Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45

Seasonal changes of mineral nutrients in olive

leaves during the alternate-bearing cycle
R. FernaÂndez-Escobar*, R. Moreno, M. GarcõÂa-Creus
Departamento de AgronomõÂa, Universidad de CoÂrdoba, Apartado 3048, 14080,
CoÂrdoba, Spain

Accepted 3 March 1999

Abstract

Samples of olive (Olea europaea L.) leaves developed in 1993, 1994 or 1995 were collected
separately from non-irrigated, mature trees at monthly intervals during 1994 (`off' year) and 1995
(`on' year) to determine leaf-nutrient concentration and nutrient content per leaf. N, P, K and Mg
contents were affected by crop load, showing lower values following the `on' year. No effect of crop
load was observed on micronutrient accumulation in leaves, probably because of the lower
requirements for these elements of the olive fruit. Leaf age also influenced leaf-nutrient
concentration and nutrient content. Leaf N, P, K, Zn and B concentrations were higher in younger
leaves, whereas leaf Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu and Fe concentrations were higher in older leaves. Ca, Mg,
Mn, Cu and Fe content per leaf were also higher in older leaves. There was little or no difference in
P, K, Zn and B content among leaves of different ages. N content per leaf was higher in older leaves
during the growing period of the `off' year. Seasonal mineral fluctuations curves for different leaf
mineral nutrients were developed which could be used in the interpretation of leaf analysis. # 1999
Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Olea europaea; Nitrogen; Phosphorus; Potassium; Calcium; Magnesium; Manganese;

Zinc; Copper; Boron; Iron; Leaf analysis; Leaf sampling

1. Introduction

The olive (Olea europaea L.) is an evergreen tree that has been cultivated from
ancient times. Presently, there are more than eight million hectares producing

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-957-218498; fax: +34-57-218569

E-mail address: rfernandezescobar@uco.es (R. FernaÂndez-Escobar)

0304-4238/99/$ ± see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 0 4 - 4 2 3 8 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 5 - X
26 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45

olives in the world, most of them located in the Mediterranean Basin. Olives
flower on one-year-old wood and display two inflorescences per node. In the
northern hemisphere, flower bud induction is manifested by July, around the time
of endocarp sclerification (FernaÂndez-Escobar et al., 1992). Floral differentiation
is manifested by March (Hartmann, 1951), and anthesis occurs by May (AlcalaÂ
and Barranco, 1992). Shortly after anthesis, massive abscission of flowers and
fruits occurs (Rallo and FernaÂndez-Escobar, 1985). The remaining fruits usually
persist on the tree until harvest, which takes place during the fall and winter.
The olive is strongly alternate-bearing. This phenomenon may influence
nutrient content of the trees and the annual nutrient consumption, as has been
reported for pistachio (Brown et al., 1995), another alternate-bearing tree crop
species.
Leaf-nutrient analysis is the best method for diagnosing tree nutritional status,
and represents an important tool for determining future fertilization requirements
(Benton Jones, 1985). Presently, the use of leaf analysis as a guide for olive
fertilization is still infrequent in Spain and in other Mediterranean countries,
although the technique is becoming popular. Lack of dissemination of this
technique may be due, in part, to the lack of available information on nutritional
requirements of olive trees and also on the limitations of leaf analysis as a tool for
guiding fertilization programs. In addition, there has been confusion regarding the
appropriate time for leaf collection, a critical aspect of this technique.
It is well known that leaf analysis must be based on standardized sampling
methods and that results must be compared only with standard values obtained by
those procedures. Standard values for olives have been compiled by FernaÂndez-
Escobar (1997) based on data reported by Chapman (1966), Childers (1966) and
Beutel et al. (1983). These values refer to nutrient concentrations in recently
mature leaves sampled in July in the northern hemisphere from the middle
portion of non-bearing, current-season shoots. However, the seasonal variations in
leaf-nutrient concentration and leaf-nutrient content are necessary in order to
understand the physiological aspects of olive nutrition, and are also helpful in the
interpretation of leaf analysis. These seasonal changes are not available for olives.
The determination of such changes during the alternate-bearing cycle was the
objective of the present work.

