATE* STEP ({) CONCEPT CFO. STEP (2) DETAILED CFO ‘Conclusions. REFERENCES...FIRE SMOKE VENTING A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO JET FAN VENTILATION DESIGN FOR ENCLOSED AND UNDERGROUND SPACES By J, A. ALLEN, C.ENG IMechE CIBSE INTRODUCTION jet fans have been used with good effect in car parks since the end of the 20th Century. The popularity has increased to such a point that mast enclosed car parks throughout the world are now using this technology. As discussed in 2001 in an article for the Building Services Journal written by Mr Richard Brooks: “The current requirements for the ventilation of underground and enclosed cor parks do not specifically require ony smoke control, The designer is merely required to allow for 6 air changes per hour for general ventifation or 10 air changes ner hour'in the event of fire (Building regulations 1991 Approved Document B ‘and F], irrespective of fire size or the potential risk” (2). In his. article Mr Richard Brooks says: “With the advent of new plostics used in the construction of modern vehicles, fire lacd is a very important element in the design of a car park ventilotian system. The basis of an Impulse ventitation system is to create sufficient velocity to overcome the buoyancy of the combustion products in a fire ond in doing so, control its passage through the car park. As the system design is based on @ fire load and not on simply an air change rate, it is copable of efficiently coping with large fires. (1). ‘The minimum requirements for ventilation of car parks in the UK has not changed in recent years remaining at 6 air changes per hour for general ventilation and 10 air changes per haur in the event of fire, ‘author: james Allen, 3ores enormeIn 2008, the British Standard &S7346 part 7 was published by the UK Smoke Control Association which gives various design options: 1. To assist fire fighters. to clear smoke from a car park during and after a fire 2. To provide clear smoke free access for fire fighters to a point close to the seat of the fire 3. To protect means of escape from the car park Purpose 1 is essentially an expanded version of the UK building regulations approved document B providing design guidance to achieve smoke clearance where jet fans are used. The calculation procedure is to design for a minimum of 10 air changes per hour for the largest car park storey ‘or fire compartment. Purpose 2 and 3 are specifically related to smoke control, Section 10 of BS 7346 part 7 provides recommendations for impulse ventilation ta assist fire fighter access whereas:section 11 pravides recommendations for means of escape. As discussed in section 10.1 smoke control should be designed so that: "10.12 The extract rate should be calculated for the removal of the moss of mixed air and smoke impelled towards the exhaust intokes.” “20.1.4 Designs shouild be such that the bulk dir velocity induced by the jet fans is sufficient to halt the advance of the ceiling jet within 10 metres from the fire location for el! passible fire locations in the direction opposite to the induced bulk afr flow’. To achieve purpose 2 and 3 the designer should nat rely on an alr change rate design approach unless it has been proven using CFD modelling (or othar suitable method) that the mass of air induced by operational jet fans does not cause unwanted smoke spread. To achleve such an objective the designer must have a good understanding of fire dynamics and smoke control. The UK is just one cf many countries where jet fans are used to provide smoke ventilation in car Parks. In some countries, however smoke contral is the minimum requirement. For instance in the UAE, Qatar and Singapore, simply designing for smake clearance Is nat an option and smoke control is the only method allowed if jet fans are to be used. There are stringent performance criteria set out by the regulatory bodies for each of these countries which require a specific level of visibility and temperature at a prescribed distance from the fire. Despite the clear objectives there is currently no single definitive guidance which shows designers how to calculate the mass induced flow of air and smoke impelled towards an extiaust paint by a system of jet fans. Consequently there is often reliance on an air change per hour design basis and CFD modelling ta give the answers, Despite modern advances in high performance computing and a myriad of different commercial and non-commercial CFO codes, CFO modelling remains an expensive practice. High performance and cloud based