Unit-3: Oscillations and Shock Waves

Oscillations:
Look at these examples
 The vibration of strings of guitar,
 Floating of ships in the sea.
 A child in a swing
 The cone inside a speaker
 Heart beats

What they all have in common? They all oscillate--that is, they move back and forth between
two points.

The to and fro motion of the body about its mean position is called Oscillatory / vibratory motion.

During each oscillation, the oscillating body has to pass through a position called equilibrium
position. When oscillatory motion stops due to external oppositions like friction and resistance the
oscillating body comes to rest about this equilibrium position.

All oscillations involve two things; elasticity and inertia. The oscillating system should have
spring action (elasticity) and the oscillating body should have certain mass (inertia). Spring
action of the medium pulls (restore) the body towards equilibrium position and the mass of the
body keeps it oscillating

Types of Oscillatory Motion: There are two types of oscillatory motions, depending upon the
path described by the body, namely, Linear Oscillatory Motion and Circular Oscillatory Motion.

The object moves left and right or up and down in linear oscillation.

In the circular motion, the object moves left to right but in circular form.

[There is hardly any difference between oscillation and vibration. If the movement takes place at
low frequencies the object is said to be oscillating and at higher frequencies it is vibrating!! ]

Periodic motions

If the motion is repeated in equal intervals of time then it is Periodic motion.

OR

The motion in which the body describes the same path again and again at equal intervals of time is called periodic
motion.

Ex: rotation of earth, rotation of car wheel, bouncing ball

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a form of oscillatory motion. Harmonic means repetition.
Simple harmonic motion is a particular case of periodic motion. In this motion, the net force
can be described by Hooke’s law

Definition: If the restoring force acting on a body is proportional to its displacement and
directed towards the equilibrium position then it is said to be executing simple harmonic motion
(SHM)

OR

SHM is the periodic motion executed by a body such that, its acceleration is proportional to its
displacement from the equilibrium position and is always directed towards it under the action of
a force called restoring force.
A system executing SHM is called as simple harmonic oscillator.

Examples:
 Oscillations of pendulum
 Vertical oscillations of mass attached to a spring
 Torsional oscillations
 The motion of piston of a cylinder (suspension system).
 The vibrations of tuning fork

What is so significant about simple harmonic motion? One special thing is that the period and
frequency of a simple harmonic oscillator are independent of amplitude. The string of a guitar,
for example, will oscillate with the same frequency whether plucked gently or hard. Because the
period is constant, a simple harmonic oscillator can be used as a clock.
If the net force can be described by Hooke’s law and there is no damping due to friction or other
opposing forces then oscillator will oscillate with equal displacement on either side of the
equilibrium position as shown
Characteristics of SHM

(i) SHM is a periodic motion.

(ii) In SHM, acceleration of the particle is directly proportional to its displacement, and
directed towards the mean position.
(iii) Velocity is maximum at the equilibrium position and zero at the maximum positions
(iv) Acceleration is maximum at extreme positions and zero at the equilibrium position
(v) SHM can be represented by a single harmonic function of sine or cosine.
(vi) Total energy of the particle executing SHM remains conserved.
(vii) The maximum displacement on either side of the equilibrium position is known as
amplitude
(viii) Time period (T): It is the time taken for one complete oscillation. The reciprocal of
time period is frequency

Hookes’ law and differential equation for SHM

Introduction:

Newton’s first law implies that an object oscillating back and forth is experiencing forces.
Without force, the object would move in a straight line at a constant speed rather than oscillate.
What is that force which keeps the body oscillating? It is restoring force (springiness) and its
relation with the displacement is given by Hookes’ law as follows.

Statement: Restoring force acting on an oscillating body is directly proportional to its

displacement and always directed towards the equilibrium position.
F=−ky −−−(1)
Where k is known as force constant or spring constant
According to Newton’s second law, the restoring force produces acceleration, thus
2
d y
F=ma=m 2 −−−(2)
dt
 where ‘a ’ is the acceleration
From equations (1) and (2) we get
2
d y
−ky =m 2
dt
2
d y
m 2
+ ky=0
dt
Or
2
d y k
2
+ y=0
dt m

d2 y 2
2
+ω y=0−−−(3)
dt
where ω is angular frequency or natural frequency and is given by

ω=
Eqn (3) is called differential equation for SHM.
√k
m

The solution for equation (3) is

y= A sin ( ωt + φ )

Where ‘A’ is amplitude of SHM and ‘φ’ is the initial phase of SHM.