2. Materials and methods

Non-irrigated, 12-year-old `Picual' olive trees spaced at 7  7 m2 and growing

in the La Mina Experimental Farm at Cabra, Southern CoÂrdoba province in Spain,
were selected for the experiment. The average annual rainfall in this area is
450 mm. Each experimental tree received 0.5 kg of soil-applied urea annually at
the end of March. Leaf samples were collected at approximately monthly
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45 27

intervals during 1994 (`off' year) and 1995 (`on' year) from four blocks of 50
olive trees each. Two or three fully-expanded, mature leaves per experimental tree
were collected each time from the current season growth of 1994 or 1995, and
also from the 1993 growth in 1994 and 1995, and from the 1994 growth in 1995.
In all cases, leaves were taken from the middle portion of the shoot corresponding
to each growth period. Leaf samples of the same age from each block were
combined as samples of 100±150 leaves for the determination of nutrient
concentration and nutrient content per leaf.
Leaves were collected in paper bags and stored in a portable ice chest. Once in
the laboratory, leaves were washed with 0.03% Triton X-100, rinsed in deionized
water, dried at 808C for 48 h, ground, and stored in an oven at 608C until analysis.
Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl procedure. For other element
determinations, the stored samples were ashed in a muffle furnace at 6008C for
12 h, and dissolved in 0.1 N HCl. Total P was determined by colorimetry using
the method described by Murphy and Riley (1962). Boron was determined in the
extract by colorimetry (Greweling, 1976). The remaining elements (K, Mg, Ca,
Zn, Mn, Fe, and Cu) were measured using an atomic absorption spectro-
photometer Perkin±Elmer 1.100 B. Mean and standard errors of each sample
were calculated for statistical comparison.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Leaf growth

Leaves developed during 1993 maintained a nearly constant dry mass

throughout 1994 and 1995, fluctuating around 85 mg per leaf. In contrast,
fully-expanded leaves from the current season growth of both, 1994 and 1995
increased in dry mass during the season, although to a lesser extent than those
developed during the `on' year (Fig. 1). This difference in dry matter
accumulation between leaves developed in `off' and `on' years could be due to
competition with developing fruits. Leaves developed in 1994 maintained a
nearly constant dry mass during 1995, fluctuating around 80 mg per leaf.

3.2. Nitrogen

Leaf N concentration was higher in younger leaves in both, `off' and `on' years
(Fig. 2). Nitrogen concentration of current-season leaves of 1994 and 1995 began
to drop in June, reaching a minimum value in August. Subsequently, during
autumn, these leaves showed an increase in N concentration reaching a maximum
at the end of the season. These values were almost constant until the following
June in leaves of the 1994 growth, when a new drop in N concentration was
28 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45

Fig. 1. Seasonal changes in the dry mass of fully-expanded olive leaves developed during three
different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.

observed. Leaf N concentration of the 1993 growth showed a slight decrease

during 1994 and a strong decrease in 1995. Leaf N concentration of July samples
of the current-season leaves in both, `off' and `on' years were above the threshold
limit for sufficiency by 1.5%, but was lower in the `on' year.
Nitrogen content per leaf of 1993 growth was almost constant during the `off'
year of 1994, but dropped strongly during 1995. Current-season leaves tended to
accumulate N during the season in both the years, reaching the same amounts of
N per leaf that the previous seasons leaves had at the end of the growing period.
Leaves from the 1994 growth period continued accumulating N until spring 1995
and, subsequently, showed a strong decrease. Following the `on' year, leaf N
content was significantly lower than that obtained following the `off' year of
1994. This difference could be due to N consumption by fruits during the `on'
year.
The direction of seasonal changes in both leaf N concentration and N content
per leaf are in agreement with those reported for other tree species. In deciduous
fruit trees, leaf N concentration decreased during the growing season (Ryugo,
1988; Shear and Faust, 1980) until leaf fall. In citrus, N accumulated in younger
leaves during the season (Moreno and GarcõÂa-MartõÂnez, 1984). In olive, we
observed a decrease of leaf N concentration until August and then an increase of
both N concentration and N content in younger leaves, as in citrus. The greater N
accumulation in the `off' year was also observed by Brown et al. (1995) in
perennial parts of pistachio trees, and also in olive leaves by Fahmy (1958). The
higher N concentration of younger leaves also has been reported for other
evergreen species (Broschat, 1997).
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 2. Seasonal trends of N concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.