computing has reduced calculation times however the time required by an engineer to build the physical models, configure the simulations and interpret the results still remains. For this reason, unless some commercial advantage is recognised, CFD studies often come towards the end of a project rather than at the start, It is at the start of @ prajact however when the architectural space required far ventilation equipment and shatts is decided. A balance needs to be found between preparing enaugh CFD at the start of a project to satisfy that the objectives will be achievable later down the line without making it commercial unviable. ‘author: james Allen, sotze snaresThe aim of this faper is to present formulae that can be incorporated into a spreadsheet to provide an initial estimate of the exhaust flow rate required for smoke control (to support CFO simulations). The aim is to calculate: 1. Jet induced volumetric flow rate expected from a particular type and quantity of fans 2. Smoke mass flow from the fire origin 3. Cambinatlan of jet induced mass flaw and smoke mass flow to calculate the exhaust flow fate required, The solution fram 1 can be used for smoke clearance systems to ensure that the type and quantity of jet fans selected will not cause unwented recirculation of smoke. For smoke control the Solutions from 1 and 2 are combined to establish a volumetric flow rate required ta control, contain and remove smoke from a desired ragion of a car park. To summarise, the objective of this paper is to look at: 1. Types of ventilation system in which jet fans are used 2. Vehicle fires and safety criteria from some international standards 3. How jet fan systems work 4, A method of estimating the smoke extraction rate for smake control when using jet fans such that the jet induced mass flow and exhaust mass flow balances. Application of these techniques will help to: + Identify the size of ventilation plant space required early in the design process. + Determine the suitabllity of smoke control vs smoke clearance, « Accelerate the design process to reach solutions faster. ‘author: james Allen, Sotze anorNOMENCLATURE A, = minimum area of jet outlet (m*) a = aceeleration of a body under gravitational force (ms ~*) ¢, = Dimensioned air entrainment coefficient (kg.an — ~ .s ~!) e = Specific Heat capacity of air at constant pressure (kW. g"!.K-") ef = Jet entrainment ratio. h = Floor to ceiling height within the smoke control zone (m) Jet = Jet entrainment drag effect Ry = Jet entrainment constant uf = Fire location factor Mires = Momentum flux of a jet (kgm.s*) m = mass flow of a body (ky) mi = mass flow of air at ambient temperature (kg.s) ms = mass flow of smoke (kg.s-") tit, = mass flow induced by jet fans in ambient air (kg.s~) th, = mass flow induced by jet fans in smoke (kg.s"') iu = molar mass of dry air (ieg.mol”") Na = the number af jet fans operating in ambient air Ns = the number of jet fans operating in smoke @ = Temperature of smoke above ambient (°C) ‘ie = Perimeter of the fire (m) Py = Reference gas pressure (Pa) Pro = gas density (iqgan-") a, = density of ambient air (leg.an"3) p, = density of smoke latien air (kg.m-*) Pg = density of smoke dawnstream of the fire (Jeg.m"®) a. = convective heat energy release rate within the smoke plume (kW) r = fadial distance from the point of impingement of the fite plume on the ceiling (ki) R = universal gas constant (J.mol-!.K~!) ‘t, = Temperature of smoke dawnstream af the fire (K*) z = Absolute smoke temperature (K) qT, = Absolute ambient temperature (K) T, = Velocity of smoke flow at distance (r) from the fire (ms~t) Prcsing je = MAXIMUM velocity at distance X (along the jet centreline} (m.s-') ¥, = Outlet velocity, averaged across the jet outlat area (ms~') Vv, = Volume flow rate at the outlet af a single jet fan A, (m's”') Vy = Total induced flow rate attributed to a single Jet fan at distance (x) (m'.s-*) Vong = Total volume flow of air maved by a group of fans at distance (x) from the exhaust (m'. sy ‘author: James Allen, sores osnoreasmed = ee es FS vid = Volume flow of smoke fram the fire (i’.s~) = Volume flaw rate required for smoke contrat (m'.s~!) = Jet profile width {m) = Distance from jet fan outlet (m) = Horizontal distance from the fire origin to the exhaust (m) = Height of the smoke layer (m) = Virtual smake zane (int) ‘author: james Allen, 20128 oanorensCHAPTER 1 Types of Ventilation System The British Standard 7346 part 7:2006 [2] recommends that for enclosed or underground car parks, ventilation systems