FREQUENCY and PERIOD OF OSCILLATION

The natural frequency of the oscillations is given by

ω=
√ k
m
∨f =
1
2π √ k
m

And the time period of oscillation is

1
T=
f

T¿ 2 π
√ m
k
Mechanical simple harmonic oscillator: Mass suspended to spring (vertical vibrations)

The simplest example for mechanical SHM is a bob attached to spring executing oscillations.
Mass of the bob (m) satisfies the inertia and spring provides the required elasticity.

The bob is initially at y = 0. If we extend the spring by a small distance by applying a small force
by our finger, the bob oscillates up and down about its mean
position. By neglecting all damping factors the net force on the
oscillator can be described by Hookes’ law (and that is the main
requirement to call the oscillation as SHM!).

Statement: Restoring force acting on an oscillating body is

directly proportional to its displacement and always directed
towards the equilibrium position.

F α −displacement ( y )

F=−ky
Where k is known as force constant or stiffness constant or spring constant
The negative sign indicates that the restoring force accts in a direction opposite to the direction
of displacement.

Spring constant
The force constant or spring constant is magnitude of the applied force that produces unit extension (or
compression) in the spring while it is loaded within the elastic limit. Its SI unit is N/m and is given by
F
k=
y
Significance:
The spring constant determines exactly how much force will be required to deform the spring. In
other words spring constant tells you how much a spring resists to changes when we apply force
to it. A higher spring constant means a stiffer spring and vice-versa. Thus, springs with larger
value of constant will be stiffer

The spring constant depends on wire material (of the spring), Wire diameter, Coil diameter, free
length, number of active coils, etc

Note: As simple as they may seem, springs play a vital role in modern life. They are everywhere:
retractable pens, shock absorbers, clocks, keyboards, window blinds, door knobs, and just about anything
with a push button. When manufacturers produce springs, they need to know how the spring will behave.
It’s obvious that the same spring used for a shock absorber wouldn’t work in a ball-point pen. Spring
constant is the deciding factor in choosing the spring for an appropriate application. Spring constant can
be varied by means of combination of springs. Two important combinations are series combination and
parallel combination
The vertical oscillations of mass suspended by a spring is a good example of a mechanical
oscillator. Let us study the same for combination of 2 springs in series and also in parallel and
evaluate the force constant in each of the cases.

Series Combination of two springs:

Let us consider a system consists of two springs. Let k 1 is the stiffness or spring constant
of the spring S1. Let k2 is the stiffness or spring constant of the spring S 2. The increase in the
length (extension within the elastic limit) of the spring S1 is x1and for the spring S2 is x2. Let ‘m’

is the mass attached to lower end.

|F|=k 1 x 1∧|F|=k 2 x 2
F F
x 1= ∧x 2=
k1 k2

Now, let us consider the two springs S1 & S2 are suspended in series. Let ‘m‘ is the load
attached to the lower end of the series combination.
The two springs S1 & S2 experience a same pull by the mass. Let x1 is the extension of
the string S1. Let x2 is the extension of the string S2.

The total extension of string due to the load is given by x = x1 + x2

If F is the restoring force on load, ks is the equivalent force constant then

F=k s ( x 1 + x 2 )
 F
( x 1 + x2 ) = k
s

( F F
+ =
F
)
k1 k2 k s
1 1 1
∴ = +
k s k1 k2

In general if ‘n’ springs are in series

1 1 1 −−−+1
= + +
ks k1 k2 kn

If a mass ‗m‘ is attached to the lower end of the combination of the springs and set for
oscillations, its period of oscillation is given by

Parallel Combination of two Springs:

Consider two springs of springs constants k1 and k2 connected in parallel. The top of the
combination is fixed to the rigid support and the mass ‘m‘ is attached to the
free end of the parallel combination. In parallel combination, the applied
Force ‘F’ due to the load is divided among both the springs as F1 and F2
but extension produced in both springs is same
(i.e. x 1=x 2=x )
According to Hookes’ law
F 1=k 1 x∧F2=k 2 x
Restoring Force on load F is
F=F 1+ F 2

But F=k p x
k p x=k 1 x +k 2 x
k p x=x ( k 1 +k 2)
k p=k 1 +k 2

For ‘n’ springs in parallel k p=k 1 +k 2+−−−−k n

Types of Springs

1. Helical springs

A helical spring is made up of a wire or rod coiled into a helix.

