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JAMES DICKINS
UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD
1
I thank Janet Watson for reading a draft of this paper and making very useful
suggestions. All shortcomings are my own responsibility. I also thank the Lever-
hulme Trust for granting me a Research Award giving me relief from teaching and
administration during the academic years 2002–4 in order to pursue work on a
dictionary and grammar of Sudanese Arabic. This award has contributed to the
production of this paper.
For present purposes, Sudanese Arabic can be taken to have the following conso-
nant phonemes (cf. Dickins 2007: 24): /b/ voiced, bilabial, stop; /m/ bilabial, nasal;
/w/ bilabial, glide; /f/ voiceless, bilabial, fricative; /d/ voiced, apico-dental, stop;
/t/ voiceless, apico-dental, stop; /z/ voiced, apico-dental, fricative; /s/ voiceless, apico-
dental, fricative; /∂/ voiced, emphatic, apico-alveolar, stop; /†/ voiceless, emphatic,
apico-alveolar, stop; /Â/ voiced, emphatic, apico-alveolar, fricative; /Ò/ voiceless,
emphatic, apico-alveolar, fricative; /r/ (plain), apico-alveolar, trill; /®/ emphatic,
apico-alveolar; trill; /l/ (plain), apico-alveolar, lateral; /¬/ emphatic, apico-alveolar,
lateral; /n/ apico-alveolar, nasal; /j/ voiced, dorso-prepalatal, stop; /c/ voiceless,
dorso-prepalatal, stop (marginal phoneme); /s/ voiceless, dorso-prepalatal, fricative;
/n/ dorso-prepalatal, nasal (marginal phoneme); /y/ dorso-palatal, glide; /g/ voiced,
post-dorso-velar, stop; /k/ voiceless, post-dorso-velar, stop; /g/ voiced, post-dorso-post-
velar, fricative; /x/ voiceless, post-dorso-post-velar, fricative; /¨/ voiced, pharyngeal,
fricative; /Ì/ voiceless, pharyngeal, fricative; /’/ voiced, glottal, fricative (sometimes
described as glottal stop); /h/ voiceless, glottal, fricative.
For present purposes, Sudanese Arabic can be taken to have the following vowel
phonemes (cf. Dickins 2007: 25): /a/ open, unrounded, short vowel; /i/ front,
close, unrounded, short vowel; /u/ back, close, rounded, short vowel; /a/ open,
unrounded, long vowel; /i/ front, close, unrounded, long vowel; /u/ back, close,
237
In this article, I shall use the term ‘Sudanese Arabic’ as shorthand for
Central Urban Sudanese (Dickins 2007; elsewhere termed Khartoum
Arabic (Dickins 2006)), that is the dialect standardly spoken by long-
term native Arabic-speaking residents of Greater Khartoum (Khartoum,
Khartoum North, and Omdurman), and in other urban areas of cen-
tral Sudan, roughly to the towns of Atbara in the north, Sennar on
the Blue Nile, and Kosti on the White Nile. For details of the tran-
scription system, see Dickins (2007). In this paper, I use a subscript
to indicate a vowel which is deleted in liaison ‘readings’ of the mate-
rial presented. The Sudanese examples for this article have been taken
from three types of sources:
1. Examples constructed by myself. These are marked with a (C) after
them, or sometimes an entire group of examples is noted as having
been constructed before they are given.3
rounded, short vowel; /e/ front, mid, unrounded, long vowel; /o/ back, mid,
rounded, long vowel (see, however, Dickins 2007 for a critique of this account and
an alternative analysis).
2
In fact, the syntactic analysis in this paper is much more like that of Mulder
and Hervey than that implied — whether in lexotatics or delotactics — in Dickins
(1998). In Dickins (1998), syntax (roughly as normally understood) or delotactics is
an analysis involving content (semantic elements) only, whereas in Mulder and
Hervey, syntactic analysis involves elements which have both form and content.
In Dickins (1998), I have argued that Mulder and Hervey’s standard version of
axiomatic functionalism is coherently subsumed under the extended version of
the theory proposed there (e.g. Dickins 1998: 250–1). Accordingly, the theoretical
models of standard axiomatic functionalism are fully interpretable in terms of
models within extended axiomatic functionalism. In extended axiomatic-function-
alist terms, Mulder and Hervey’s syntax is an analysis of relations at the allosemic
level (what might be termed allosemotactics).
3
Some of the constructed examples are either elicited from Elrayah Abdelgadir
or produced by him without prompting on my part. Elrayah Abdelgadir acted as
consultant in 2005 and 2007 for an Arabic/English Dictionary of Sudanese Arabic
which I am working on.