can be designed for one or more of three purposes in the event of a fire. Figure 1 summarises these recommendations. FIGURE 1: TYPES OF SMOKE VENTING SYSTEMS [2] a) To assist the fire fighters to clear smoke from a car park during and after a fire. ‘Smoke clearance systems are Intended to assist fire fighters by providing ventilation to allow speedier clearance af the smoke once the fire ‘has been extinguished, The ventilation might also halp to reduce smoke density and temperature during the course of a fire, These systems are not specifically intended to maintain any area of a car park clear of smoke, to limit the smoke density ar temperature ta within any jimits or to assist means of escape. tt is possible that some smoke clearance systems could actually worsen conditions for means of escape, If set in operation too early, by encouraging smoke circulation and de- scent of the smoke layer. Far this reason, it might be preferable to elther delay operation after automatic activation, or to provide only manual actuation fram a fire service override switch. b) To provide clear smoke free access to fire fighters to a point close to the seat of the fire. This is provided specifically in order to assist fire fighters to carry out firefighting oper- ations. The system is designed to operate automatically in response to a suitable fire detection system and ensures clear, smoke free, access by fire fighters ta a paint clase to the seat of the fire. ©) To protect means of escape from the car park. Smoke control is not required under UK legislation to protect means of ascape in car parks. Nevertheless, it is possible in some cases to design a ventilation system that will assist protection of means of escape. Smoke and Heat Exhaust ventilation systems [SHEVS) or impulse ventilation systems might be suitable. SHEVS systems are designed to maintain a smoke reservoir by extracting directly from the smoke layer. This is heyond the scope of this paper. For more information refer ta (2). ‘author: james Allen, sores oanoreansPollution and Smoke Clearance Systems Pollution and smoke clearance systems use jet fans combined with exhaust fans to dilute and extract vehicle pollutants and fire smoke. These systems are not intended ta limit the fire smoke density or temperature to within any limits ar to assist means of escape. Systems of this type are normally designed to achieve 10 air changes per hour. The objective of a smake clearance system is to clear smoke both during a fire and after a fire has been extinguished. Smoke Contral System to Assist Firefighters The objective of smoke control is to assist fire fighters to rapidly locate a fire, enabling the fire to be extinguished quickly and safely. Calculation of the exhaust ventilation flow rate must be derived from the mass of smoke produced from a credible worst fire size plus the jet induced air and smoke movement towards the extraction point(s). ‘Author: james allen soz6 oanorensCHAPTER 2 Vehicle Fires When designing a smoke contral system for an enclosed car park, the ventilation system designer must first consider a sensible design fire size. The latest research an vehicle fires in enclosed car parks by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) [4] provides @ good starting point. Fire test data from (3] as been published for a variety of enclosed car park fire scenarios, with and without the use of sprinklers. Further research available includes work by CTICM In 2000 and 2005 {5}. A variety of international standards relating ta smoke control far enclosed car parks are available (able 2) which include, but are not limited ta, British Standard 887346 Part 7 [2], the Qatar Civil defence standard FSS7.2 (61, Singapore Civil defence standard [7], UAE Fire and Life Safety code of practice [8]. Each of these standards provides similar requirements and criteria for design fire siza(s), visibility and temperature. Steady-state design fire data fram (2] is given in Table 1. All standards listed provide useful practical considerations, with the exception of smoke control calculation methads which are not given. TABLE 1: TYPICAL STEADY STATE DESIGN FIRES [2] IENSIONS, 5M X 5M 2M X 5M PERIMETER 20M 14M HEAT RELEASE RATE BMW | 4MwW ‘author: james Allen, wwotzs oanorens‘TABLE 2: SAFETY CRITERIA FROM SOME INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS BS7346 PART 7 VISIBILITY \CCEPTANCE CRITERIA. DESIGNS SHOULD BE SUCH THAT FIRE FIGHTERS CAN MOVE THROUGH SUBSTANTIALLY CLEAR SMOKE-FREE AIR WHEN APPROACHING THE FIRE UP TO A DISTANCE