The common purpose to use this Helical spring is to handle the compressive and tensile
load.

2. Extension springs

These springs are usually attached to other components at both ends, and when they are
separated, the spring tries to bring them together again. It is commonly used
in automotive interiors and exteriors applications, garage door assemblies, carburetors,
etc.

3. Compression springs

The compression spring is usually of coil type, which offers resistance to the force exerted to
compress the spring. These are usually pressed or squeezed by the load and can resist
compressive or push force.

Application of compression coil - Motorcycle suspension, Pen, Lock, Couches, Lighter,

4. Leaf springs

A leaf spring made of several strips of metal curved slightly upwards and clamped together on
top of each other. It is a simple form of spring commonly used for suspension in wheeled
vehicles.
Types of SHM:
Based on the amplitude of vibration, SHM can be classified into three types namely
 Free oscillations
 Damped oscillations
 Forced oscillations

1. Free oscillations:
If no resistance is offered to the motion of vibrating body by any source such as air friction or
internal forces, the body will keep on vibrating indefinitely. Such vibrations are called free
vibrations.

For free vibrations amplitude remains constant. In practice it is not possible to eliminate friction
completely. Free oscillations are represented by
d2 y 2
+ω y=0
d t2
The solution for this equation is y=a sin ( ωt+ φ )

By neglecting air resistance and friction one can take simple pendulum and load attached to a
spring as examples for free oscillations

2. Damped Oscillations:
Under ideal conditions a body executing SHM has constant amplitude. But in all practical cases
vibrating system experiences a resistance force or damping force and hence amplitude decays.
Such oscillations in which amplitude decreases due to damping forces are called damped
oscillations.
Ex:
i) Mechanical oscillations of a simple pendulum.
ii) Electrical oscillations in an LC – circuit.
iii) A swing left free to oscillate after being pushed once etc.

Theory of Damped Oscillations: (Derivation of Expression of Decaying Amplitude)

When a body executes damped oscillations, it is subjected to two forces. They are
i) A restoring force, Fr = -ky, where k is force constant and y is the displacement.
dy
ii) A frictional force or damping force, given by F f =−r where ‘r’ is frictional force
dt
per unit velocity called damping coefficient
According to Newton’s 2nd law
2
d y
F=ma=m 2 −−−(1)
dt
Where ‘a ’ is acceleration and m is the mass of oscillating body.
But
dy
F=F r + F f =−ky−r −−−(2)
dt
From eqns (1) and (2) we get
dy d2 y
−ky −r =m 2
dt dt
d 2 y dy
m 2
+r + ky=0
dt dt
Divide by ‘m’ on both sides
d 2 y r dy k
+ + y=0
d t 2 m dt m

2
d y dy 2
+2 b +ω y=0−−−(3)
dt
2
dt
2
r k
Where =2b and =ω and ‘b’ is damping factor and ‘ω’ is angular frequency or natural
m m
frequency of oscillating body. The equation (3) can be written as

α 2+ 2bα +ω 2=0

{For reference:
Eqn (3) is a 2nd order differential eqn. Its solution is of the form
αt
y= A e −−−(4 )
Where ‘A’ and ‘α’ are arbitrary constants
Differentiating eqn (4) twice we get
dy e αt ∧d 2 y 2 αt
=Aα 2
=Aα e
dt dt
2
d y dy
Substituting 2
, ∧ y values in eqn (3) we get
d t dt

A α 2 e αt + Aα e αt ( 2 b ) + A e αt ( ω 2) =0
A e αt (α ¿ ¿ 2+2 bα+ ω2)=0 ¿
2 2
α + 2bα +ω =0

This is a quadratic equation in α and roots are

−2 b ± √ 4 b2−4 ω 2
α=
2
α =−b ± √ b −ω
2 2

Therefore eqn (4) becomes

y= A e −b ± √ b −ω
( 2 2
)t

In general we can write

(−b+ √ b2−ω2 ) t
+ A2 e −b −√ b −ω t }
( 2
)
2

y= A 1 e
The solution of equation (3) is
y= A 1 e −b+√ b −ω t + A2 e −b −√ b −ω t −−−(5)
( 2 2
) ( 2 2
)

Eqn (5) is the expression for decaying amplitude in case of damped oscillations. Amplitude of
oscillations depend on damping factor b and natural frequency . For a given system,  is
constant and hence the decaying amplitude is solely depends on b

Different Cases of Damping:

If you gradually increase the amount of damping in a system, the period and frequency begin to
be affected, because damping opposes and hence slows the back and forth motion. Depending on
the amount of damping force we can identify three types in damped oscillations as follows

i) b =  2) b > ω 3) b < ω which are dealt separately as follows

Critical damping ( b = ):

The condition for critical damping is b = .