29
30 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45

3.3. Phosphorus

Leaf P concentration was higher in younger leaves in both, the `off' and `on'
years (Fig. 3). Phosphorus concentration of the current-season leaves of
1994 dropped in June to reach a minimum in September. Subsequently, during
autumn, these leaves increased in P concentration, to reach a maximum in the
winter, showing a new drop in P concentration in March 1995 and decreasing the
same year. Leaves of the 1993 growth showed a pattern similar to leaves
developed in 1994, but they reached lower concentrations. Phosphorus
concentration of leaves from 1995 current-season growth also showed a pattern
similar to that of the 1994 growth, dropping to a minimum in August and
increasing during autumn, with a subsequent drop in October. Leaf P con-
centration of July samples of the current-season growth of both, 1994 and 1995
showed values above the threshold limit for sufficiency of 0.1%, but was higher in
the `on' year.
Phosphorus content of the three kinds of leaf samples showed similar
patterns of P concentration. Phosphorus accumulated in all the leaves during
the autumn and winter following the `off' year, and then decreased during
the `on' year. There were less pronounced differences in leaf P content
among leaf ages than that observed in leaf P concentration. The general dec-
rease in leaf P content during the `on' year could be due to P consumption by the
fruits.
The seasonal changes in leaf P concentration and content per leaf are generally
in agreement with those reported for other tree fruit species. Leaf P concentration
decreased throughout the growing season in deciduous trees (Ryugo, 1988; Shear
and Faust, 1980), citrus (Embleton et al., 1973) and avocado (Embleton and
Jones, 1966). We observed the same trends in olive trees, and also an increase in
leaf P concentration during the autumn in both years. This tendency has not been
reported consistently in other evergreen trees, although fluctuations in leaf P
concentration were observed by Bingham (1961) in avocado and by Fahmy and
Nasrallah (1959) in olive. However, the data reported by the latter authors are in
contrast with the results presented here. They found the lowest leaf P
concentration values in April and May and the highest in January in one year
and in August the next year, whereas we always found a minimum in August or
September and an accumulation of P in leaves during the autumn and winter,
following the `off' year. Accumulation of P in leaves following the `off' year was
also observed by Brown et al. (1995) in pistachio. The sample procedure adopted
in the present work, where leaves of three different ages were collected
separately, better reflects the seasonal trends of mineral nutrients in leaves and
permits a more precise interpretation of the data. The differences in sampling
methodology may explain, at least in part, the disagreement of our data with those
reported by Fahmy and Nasrallah (1959).
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 3. Seasonal trends of P concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.

31
32 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45

3.4. Potassium

Leaf K concentration was significantly higher in the current-season leaves of

both, the `off' and `on' years, than in the one-year-old leaves (Fig. 4). Potassium
concentration of current-season leaves gradually decreased from the beginning of
the season to August, and remained at approximately these values during the
autumn. Leaves developed during 1994 maintained the same values during 1995,
except that they showed a peak in March 1995. In contrast, leaves developed
during 1993 showed slight fluctuations in K concentration during the `off' year of
1994, with a minimum in March±April, but they also reached a maximum in
March 1995. Leaf K concentration of July samples from current-season growth of
both, the `off' and `on' years were below the sufficiency threshold of 0.8% but
above the deficiency threshold of 0.4%. Low K values are common in leaves of
dryland-cultivated olive trees (FernaÂndez-Escobar et al., 1994).
Leaf K content fluctuated in the `off' year of 1994, but increased in all leaves
from August 1994 to a maximum in March 1995. K content then decreased
rapidly in the three kinds of leaves sampled until June 1995, and it remained at
low levels throughout the rest of the season. Only slight differences were found in
K content among leaves of different age. Potassium accumulated in all leaves
following the `off' year and remained constant after the summer of the `on' year.
Leaf K concentration declines in most tree crops as the season progresses
(Ryugo, 1988; Shear and Faust, 1980). In olive, this decline was particularly
marked. A similar pattern has been reported for prunes (Weinbaum et al., 1994)
and figs (Brown, 1994), both species with a large fruit K demand. Little is
known about K requirements of olives, but Hartmann et al. (1966) compiled a
series of papers indicating a close relationship between productivity and leaf K
content. This relationship may be particularly important in the drylands, where
many of the olive orchards are K deficient (FernaÂndez-Escobar et al., 1994). The
high leaf K accumulation following the `off' year and the rapid decline after
March of the `on' year suggest a large K demand by the reproductive structures of
olive.

3.5. Calcium

Leaf Ca concentration as well as Ca content per leaf were significantly higher

in the older leaves of both, the `off' and `on' years (Fig. 5). Leaf Ca con-
centration and content of all leaves increased progressively during the two years
of the experiment, with some marked fluctuations measured in 1993. This
tendency is typical for this element (Ryugo, 1988; Shear and Faust, 1980). Leaf
Ca concentration of July samples from the current-season growth of both, the
`off' and `on' years were above the threshold limit for sufficiency of 1.0%. No
differences were evident between `on' and `off' year trees.
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 4. Seasonal trends of K concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.