OF 10 METRES TEMPERATURE NOT SPECIFIED QATAR CIVIL DEFENCE GUIDE FSS7.2 VISIBILITY )1L0M MINIMUM VISIBILITY AT A HEIGHT OF 1.8 METRES FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK AND AT A DIS- TANCE OF 10 METRES FROM THE FIRE AFTER 20 MIN- UTES. TEMPERATURE 60°C AIR TEMPERATURE TO THE LOWER LAYER AT A HEIGHT OF 1.8 METRES FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK AFTER 20 MINUTES SINGAPORE CIVIL DEFENCE FORCE FSR: 3:2008 UAE FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY CODE OF PRACTICE VISIBILITY 5M MINIMUM VISIBILITY AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK AT A DISTANCE OF 5 METRES FROM THE FIRE. ALL OTHER AREAS OUTSIDE THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA SHALL BE KEPT SUBSTANTIALLY FREE FROM SMOKE LE. VISIBILITY OF AT LEAST 25M TEMPERATURE VISIBILITY 250°C AIR TEMPERATURE AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK. ALL OTHER AREAS QUTSIDE THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA SHALL BE KEPT SUBSTANTIALLY FREE FROM SMOKE I.E. SMOKE TEMPERATURE NOT MORE THAN 60°C 5M MINIMUM VISIBILITY AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK AT A DISTANCE OF S METRES FROM THE FIRE. NOT MORE THAN 1000. SQUARE METRES OF THE CAR PARK CAN BE SMOKE LOGGED FOR AT LEAST 20 MINUTES, REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THE FIRE 1S LOCATED WITHIN THE SMOKE CONTROL ZONE OR ACROSS THE ZONE BOUNDARIES, (NOTE: AFTER 20 MINUTES, SMOKE IS EXPECTED TO REMAIN CONFINED WITHIN 1000 SQUARE METRES). WITHIN THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA, THERE SHALL BE AT LEAST 1 VIABLE ROUTE FOR THE FIRE FIGHTERS. TEMPERATURE 250°C AIR TEMPERATURE AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES. FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK. ALL OTHER AREAS QUTSIDE THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA SHALL BE KEPT SUBSTANTIALLY FREE FROM SMOKE |.E. SMOKE | TEMPERATURE NOT MORE THAN 60°C ores oanorensCHAPTER 3 Jet Fan Performance Thrust fans which include both jet fan and induction fan technolagy, wark on the basis of providing a high velocity jet of air at the fan autlet (velocities typically ranging from 15m/s up to a 3lm/s for car park fans). The high velocity jet provides a momentum flux at the fan outlet. Momentum flux is the product of mass flow rate and velocity. For free field conditions, assuming no losses, the momentum flux is. defined as: ‘Where: {Equation 1) Newton's second law states that the rate of change momentum is related to a force (F) where the acceleration (a) resulting (rom that farce is directly proportional to the net force acting on a body: F=mxa m = kgxt [Equation 2) The momentum flux provided by a jet can therefore be considered as a farce that is available to be applied to the surrounding air (known as fan thrust). The movement of air into the advancing jet is known as entrainment. To calculate the total mass of air and smoke impelled tawards an extraction point it is essential to know how much induced airflow can be obtained from a fan. The entrainment ratio is the rate at which air is moved by a jet relative to the airflow through the fan prior to the jet termination point. The termination of a jet is the point at which the peak velocity has fallen to 0.Sm/s or less. The entrainment ratio is given by: ‘Author: james Allan w2otz8 oanorensThe entrainment ratio varies according to different product types-and is governed by the Internal geometry of the impeller and motor assembly, the shape of the fan casing and velocity profile at the fan outlet. The simplified equation applicable ta the entrainment of a fully established jet is given by [3]: K,, Xv, xVA, v= Fe Xtor te Equation 3) TABLE 3: APPROXIMATE VALUES OF K,, | Thrust Fan type Fan installation K. Comments i | Confined toa ceiling | 1470 | , | Axial jet fan Unseontined 5.40 | uae x Confined to.a ceiling 9.50 hates [Sonthen-ta-e gelling: |_‘s.50)_| treatlog far Un-confined 4.40 Figure 2 illustrates the comparison of applying. Equation 3 toa Flakt Woods 355mm (internal diameter) jet fan with field measurements prepared by an independent test laboratory, FIGURE 2: — JET CENTRELINE VELOCITY PREDICTION VS MEASUREMENT CFD modelling can be Used to pravide detalted information about the jet profile shape, fan swirl effects and any regions of separation and re-attachment of the jet. When modelling jet fans using CFD it is important to consider that each product is different and that a ‘generic’ model may not always be suitable, The trajectory of the