Critical damping is defined as the condition in which the damping of an oscillator results in it
returning as quickly as possible to its equilibrium position.
When b 2=ω2 , i .e . √ b 2−ω2 =0 ,

then eqn (5) becomes

−bt −bt
y= A 1 e + A 2 e
In the above equation both the terms on RHS are negative which shows that y reduces to zero in
the shortest possible time without any oscillation.
Critical damping is often desired, because such a system returns to equilibrium rapidly and
remains at equilibrium as well.

Example: Instruments such as balances and electrical meters are critically damped so that the
pointer moves quickly to the correct position without oscillating. The shock absorbers on a car
critically damp the suspension of the vehicle and so resist the setting up of vibration which could
make control difficult or cause damage
Critical damping is represented by Curve A in Figure.

Overdamping or dead beat case ( b > )):

When b> the oscillator may overshoot the equilibrium position, but will reach equilibrium over
a longer period of time. This is the case of overdamping.

When b> in eqn (5), √ b2−ω2 is real and less than the value of ‘b’.

In this case, both the exponential terms in eqn (5) are negative but the second term will be more
negative. The damping is more and hence the time taken by the body to reach equilibrium
increases.
Example: Door closing mechanism is heavily damped, when released from the open position
the door slowly closes, moving to the equilibrium position without oscillating.
Curve B in Figure represents an overdamped system

Underdamping ( b < ):

With less-than critical damping (b<), the system will return to equilibrium faster but will
overshoot and cross over one or more times. Such a system is underdamped;
When b2 < ω2, √ ( ω 2−b2 ) is imaginary
Let √ b2−ω2= √(−1) ( ω 2−b2 ) =i √ ( ω 2−b2 ) =iβ
Where β=√ ( ω 2−b 2)
Eqn (5) can be reduced to
−bt
y=a e sin ( βt +φ )
where ‘ a’ is the amplitude of undamped oscillator.

Example: the mass oscillating on a spring, the motion of ballistic galvanometer and electric
oscillations of LCR circuit.
This is represented by the curve C in Figure
Forced Oscillations:

The oscillations in which the body oscillates with a frequency other than its natural frequency
under the influence of an external periodic force are called Forced Oscillations.
Forced oscillations exist as long as there is an external periodic force. It external force is
removed, these oscillations die out.

Examples:
i) Vibrations of a bridge under the influence of marching soldiers.
ii) Vibrations of a tuning fork when exposed to the periodic force of sound waves.
iii) The periodic vibration of current in an LCR circuit driven by an AC source.
iv) The motion of diaphragm in a telephone receiver or a loud speaker and etc...

Theory of Forced Vibrations: (Derivation of expression for amplitude and phase of

forced vibrations)
When a body executes forced oscillations, there are three forces acting on it, namely
i) a restoring force (-ky)
dy
ii) a frictional force (−r ) and
dt
iii) the external periodic force represented by Fsin(pt)
where F is the maximum force and ‘p’ is angular frequency of applied periodic force.

Therefore net force F is

dy
F=−ky −r + F sin pt (1)
dt
But, by Newton’s II law
2
d y
F=ma=m 2 (2)
dt
From eqns (1) and (2) we get
d2 y dy
m =−ky−r + F sin pt
dt 2
dt
2
d y dy
m 2 +r + ky=F sin pt
dt dt
Divide by ‘m’ on both sides
d 2 y r dy k F
2
+ + y= sin pt
d t m dt m m