238
I have argued in Dickins (2009; Section 10) that the definite particle
is the head of definite phrases in Sudanese Arabic. There I pointed
out that the distribution of definite phrases (i.e. the syntactic slots/
positions/places in which they can occur) is roughly ‘nominal’, i.e. it
is similar to that of simple indefinite nouns. The distribution of indef-
inite phrases, by contrast, depends on whether the phrase is nominal,
adjectival, verbal, etc. In this paper, I will look at the implications of
this situation for basic sentence structure in Sudanese Arabic. Consider
the following (examples constructed by myself ):
240
walad at-tarzi
‘the tailor’s a boy’
(it’s a boy that the tailor is’)
2.1.2 Noun+Adjective
definite+definite definite+indefinite indefinite+indefinite
za¨lan al-walad
‘the boy’s angry’
(‘it’s angry that the boy is’)
2.1.3 Noun+Adverbial
definite+definite definite+indefinite indefinite+indefinite
?al-walad al-hina al-walad hina *walad hina
‘the boy’s the one who’s here’ ‘the boy’s here’ ‘a boy’s here’
hina l-walad
‘the boy’s here’
(‘it’s here that the boy is’)
?walad al-hina
‘a boy is the one who’s here’
(‘the one who’s here is a boy’)
zi¨i l al-walad
‘the boy got angry’
241
?walad az-zi¨il
‘the one who got angry’s a boy’
2.2.1 Adjective+adjective
definite+definite definite+indefinite indefinite+indefinite
?al-¨ajib az-za¨lan al-¨ajib za¨lan *ajib za¨lan
‘the strange one’s the angry one’ ‘the strange one’s angry’ ‘a strange one’s angry’
za¨lan al-¨ajib
‘the strange one’s angry’
(‘it’s angry that the strange
one is’)
¨ajib az-za¨lan
‘the angry one’s strange’
(‘it’s strange that the angry
one is’)
242
2.2.3 Adjective+Adverbial
definite+definite definite+indefinite indefinite+indefinite
?al-¨ajib al-hina al-¨ajib hina *¨ajib hina
the strange one’s the one ‘the strange one’s here’ ‘a strange one’s here’
who’s here’
hina al-¨ajib
?¨ajib al-hina
(‘the one who’s here is
strange’)
zi¨il al-¨ajib
‘the strange one got angry’
?¨ajib az-zi¨il
‘the one who got angry is
strange’
243
hina al-ba¨da-na
‘the one after us is here’
(‘it’s here that the one after
us is’)
?ba¨da-na al-hina
‘the one who’s here is after us’
zi}i l al-ba¨da-na
‘the one after us got angry’
244
?ba¨da-na az-zi¨il
‘the one who got angry is after
us’
2.3.5 Adverbial+bipartite clause
definite+definite definite+indefinite indefinite+indefinite
zi¨i l al-baka
‘the one who cried got angry’
245
?baka z-zi¨il
‘the one who got angry cried’
2.4.5 Verb/Verb phrase+bipartite clause
definite+definite definite+indefinite indefinite+indefinite
?al-baka l-bet-u garib al-baka bet-u garib ?baka bet-u garib
‘the one who cried is the one ‘the one who cried’s house is ‘one who cried’s house is near’
whose house is near’ near’
?al-bet-u garib aÒ-ÒaÌb-u ma¨a-na al-bet-u garib ÒaÌb-u ma¨a-na *bet-u garib ÒaÌb-u ma¨a-na
‘the one who’s house is near is ‘the one who’s house is near is ‘his house is near, one whose
the one who’s friend is with us’ one who’s friend is with us’ friend is with us’
ÒaÌb-u ma¨a-na l-bet-u garib
‘the one who’s house is near is
one whose friend is with us’
246
Although the material in sections 2.1–2.5.5 is set out using the word
classes and related phrase classes established in Section 2, the infor-
mation reinforces the analysis given in Dickins (2009, Section 10)
that the head of a phrase which begins with a definite particle is the
definite particle itself — regardless of the word class or phrase class
of what follows it (noun, adjective, adverbial, verb, bipartite clause,
etc.). This is particularly obvious in the middle column where the
5
Strictly speaking, forms with pronoun suffixes in Sudanese Arabic may be
either definite or indefinite. Thus in di mara jarat-na (R) ‘she’s a woman who’s a
neighbour of ours’ (lit: ‘she’s a woman our neighbour’), jarat-na ‘our neighbour’
agrees with the indefinite mara ‘a woman’, indicating that jarat-na is itself indefi-
nite. It is also possible, however, to say al-mara jarat-na (C) ‘the woman who’s our
neighbour’ in which jarat-na agrees with the definite al-mara indicating that jarat-na
is also definite.