jet is highly dependent on the fan casing geometry particularly when capturing the effects of fan swirl. In depth discussion of CFO modelling is beyond the scope of this paper however when preparing CFO models it is important ta understand the effect of changes in computational mesh size, turbulence sub-model, turbulence parameters and heat transfer (it modelling a fire or large temperature variations), Advice should be obtained from the fan manufacturer for guidance on selecting an appropriate model for your praject. ‘author: james allen, 1sotzs oanorensCHAPTER 4 Effect of Heat on Jet Performance ‘When a smoke control system is operating the fans located upstream of a fire will be operating in air at ambient temperature and density. Fans located downstream of the fire will be operating in a mixture of higher temperature air and combustion gas of much lower density. Density of a gas is directly proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature: Pp R\xT, 7) {Equation 4) Fans that are designed to handle fire smoke, which includes jet fans, are classified by an independent test authority as having High Temperature (HT) certification of F200, F300 or F400. These classifications mean a specific fan type is certified for operation for 200°C/2hrs, 300°C/1hr ‘or 400°C /2hrs respectively. Speci Products, known as bifurcated fans, where the motor is taken out of the airstream, are also available having an F600 category. As temperatures rapidly increase under fire conditions there will be @ dramatic reduction in fan performance downstream of the fire as illustrated in Table 4. TABLE 4: EFFECT OF INCREASING TEMPERATURE ON FAN THRUST GAS TEMPERATURE FAN HT GAS MIXTURE % REDUCTION IN eC) CLASSIFICATION DENSITY (KG/M") THRUST 0 3 F200 = _F300 — _ F400 56 62 F600 36 * Gas density variation is calculated according to air at sea level where the atmospheric pressure is 1 atmosphere (101325 Pascal's). ‘Author: james allan 4 of28 oanorensCHAPTER 5 Estimating Jet Induced Flowrate A.system of thrust fans collectively moves a specific volume flaw of air within an enclosed space. The total flow rate is the product of the volume flow rate thraugh the fans and the air entrainment into the advancing jets. The flow patterns developed as air advances from a jet fan are complex. Velocity fluctuations occur due ta turbulent kinetic energy effects. Turbulent kinetic energy is a measure of the mean kinetic energy per unit mass associated with eddy farmations in turbulent flow. Turbulent motions are dissipated at very small length scales (known as Kolmogorov micrascales) by viscous forces. CFD modelling can be used to gain an understanding of turbulence phenomena. Figure 3 illustrates the use of CFD. The jet fan velocity profile in Figure 3 is of a Flakt Woods 400mm diameter jet fan modelled with fan swirl (which is why the profile shape is nan-unifarm). The effect of turbulence kinetic energy is observed as the flow separates and re-attaches as the jet advances. The flow regime can be divided into two distinct parts, the laminar entrainment region and turbulent region. The laminar entrainment region occurs up to approximately 50 metres from the fan after which the flaw begins to break up and form turbulent eddies. FIGURE 3: -CFD VELOCITY PROFILE OF A FULLY DEVELOPED JET Unsteady vortex regions oceur as the jet separates and re-attaches NNN ‘tia ui Laminar entrainment region Turbulent entrainment region ‘author: james Allen 15 of 28 osnoveo.sStructural columns of 1 metre x 1 metre cross-section were added to the CFD model (Figure 4). Drag forces are introduced as the air interacts with the structural columns. These forces slaw the jet entrainment rate causing the onset of the turbulent entrainment region to occur much sooner (30 metres from the fan compared to 50 metres without the structural columns). FIGURE 4: — CFD VELOCITY PROFILE OF A FULLY DEVELOPED JET, INCLUDING STRUCTURAL COLUMNS Structural Columns ‘The author has studied the jet velocity profile shapes for a range of different fans and has derived a formula (Equation 5) that aims to approximate the flowrate expected from a group of fans without the use of CFD. The method assumes that the jets combine to form a uniform isotropic flaw moving across a plane that is parallel with the air extraction point. ‘This can provide a useful first initial approximation of the exhaust flaw rate required ta balance the air extraction rate with the jet induced flow from a group of fans (a topic which is discussed further in Chapter 6). The velumetric