2
d y dy 2
2
+2 b +ω y=f sin pt (3)
dt dt
2
r F
where =2b , k =ω and =f =force per unit mass
m m m
Eqn (3) is the differential equation of 2nd order for a particle executing forced oscillations
The solution of eqn (3) is of the form
y= A sin ( pt−θ) (4)
Where ‘A’ is steady state amplitude and ‘θ’ is the angle by which the displacement ‘y’ lags
behind the applied force F sin pt .
Differentiating eqn (4) twice we get
2
dy d y 2
=Ap cos ( pt−θ ) ∧¿ 2 =− A p sin ( pt−θ) ¿
dt dt
2
d y dy
Substituting 2 , and y values in eqn (3) we get
d t dt
2 2
− A p sin( pt−θ)+2 bAp cos ( pt−θ ) +¿ ω A sin( pt −θ)=f sin pt ¿
A ( ω − p ) sin( pt −θ)+ 2bAp cos ( pt−θ ) =f sin( ( pt−θ ) +θ)
2 2

A ( ω − p ) sin( pt −θ)+ 2bAp cos ( pt−θ ) =f sin ( pt−θ ) cos θ+f cos ( pt−θ ) sin θ
2 2

Comparing the coefficients of sin( pt −θ) and cos ( pt −θ ) on both sides we get

(5)
A ( ω − p )=f cos θ
2 2
(6)
2 bAp=f sinθ
Squaring and adding (5) and (6) we get
2 2
A ( ω −p ) + 4 b A p =f cos θ +f sin θ=f
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

A [ ( ω − p ) +4 b p ] =f
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2
2 f
A= 2
( ω2− p2 ) +4 b2 p 2

f (7)
A=
√( ω − p ) +4 b p
2 2 2 2 2
Eqn (7) gives the expression for steady state amplitude of a body under the influence of periodic
force.
Eqn (6) divided by eqn (5) gives
f sin θ 2bAp 2 bp
= = 2
f cos θ A ( ω − p ) ( ω −p 2)
2 2

2 bp
tanθ=¿ 2 ¿
( ω − p 2)

θ=tan
−1
(( 2 bp
ω2− p2 ) ) (8)

Equation (8) gives the phase lag between displacement ‘y’ and periodic force F sin pt .

Different Cases in Forced Vibrations:

Depending on the values of p (applied frequency) and ω (natural frequency of the body), the
following three cases are possible.

Case 1: When p << ω

f f
In this case amplitude A= becomes A= =a constant i.e. independent of
√( ω − p ) +4 b p
2 2 2 2 2
ω
2

applied frequency
(when ‘p’ is small p2 tends to zero)
The phase angle ‘θ’ becomes

θ=tan
−1
(( 2 bp
ω −p ) 2 2 ) −1
≅ tan 0

2bp
i.e. θ = 0 (⸪ when p is small, ω 2− p2=ω 2 and 2
→0
ω
when p << ω, amplitude of vibration ‘A’ is independent of p and depends only on ‘f’. Also F
and ω are in phase (i.e. θ = 0).

Case 2: when p = ω
f f
In this case, amplitude A= =
√4 b 2
p 2 2 bp
−1 2bω π
And phase angle θ=tan =tan −1 ( ∞ ) θ=
0 2
Thus when frequency of applied force ‘p’ is equal to natural frequency ‘ω’ of a body, then
π
amplitude depends on b and p, and displacement ‘y’ lags behind force by .
2

Case 3: when p >> ω

f f f
In this case amplitude ‘A’ becomes A= = ≅ (Because p2 is
√(− p ) + 4 b p √ p + 4 b
2 2 2 2 4 2
p
2
p2
negligible compared to p4)
i.e.
f
A= 2
p
The phase angle ‘θ’ is given by
θ=tan −1
(( 2 bp
ω −p )
2 2 )
=tan−1
( 2bpp )=tan
2
−1
(−0 )

θ=π
2bp
Since ‘p’ is large 2 → 0
p
Thus when applied frequency very large compared to natural frequency of body, then amplitude
decreases with increase in p and phase angle tends to π.