33
 34
R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 5. Seasonal trends of Ca concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45 35

3.6. Magnesium

Leaf Mg concentration as well as Mg content per leaf were significantly higher

in the older leaves of both, the `off' and `on' years (Fig. 6). Magnesium
concentration of the current-season growth leaves of the `off' year slightly
increased during the season, dropped from October to March 1995 and then
increased during the growing season of the `on' year. A similar pattern was
observed in leaves developed in 1993, although these exhibited larger fluctuations
in Mg concentration. Leaf Mg concentration of the current-season growth of 1995
also increased during the season. Leaf Mg concentration of July samples of the
current-season growth of the `off' year was above the threshold limit for
sufficiency of 0.1% while Mg concentration of leaves from the `on' year was
below this threshold. Magnesium content per leaf showed a similar pattern than
Mg concentration in all kinds of leaves sampled. Results indicate clear
differences in both, the leaf Mg concentration and content per leaf between
`off' and `on' years.
The direction of seasonal changes in leaf Mg concentration and content are in
agreement with the results reported on pistachio (Picchioni et al., 1997) and fig
(Brown, 1994). In these species, the leaf Mg values increased throughout the
season, but the contrary was true in Japanese pear (Buwalda and Meekings,
1990). Broschat (1997), working with two evergreen species, Cocus nucifera L.
and Phoenix canariensis Chabaud, found different patterns of Mg changes
depending upon species and leaf age. In C. nucifera, he found an increase in Mg
concentration and then a decrease with increasing leaf age, a similar trend to that
observed by us in olive leaves developed in 1994. However, in P. canariensis this
pattern was reversed. These results indicate that the relationship between leaf Mg
values and leaf age varies widely among species.

3.7. Manganese

Leaf Mn concentration was usually higher in the older leaves of both, the `off'
and `on' years (Fig. 7). Manganese concentration of the current-season growth
leaves of both the years increased from the beginning of the season, reaching a
maximum in July. Subsequently, Mn concentration in leaves decreased through
the end of the season. In leaves developed in 1994, there was a slight increase in
Mn concentration during the `on' year of 1995. Leaves developed in 1993 showed
a decrease in Mn concentration during the `off' year, and then tended to increase
it in the `on' year. Leaf Mn concentration of the July samples of current-season
growth in both, the `off' and `on' years were above the threshold limit for
sufficiency of 20 mg kgÿ1, but it was lower in the `on' year.
Leaf Mn content was significantly higher in older leaves. Manganese content of
leaves developed in 1993 decreased during the `off' year, and then increased
 36
R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 6. Seasonal trends of Mg concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 7. Seasonal trends of Mn concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.

37
38 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45

slightly in the `on' year. In contrast, leaves developed in 1994 showed a slight Mn
accumulation during 1994 and 1995, and leaves from the 1995 growth had
noticeable fluctuations in Mn content but were constant after July. Little
differences were observed between `off' and `on' years in Mn content per leaf,
although it was slightly higher following the `off' year.
Leaf Mn concentration tends to increase with time in deciduous fruit trees
(Brown, 1994; Buwalda and Meekings, 1990; Shear and Faust, 1980), but the
reverse has been reported in some evergreen species (Broschat, 1997). In the
olive, the maximal Mn concentration was measured in July in leaves from
current-season growth. Increases of leaf Mn concentration were observed in older
leaves during the `on' year, but not during the `off' year.

3.8. Zinc

Leaf Zn concentration was higher in younger leaves in both `off' and `on' years
(Fig. 8). Zinc concentration of current-season growth leaves of both years clearly
decreased throughout the season to a minimum in December. Leaves from the
1994 growth remained at these levels during the next year. Leaves developed in
1993 showed little fluctuation during both these years, with a small peak in May
1994. Leaf Zn concentration of July samples of current-season growth in both
these years were above the threshold limit for sufficiency of 10 mg kgÿ1, and was
lower in the `on' year.
Leaf Zn content showed little differences between the three kinds of leaves
sampled. Zn accumulated in leaves following the `off' year to a maximum in
April 1995, and diminished during the `on' year of 1995. During the `off' year
there was a maximum in May±June in both kinds of leaves.
Little information is available concerning Zn nutrition of olives. However, the
seasonal trends presented in Fig. 7 are typical for this element in deciduous tree
species (Ryugo, 1988; Shear and Faust, 1980). In the olive, little difference was
found between `off' and `on' years.