248
further specified, and apparently where the verb is also further speci-
fied, it is possible to have Subject-Verb. Thus:
Ìarayig zayy di bitgum †awwali ‘fires like that break out all the time’
(C)
as well as:
bitgum †awwali Ìarayig zayy di ‘fires like that break out all the time’
(C)
249
ma¨a-y↑ nafaren talata min ‘I’ve got/had two people from among
axwan-na as-subban our young friends [lit: from our youth
brothers]’ (Ar-riwayat as-safawiyya
li-†uwwar 1924, 1974)
and ‘the dog’ are relevant to identifying which is the subject and
which the object in ‘a cat bit the dog’ (or ‘the cat bit a dog’).
If definiteness and indefiniteness — which as argued involve dif-
ferent phrase-types in Sudanese Arabic — are not relevant to predi-
cand-predicate analysis, it follows that neither are elements which
give rise to different phrase-types: the most obvious of these ele-
ments are, of course, word-classes, of which I have — on a fairly ad
hoc basis — identified the following for Sudanese Arabic: noun,
adjective, adverb (and adverbial), and verb. Finally, word order is
254
3. Monopartite Sentences
255
6
Some idiomatic phrases — including those which involve a participle — only
occur without a predicand. An example is bayta ma¨a[-k] literally ‘overnighting with
[you (m.sg.)]’, meaning idiomatically ‘[you] have a hangover’. In this idiomatic
phrase, the active participle bayta only ever occurs in the f.sg. form. It is not possible
to also have a predicand hi ‘it (f.sg.)’ (thus *hi bayta ma¨a-k) in this idiomatic sense.
Other examples involving a f.sg. predicate in which a predicand cannot occur are,
with the active participle, farga ma¨a-w ‘he’s mad’ (lit: ‘making a difference with
him’) and, with a verb, ma bitafrig ma¨a-y↑ ‘it doesn’t make any difference to me’,
fakkat minn-u ‘he went mad’ (lit: ‘it [f.sg.] left him’). Other impersonal usages in
which it is not possible to have a predicand include forms involving the 3. m.sg.
imperfect yahimm, as in ma yahmma-ni↑ bi-n-nas del ‘I’m not concerned about
these/those people’ (lit: ‘[it] not-concerns-me with these/those-people’).
7
Almost all verbs from which fa¨lan forms are derived are intransitive; the tran-
sitive gibil, whose derivative gablan is discussed in Dickins (2009; Section 9), is an
exception. Almost all fa¨lan forms are derived from verbs which have fi¨il perfect, and
many fa¨lan forms refer to emotional or physical states experienced by people, e.g.
farÌan ‘joyful’, ta¨ban ‘exhausted’, na¨san ‘drowsy’, bardan ‘cold [as an experienced
physical sensation]’; thus ana bardan ‘I’m [feeling] cold’ — cf. barid ‘[objectively]
cold’, e.g. as-say da barid ‘that tea’s cold’.
256
8
It may be that Arabic equative (‘predicand-predicate’) structures are an
example of what Mulder terms ‘coordination’. His use of this term has little, if
any, connection with more standard uses of ‘coordination’ in linguistics to
describe the functioning of ‘and’ and related forms. Rather, what Mulder means
by ‘coordination’ is a relationship of bilateral functional independency between two
elements in syntax such that neither one of the two elements functionally implies
the other (cf. Mulder 1989: 288–93; 445–6; also Dickins 1998: 72). Note that
the distinction which Mulder makes between functional and occurrence depend-
ency is particularly important in understanding what he means by functional
dependency). I have argued in sections 2.6 and 3 that syntactically ‘predicand’
and ‘predicate’ do not imply one another; these are not, in fact, properly speaking
two distinct syntactic positions (‘slots’). I have also suggested in Section 3 that
Arabic monopartite sentences are to be analysed as cases in which a single element
occupies the one position which, in bipartite sentences, is occupied by two elements
(‘predicand’ and ‘predicate’).
In addition to subordination and coordination in syntax, Mulder recognizes
also what he terms interordination – that is a situation in which both elements
functionally imply one another. The structures which Mulder gives as examples of
both coordination and itnterordination (e.g. Mulder 1989: 290) all seem to me
extremely problematic. I will not pursue this issue in detail here. However, I believe
that the issue of ‘ordination’ (subordination, coordination, and interordination) in
axiomatic functionalism needs to be looked at again. It may be that the notions of
258
259
260
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