1.1.7 Resonance:
The phenomenon of making a body to oscillate with its natural frequency under the influence of
external periodic force of same frequency is called Resonance.
Resonance occurs whenever a system is subjected to an external action that varies periodically
with time and with the proper frequency. At the resonance frequency, the external force and the
velocity of the particle are in phase. As a result, the power transfer to the oscillator has its
maximum value. At the frequencies above or below the resonance value, the force and velocity
are not in phase and hence the power transfer is lower.
Examples: The phenomenon of resonance appears in many areas of physics.
1. Tuning of a radio receiver involves matching of the frequency of the tuned circuit with
that of the radio wave.
2. Musical instruments can be made to vibrate by bringing them in contact with vibrations
which have the frequency equal to natural frequency of the instruments.
3. Resonance absorption of radiation by atoms takes place when the frequency of the
incident light waves equals the natural frequency of the atom.
 4. In a cyclotron, particles are accelerated to high energies only when the frequency of the
electric field accelerating the particles is equal to the frequency of the revolution of the
particle in magnetic field acting perpendicular to the particle path.
5. A dramatic example of resonance occurred when a company of soldiers was marching in
step across a bridge, the bridge collapsed. The period of free oscillation of the bridge
coincided with the period of marching step and resonance took place. This caused
swinging of the bridge with very high amplitude leading to the ultimate collapse.
6. Let us consider the soldiers crossing the suspension bridge,. They order to cross the
bridge without march in steps. This is to avoid the resonance between the natural
frequency of the bridge and frequency of the steps of the soldiers causes the resonance.
This resonance collapses the bridge.
Condition for Resonance:
We know that amplitude of vibration in case of force vibrations is given by

f (1)
A=
√( ω2− p2 ) +4 b2 p 2
2

At resonance ‘A’ is maximum.

√2
From above equation (1), A is maximum when ( ω 2− p2 ) + 4 b 2 p2 is minimum.

d
i .e .
dp
[ ( ω 2− p2 ) +4 b2 p2 ] =0
2

2 ( ω −p ) (−2 p ) + 4 b ( 2 p ) =0
2 2 2

−4 p ( ω − p ) + 8 b p=0
2 2 2

Divided by 4 p on both sides

−( ω − p ) +2 b =0
2 2 2

2 b =( ω − p )
2 2 2

p =( ω −2 b )
2 2 2

p= √ ( ω2−2 b2 ) (2)
Equation (2) is the condition for Resonance. This frequency ‘p’ is also called resonant angular
frequency.
But
p=2 π f r where fr is linear resonance frequency and b is damping constant
p
f r=
2π
 f r=
√ ( ω −2 b )
2 2

2π
Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1) we get the expression for maximum amplitude as

f
Amax =
2 bp

Showing Amax→∞ as b → 0

Sharpness of Resonance:
The rate of fall in amplitude with change of applied frequency on either side of resonant
frequency is called Sharpness of Resonance.
We know that amplitude is maximum when p= √ ( ω2−2 b2 ). If the frequency changes from this
value, the amplitude falls. When the fall in amplitude for a small departure from the resonance
frequency is very large, the resonance is said to be sharp. On the other hand if the fall in
amplitude is small, the resonance is said to be flat.

Effect of Damping on Sharpness:

Below figure shows the variation of amplitude with applied frequency ‘p’ at different amounts of
damping (b).

(1)
1) No damping b=0
2) Low damping
(2) (Sharpe Resonance)
3) High damping
(3) (flat Resonance)

p
Curve (1) shows the amplitude when there is no damping (i.e. b = 0). In this case amplitude

(
becomes infinite ∵ A max =
f
2bp )
at resonance. In practice this case is never attained due to

frictional resistances as slight damping is always possible.

Curves (1) and (2) show the effect of damping ‘b’ on amplitude. It is observed that peak of the
curve moves towards shorter frequency as the damping increases and amplitude decreases.
For smaller values of b, the fall in curve about resonance is steeper than for large values. Hence
smaller is the damping sharper is the resonance or larger is the damping, flatter is the resonance.

Shock Waves

● Shock waves are also called as mechanical waves [because they carry the energy]
● Shock waves are the sound waves produced by a medium due to sudden dissipation of
mechanical energy enclosed in a small space.
● Shock waves are characterized by
o High pressure
o Temperature
o Energy
o Density
● Shock waves are super sonics waves (M > 1)

MACH ANGLE
● A number of common tangents drawn to the expanding sound waves emitted from the body
at supersonic speed formulate a cone called the Mach cone.