flow rate of air provided by @ group of jet fans whose jets are moving air towards an extraction point, across a plane that is perpendicular to the airflaw direction is be estimated as fallows: «) {vers [Pe x ett, xi} pete ‘Source of equation: J Allen (Equation 5) For x > 15 metres: ‘author: james Allen, 1wotzs anorWhere [From equation 3]: % = Fin ¥oX VA, eS The term Jet... |S project specific and will need to be adjusted accarding to the airflow characteristics and features expected inside the car park (See Figure 5), As a general rule of thumb consider: a) For simple cross flow ventilation systems where the airflow direction is generally in @ single direction from the air supply to the exhaust: Jet,,,.=0.70 hareg b) For complex systems where air jets are converging towerds an exhaust from multiple directions: Jet,,,, = 0.33 10050 Where jet fans are blowing air from multiple directions across multiple flow planes, the total induced flow rate to the extract is assumed ta be the sum of the flaw rates across each plane. In addition to structural columns the total induced volumetric flowrate provided by a jet will be influenced by numerous other features and obstructions that cause resistance to the airflow as illustrated in Figure 5. To understand the effects of these features requires modelling of each individual case since all car park layouts are different with different airflow requirements. FIGURE 5: - TYPICAL FEATURES IN AN ENCLOSED CAR PARK @ Friction due to walls and ceilings (@) Down-stand beams and structural columns (3) Parked and moving vehicles: @ Rooms and stair-cores (S) Floor to ceiling height ‘Author: james Allen wrotes oanoreasCHAPTER 6 Balancing Flowrates Whether a system is dasigned for pollution and smoke clearance or pollution and smoke control, the use of jet fans should not worsen conditions for escaping occupants or indeed the fire brigade (discussed in BS7346 Part 7:2006 [2)). It is, however, possible to worsen conditions with an unbalanced system. ‘The total mass of air and smoke moving towards an extraction point must be balanced with the mass flow rate at the extract point otherwise recirculation of smoke will occur possibly resulting in loss of visibility and higher gas temperatures. Backflow of smoke or, worse still, rapid acceleration of smoke beyond zone boundaries can occur when ventitation systems are not balanced, Fortunately CFD modelling will flag these issues if used early enough in the design process. Even with the use of CFO, identifying the issue may not always be immediately obvious and may require several repeat simulations until the cause af the problem is addrassed. This can eat into valuable engineer time. It would be useful if the following could be answered before the CFO process was started: 1. How many jet fan's of a specific type, should be operated so that the jet induced flaw is balanced with the exhaust flowrate? 2. How much air AND smoke will need to be removed at an extract point if there is @ certain quantity of jet fans to be operated to either clear or control smoke from a fire? The steps that follow in Chapters 7 and 8 provide a method of estimating the balancing af mass flows converging towards an extraction point under fire and non-fire conditions. ‘author: james Allen, wot 25 snaresCHAPTER 7 Smoke Control Design Steps There are two main functions that thrust fans provide; one is to distribute air (in the absence of distributed ductwork) and the other is to accelerate the ait, including vehicle pollutants and smoke from a fire, to the point(s) of extraction. An added benefit of thrust fans is the ability to control the direction of the imposing airflow and therefore alter the direction of smoke travel, in a similar manner to tunnel ventilation. This is achieved by creating a controlling velocity, known as the critical velocity, so that the advancing flow of smoke is halted at a predatermined distance from the fire The movement of smoke away from a fire in a tunnel is very different to that expected within a car park, Smoke movement in tunnels is confined to flow in either one of two directions by the walls ‘of the tunnel, whereas in car parks smoke can travel in all directions and cover vast distances unless controlled. ‘The paper by Morgan H P et al. titled ‘Extending the principles of impulse ventilation in tunnals to apply to smoke control in car parks’ (9] is a gaod starting point ta understand thrust fan calculation procedures for open sided car parks. The theory presented in {9} is extended in this paper