3.9. Copper

Leaf Cu concentration was higher in leaves developed in 1993 than in the other
leaves, and no differences were found between leaves developed in 1994 and
1995 (Fig. 9). Leaves from 1993 growth showed large fluctuations but no clear
seasonal trend. In contrast, leaves from the 1994 and 1995 growth seasons
maintained its values almost constants during the season. Leaves developed in
1994 exhibited a slight increase in Cu concentration throughout 1995. Leaf Cu
concentration of July samples of the current-season growth of both these years
were above the threshold limit for sufficiency of 4 mg kgÿ1. Leaf Cu content
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 8. Seasonal trends of Zn concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.

39
 40
R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 9. Seasonal trends of Cu concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45 41

showed the same trend that Cu concentration had in all leaves. However, leaf Cu
content was generally higher in older leaves.
There are no reported cases of Cu deficiency in olives, mainly because copper
is used as a fungicide to control the olive leaf spot caused by Spilocea oleagina
(Castagne) Hughes. Periodic Cu sprays explain the great accumulation of this
element, particularly in the oldest leaves, and the erratic fluctuations observed in
leaf Cu concentration and content per leaf. Seasonal trends of Cu concentration of
the current-season growth leaves are, moreover, similar to those reported for other
tree fruits (Brown, 1994).

3.10. Boron

Leaf B concentration was higher in younger leaves in both years (Fig. 10).
Boron concentration of the current-season growth leaves of both, the `off' and
`on' years showed a general decrease throughout the season, but depleted in May
or June. This depletion occurs around anthesis and has been linked to B
mobilization from the leaves to supply B requirements of flowers and fruits
(Delgado et al., 1994). Leaves from the 1993 growth showed little fluctuations in
B concentration throughout the `off' year, and tended to increase it in 1995. Leaf
B concentration of July samples of the current-season growth in both these years
were within the adequate range of 19±150 mg kgÿ1, showing no differences
between years.
There was little difference in leaf B content among the three kinds of leaves
sampled. Leaf B content per leaf increased until June-July within each year, and
then decreased until October±November. Little difference was observed between
the `off' and `on' years, although in the `on' year the maximum B content per leaf
was higher than in the `off' year.
Seasonal trends in leaf B concentration varies greatly among species. Leaf B
concentration increases in citrus (Embleton et al., 1973) and fig (Brown, 1994) as
the season progresses, but in avocado (Embleton and Jones, 1966) and Japanese
pear (Buwalda and Meekings, 1990) leaf B decreases, as we observed in olive.
Moreover, olive require high levels of boron (Hartmann et al., 1966) and,
therefore, B fertilizer is applied in many olive orchards.

3.11. Iron

Only data from the `off' year of 1994 are available for iron. During this year,
leaf Fe concentration and content per leaf were higher in older leaves (Fig. 11).
Leaf Fe concentration fluctuated throughout the season, showing a general
tendency to oscillate around a value of 40 mg kgÿ1 for one-year-old leaves and
20 mg kgÿ1 for the current-season leaves. A similar pattern has been observed in
other tree species (Embleton and Jones, 1966; Buwalda and Meekings, 1990;
 42
R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 10. Seasonal trends of B concentration and content in olive leaves developed during three different growth periods and an alternate-bearing cycle.
 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45
Fig. 11. Seasonal trends of Fe concentration and content in olive leaves developed during two different growth periods.

43
44 R. FernaÂndez-Escobar et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 82 (1999) 25±45

Brown, 1994). Standard values have not been established for Fe in the olive. As
occurs for other species, leaf analysis is not useful for diagnosing Fe deficiency
because the inconsistency of leaf Fe levels in separating chlorotic from non-
chlorotic leaves (Korcak, 1987). Visual examination of trees is the best method
for diagnosing Fe deficiency, a nutritional problem that negatively affects olives
growing in alkaline, calcareous soils (FernaÂndez-Escobar et al., 1993).

4. Conclusions

Alternate bearing influenced leaf-nutrient content of olive trees. With the

exception of Ca, seasonal trends in macronutrient accumulation in leaves was
markedly altered in bearing trees compared with non-bearing ones. The influence
of crop load on micronutrient accumulation in leaves was almost imperceptible,
probably because of the lower requirements for these elements.
Leaf age significantly affected both, leaf-nutrient concentration and nutrient
content per leaf, suggesting the importance of standardized leaf sampling for
nutrient determination. As indicated before, standard values for olives were
obtained from recently mature leaves of the current-season growth sampled in
July in the Northern Hemisphere. The direction of changes in leaf nutrient
concentration of the current-season growth for which critical values were
established, were practically unaltered by crop load, showing in both, the `off'
and `on' years a similar pattern within each mineral nutrient studied. These
curves may be helpful for interpreting leaf analysis in the olive.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by CICYT Project AGF93-308.

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