● The angle made by the tangent with axis of the cone (half angle of the cone) is called Mach angle. It is
denoted by

Mach Angle θ=sin−1 ( M1 ) Where M is Mach number

Mach number (M):

Mach number is the ratio of velocity of object to velocity of sound.
Velocity of object
M=
Velocity of sound

Classification of waves based on Mach number

Acoustic wave:
An acoustic waves are sound waves or audible waves moving with a speed 333 m/s in air at STP,
having a frequency 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
Ultrasonic wave:
Ultrasonic waves are high pressure waves having frequency greater than 20 KHz, but they travel
with the same speed as sound wave.
Subsonic waves
If the speed of an object in a fluid medium is less than that of sound, then such a speed is called
subsonic and the wave is called subsonic wave.
i e V0<Vs , therefore M < 1
Example: speed of car, train
Supersonic waves
Supersonic waves are mechanical waves which travel with speeds greater than that of sound, i e.,
with speeds for which Mach number >1. Ex Fighter planes
Transonic waves
There is a speed range which overlaps on the subsonic and supersonic ranges. We say it transonic

range for which Mach number is 0.8< M <1.2 Example: Aero planes

Hypersonic
In the super sonic range, the special class of waves are called hypersonic waves, travel with a speed

for which Mach number > 5. Ex. Jet Planes, Space shuttles

Wave classification
Name Mach Number
Subsonic M<1
Transonic 0.8 < M< 1.2
Super sonic M>1
Hyper sonic M>5

A Shock wave is a narrow surface that manifests as a discontinuity in a fluid medium in which it is
propagating with supersonic speed. The disturbance is characterised by sudden increase in
pressure, temperature and density of the gas through which it propagates.
Reddy Shock tube:
The shock tube is a tool for studying the nature of shock wave propagation and high temperature
phenomenon in gases.
Reddy shock tube is a hand operated tube capable of generating shock waves with Mach number
greater than 1.5.

Construction and working of Reddy shock tube

Construction:
● Reddy shock tube is a hand operating shock tube to produce shock waves using human
energy
● It consists of stainless steel cylindrical tube of suitable dimension divided into two sections.
One is called driver section and the other is called driven section. The two sections are
separated by a diaphragm.
● A piston is fixed to the driver section and a reflector is fixed at the end of the driven tube.
● The diaphragm rupture pressure is monitored by digital pressure gauge fixed at driver
section.
● Two piezoelectric sensors S1 and S2 called as pressure sensors are mounted on driven tube
and are connected to CRO.
● Vacuum pump is fixed to driven tube to change the pressure of a driven gas (test gas).
Working:
● Place the diaphragm in between the driver and the driven section, which prevents the
movement of gas molecules from driver to driven section and also, the pressure difference
between the two cylinders is zero.
● Now push the piston. The gas in the driver section is compressed by pushing the piston.
This increases the temperature, intern pressure of the gas.
● From the high pressure side, the gas pushes the diaphragm until it ruptures (Depending on the
elastic properties of the diaphragm).
● When the diaphragm ruptures, it generates a shock wave that traverses the length of the low
pressure section i e in the driven section and increases the pressure and temperature of the gas in
that section.
 ● The time of flight of the shock wave and the pressure can be measured using oscilloscope.

Determination of Mach Number of shock wave:

Mach number is the ratio of velocity of object OR shock speed to velocity of sound.
Velocity of object
M=
Velocity of sound
Shock speed is the speed of the shock wave covered a distance of two sensors S1 and S2 with the time to
travel this distance.
Distance(X )
i.e. Shock speed =
Time (t)
The fixed distance between S1 and S2 is X = ……………. m,

The time taken for primary shock wave to travel from S 1 to S2 in the oscilloscope

Velocity of sound in air is 340 ms-1

By substituting all these values in the above equation, Mach number of the shock wave

can be determined.

Application of the shock waves

1. Cell information: By passing shock wave of appropriate strength, DNA can be pushed inside
a cell. The distinguishing feature is that, the functionality of DNA will not be affected by the
impact of the shock wave, This has wide biological applications.
2. Wood preservation: By using shock waves, chemical preservatives in the form of solutions
could be pushed into the interior of wood samples such as bamboo. This method makes the
process of introduction of preservatives into wood much faster and more efficient.
3. Kidney stone treatment: Shock wave is used to shatter the kidney stones into smaller
fragments after which, they are passed out of the body smoothly through the urinary tracts.
4. Shockwave assisted needleless drug delivery: The drug is filled into a cartridge which is kept
pressed on the skin and the shock wave is sent into the body using high pressure.
5. Treatment of dry bore wells: To clear the blocked feeder sources of the bore well.
6. Shock waves are used in oil extraction.
Problems;
1. The distance between two pressure sensors in a tube is 15cm
and the time taken by the shock wave to travel this distance is
0.3ms. Calculate the Mach number, if the velocity of sound in the
same medium is 340 m/s.