to cover enclosed car parks. The method for establishing a smoke control design is divided into 12 steps as shown in Figure 6. The process at each step is described briefly in Table 9. FIGURE 6 - SMOKE CONTROL DESIGN STEPS. ‘author: james Allen, ia0t25 enormeCFD modelling is the methad used to optimise the smoke control solution which is further divided into two mare steps, concept CFD and detailed CFD. CONCEPT CFD is used to prove the ventilation system concept will achieve the smoke control objectives and to fine tune the system. Fires are modelled in various locations in steady state form using maximum heat release rates and smoke production values. The final stage is DETAILED CFO where time dependant analysis is used to verify the solution. ‘TABLE 5: DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN STEPS w STEP ACTIVITY 1 | Identify sources of replacement air and locations of possible air supply and smake exhau: 2 Identity the design fire size and fire characteristics, expected smoke yield{s) for the fuel material(s), heat(s) of combustion, fire dimensions etc. Prepare a qualitative analysis of worst case fires (at least one fire per zone is normally required). identify the location of fire brigade entry points to enclosed 3 | parking levels and where dry risers etc. are located. How are fire fighters going ta enter the building? Can we protect them by operating the ventilation system in a certain way? Decide how far smoke is permitted to spread before being controlled. Normally 10 Metres upstream of the fire is recommended. Create an initial fan layout and zone strategy according to guidelines recommend- ed by the building codes and / or fan manufacturer, [Estimate the smoke velocity radius (r) from the fire [Estimate smoke production and temperature rise in the smoke layer | Estimate smoke temperature near to the smoke extraction point [Estimate smoke density in the smoke layer Pradict mass flow passing through a plana that is parallel to the extract point(s) Estimate the total volume flow rate for each zone. # |S) © jolNleja] = CONCEPT CFD modelling ~ Steady state fire analysis for each worst case scenario | identified from 3. in DETAILED CFD madelling - Time dependant fire analysis which demonstrates that conditions do not worsen over time. ‘author: james Allen, zootze oanorensCHAPTER 8 Estimating Smoke Control Exhaust Flowrates STEP (5): ESTIMATE SMOKE VELOCITY To design a smoke contral system the velocity of smake expected at distance (r) fram a fire must be known, The formula for the velocity of an established radial ceiling jet, first developed by Alpert [10]: Sacn prt Equation 6) Fors },> 0.15 Smoke is controlled when the velocity of the imposing airflow is equal to or greater than the velocity of smoke at the desired controlling distance [r) fram the fire. STEP @): ESTIMATE SMOKE PRODUCTION AND TEMPERATURE RISE The mass flaw of smoke produced from a fire can be estimated using the Large Fire Plume Model fy: xY? fire {Equation 71 The height of the smoke layer (Y) is assumed ta be the height of the car park minus the height of the fire fuel (normally 0.5 matres from the floor), where Y = h-0.5. ‘Author: james Allon notes oanorensResearch suggests that the value of C, far tunnel ventilation should take a value appropriate to a “leaning plume" (8], where C, = 0.34. The average smoke layer temperature is estimated by: mi Xe {Equation 8) The volumetric flaw rate of smoke from the seat of a fire is: 1, X(B4T0) /(P. x T,) [Equation 9] STEP (7): ESTIMATE SMOKE TEMPERATURE DOWNSTREAM OF THE FIRE Modified from [12], Assuming adiabatic conditions i.e. zero heat loss fram the smoke layer to the ‘Surroundings: Qc 3 20) Tds = 5.38 x- +T, Y # For 7,> 018 {Equation 10] Location factor for the fire Lf is an additional term introduced by the author based on numerical experiments. TABLE 6: FIRE LOCATION FACTORS: {Fire location factor uf | Car park with low ceilings: £. | Where recirculation of air and smoke may occur® 4 * For most car parks with low ceiling suggested value Lf = 2. Location factor of 4 should be used where recirculation of air and smoke is expected at the fire origin based on fire location and airflow characteristics. STEP @: ESTIMATE THE AVERAGE SMOKE DENSITY DOWNSTREAM OF THE FIRE Assuming the pressure inside the car park close to the exhaust is equal tothe external atmospheric pressure (P,,,) and accarding to the Ideal gas law then: Pp (i)" [Equation 11] ‘Author: james Allen zeta oanorens PaSTEP (3) A: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN AMBIENT AIR * mi,,=V,, % 9, ® N, [Equation 12) Where from [Equation 5] the volume flow rate attributed to a single jet fan at distance (x) metres from the fan is: = {rx V «eto }. Jets, * It is important to consider that not all thrust fans have a direct influence on the extract flow rate, Some thrust fans will be used for distributing air white other fans accelerate air and smoke towards an extract paint, STEP @)B: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN HOT SMOKE ti, =V,, xp, XN, Source: J, Allen [Equation 13) Where from [Equation 5) the volume flow rate attributed to a single jet fan at distance (x) metres from the fan is: 7 y vi= Wx a/ () x e(W) xh) & x Jet,,., ‘Source: J, Allen STEP (0: ESTIMATE THE TOTAL VOLUME FLOW RATE* extract = Max Stitt, Hs) C5 8A) X Vay, } a et ange [Equation 14) ‘Source: J. Allen Care must be taken not ta over-specify the extraction rate since this can lead to prablems with inlet air velocities which are too high. If in doubt contact the author for more information. The directional source of supply air in enclosed spaces, including the alr velocity and the position relative to jet fans, is critical to achieving smoke control, As a guide, rules of thumb can be used to estimate maximum inlet velocities, far example BS7346 part 7 recommends a maximum velacity of 2m/s. ‘Author: james Allan zaotze oanorensSTEP (ii) CONCEPT CFD As the name suggests "Concept CFD" is used to define a conceptual ventilation system strategy, to verify that the estimated flowrates are sufficient to achieve the smoke control objectives. STEP (2) DETAILED CFD The purpose of the “Detailed” CFD is to simulate expected conditions for the full burn duration of a fire and verify that conditions do not worsen over time. The fire position chosen for the analysis is usually one of the worst case fires simulated at the *Concept” CFO stage. “Detailed” CFO is final verification that the propased system meets the smoke control objectives. CFD is run as a transient simulation, normally for at least 30 minutes [6] with results for variables such as temperature and smoke concentration produced every 1 minute or 2 minute intervals. Conclusions . A calculation method has been presented that can be used to estimate exhaust fan flowrate as an alternative to air change rate calculations. The use of CFD modelling is essential to fine tune and optimise ventilation solutions. + tis important for the industry, and longevity of smoke venting praducts, that this method is considered when designing a jet fan system and that the method is further developed. ‘Author: james allen zaotze oanorensREFERENCES 10. i Brooks, R, Smoke Control in underground car parks, 2001 BS7346 Part 7, “British standard, Components for smoke and heat control systems - Part 7: Code of practice on functianal recommendations and calculation methods for smake and heat control systems for covered car parks”, 2008 Shipp M, Technical Development Director, Building Research Establishment (BRE), Fire Spread in Car parks: The findings from the CLG / BRE research programme, Research project from October 2006.- March 2009, Daly, 8, B, Woods Practical Guide to Fan Engineering, Third Edition, 1985 CTICM report 2001, INC 01/410b D)/NB Qatar Civil defence guide - Civil Defence Department Ministry of interior, Qatar, Fire Safety Standards, Minimum requirements, Framework for submission of performance based designs, 2007 Singapore Civil defence force FSR 3:2008 UAE Fire and Life Safety code of practice, 2011 Edition Morgan H P BSc, PhO, CPhys, M Inst P. CEng, F | Fire E, Vanhove 8, ir-arch, De Smedt |-C, MIFir@E ‘Extending the principles of Impulse ventilation in tunnels to apply to smoke control in car parks’ Alpert R, L, Fire Technology 8 (181) (2972) Morgan H F Gosh 8 K, Garrad G, Pamlitschka R, De Smedt J-C, Schoonbaert L R, "Design Methodologies For Smoke And Heat Exhaust Ventilation”, BR 368, CRC, London, 1989 Alpert, R, L, “Calculation of Response Time of Ceiling Mounted Fire Detectors,” Fire Technology. Vol. 8, 1972, pp. 181-195. ‘author: james Allen, 25 otze oanorensr FlaktWoods wf BETTER AIR" TO LIFE Jin 6S counties we ae in a unique postion to be a local supplier and an intamational paras in our customers projects. * ‘Our product brands such as SECO’, 9", 0 Pre, IM Astor, [Mv Aerob, VCC technology Econet, Voacuct, Option, Optio, ‘Ecanavent® and Geanvent® are well inorn ond rusted by customers ‘lover the wort to Gover high quay and energy eee sokons. er myc 0 eer pt nc wo SO aN ue vat mmmetwene con te HL ag Hn