Seeleys Essentials of Anatomy and

Physiology 8th Edition VanPutte

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CHAPTER 6
SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES AND JOINTS
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter considers the functions of the skeletal system and emphasizes the structural and
functional types of bones. The chapter also presents the dynamic aspects of bone, including the
types of bone ossification, types of bone growth and bone remodeling and repair. General
considerations of bone anatomy are introduced, followed by an introduction to the major bones
of the axial and appendicular skeleton. Articulations, including the types of joints, are
considered. The types of synovial joints are discussed, along with three selected joints and the
formal terminology for describing the types of movement that are possible at a given joint. The
chapter is completed with a short discussion about the effects of aging on the skeletal system and
joints.

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

After reading this chapter, the students should be able to:

6.01A. Explain the functions of the skeletal system.

6.02A. Describe the components of the extracellular matrix, and explain the function of each.

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6.03A. Explain the structural differences between compact bone and spongy bone.
6.03B. Outline the processes of bone ossification, growth, remodeling, and repair.
6.04A. Explain the role of bone in calcium homeostasis.
6.04B. Describe how parathyroid hormone and calcitonin influence bone health and calcium
homeostasis.
6.05A. List and define the major features of a typical bone.
6.06A. Name the bones of the skull and describe their main features as seen from the lateral,
frontal, internal, and inferior views.
6.06B. List the bones that form the majority of the nasal septum.
6.06C. Describe the locations and functions of the paranasal sinuses.
6.06D. List the bones of the braincase and the face.
6.06E. Describe the shape of the vertebral column, and list its divisions.
6.06F. Discuss the common features of the vertebrae and contrast vertebrae from each region of
the vertebral column.
6.06G. List the bones and cartilage of the rib cage, including the three types of ribs.
6.07A. Identify the bones that makeup the pectoral girdle, and relate their structure and
arrangement to the function of the girdle.
6.07B. Name and describe the major bones of the upper limb.
6.07C. Name and describe the bones of the pelvic girdle and explain why the pelvic girdle is more
stable than the pectoral girdle.
6.07D. Name the bones that make up the coxal bone. D istinguish between the male and female
pelvis.
6.07E. Identify and describe the bones of the lower limb.
6.08A. Describe the two systems for classifying joints.
6.08B. Explain the structure of a fibrous joint, list the three types, and give examples of each type.
6.08C. Give examples of cartilaginous joints.
6.08D. Illustrate the structure of a synovial joint and explain the roles of the components of a
synovial joint.
6.08E. Classify synovial joints based on the shape of the bones in the joint and give an example of
each type.
6.08F. Demonstrate the difference betweeen the following pairs of movements: flexion and
extension; plantar flexion and dorsiflexion; abduction and adduction; supination and pronation;
elevation and depression; protraction and retraction; opposition and reposition; inversion and
eversion.
6.09A. Describe the effects of aging on bones and joints.

KEY POINTS TO EMPHASIZE WHEN TEACHING THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Relationship between structure and function:
The structure of bone includes collagen for flexible strength and the minerals in hydroxyapatite
(calcium and phosphate) for weight-bearing strength. It is a useful analogy to think of concrete
with steel reinforcing bars inside. Buildings must be strong enough to hold up the weight of the
building, but also flexible enough so that movement (such as an earthquake) does not cause
breakage. Students should also note the similarities between the plates of spongy bone and the
framework of bridges or buildings. A discussion of the arrangement of the strength elements
such as collagen fibers in tissues (cartilage vs. bone, etc.) and the direction of highest force may
also prove useful. Students should consider the proportions of spongy to compact bone in

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different bones in the body based on the type and direction of force that each bone is subjected to.
Bone structure is constantly being modified along lines of stress, so structure is modified as
function changes. In bone formation, the structure-function relationship between fontanels, the
birth process, and brain growth is important. A good discussion/essay topic under the structure-
function theme is to have students articulate the relationship between the structure and functions
of the vertebral column. Another good discussion topic involves a comparison of the strength
and range of movement in different joints, for example, the shoulder joint and the hip joint. The
shoulder joint has a much wider range of motion, but is not nearly as strong as the hip joint.
Most of these differences in strength and mobility can be correlated to differences in structure.

Homeostasis:
The skeletal system is the major storage site for calcium in the body. Blood calcium levels are
maintained within very narrow limits by movement of calcium between the blood and bone
tissue. Blood calcium levels are important for normal function of nerve and muscle cells. Bone
repair is also a homeostatic mechanism, restoring bone to its original strength and function. The
clinical focus sections on bone and joint disorders describe what happens to structure when
function is altered and what happens to function when structure is altered. Students should be
encouraged to compare the pathophysiology of particular disease states to the normal condition,
paying special attention to the cause and effect relationships that exist between the underlying
cause of the disease and all of its clinical manifestations.

Change through time:

The processes of endochondral and intramembranous bone formation are excellent examples of
change through time. The changes can be extended past fetal development into changes at
adolescence and the osteoporosis of post-menopausal women. An interesting debate would be
whether or not the postmenopausal changes in bone density are normal or abnormal changes.

Cell theory and biochemistry:

The topic of bone remodeling brings up the ongoing dynamic equilibrium between the calcium
stored in the hydroxyapatite crystals, the calcium in the tissue fluid of bone around the
osteocytes, and the calcium in the blood plasma. The hormones involved in the regulation of
calcium levels are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.

CONTENT OUTLINE
6.1. Functions of the Skeletal System
A. Support (Major Bones of the Skeletal System, Fig. 6.1, p. 111)
B. Protection
C. Movement
D. Storage
E. Blood cell production

6.2. Extracellular Matrix

A. Cartilage—extracellular matrix
1. Collagen
2. Proteoglycans
B. Tendons and ligaments—extracellular matrix

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 1. Collagen
C. Bone — extracellular matrix
A Case In Point: Brittle Bone Disease, p. 111
1. Collagen
2. Minerals in form of Hydroxyapatite

6.3. General Features of Bone

A. Categories of bone, based on their shape
1. Long bones
2. Short bones
3. Flat bones
4. Irregular bones
B. Structure of Long Bone (Fig. 6.2, p. 112)
1. Diaphysis
2. Epiphysis
3. Articular cartilage
4. Epiphyseal plate
5. Epiphyseal line
6. Medullary cavity
a) Yellow marrow
b) Red marrow
7. Periosteum
8. Endosteum
C. Histology of Bone
1. Osteoblasts
2. Osteocytes
3. lamellae
4. lacunae
5. canaliculi
6. two types of bone based on histology: compact bone and spongy bone
D. Compact bone – mostly solid matrix (Fig. 6.3, p. 115)
1. Central or Haversian canal
2. Osteon (Haversian system)
E. Spongy bone – consist of a lacy network of bone with many small, marrow-filled spaces
(Fig. 6.4, p. 114)
1. Trabeculae
a) Add strength without adding weight
b) No central canal or blood vessels
F. Bone ossification – the formation of bone by osteoblasts (Fig. 6.5, p. 114)
1. Intramembranous ossification
a. Ossification centers (Fig. 6.5a)
2. Endochondral ossification (Fig. 6.6, p. 115)
a. Chondrocytes
b. Primary ossification center
c. Osteoclasts
d. Secondary ossification centers
F. Bone growth – the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone
1. Increase in diameter

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 2. Endochondral growth — increase in length (Fig. 6.7, p. 116)
G. Bone remodeling – the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts

H. Bone repair (Fig. 6.8, p. 117)

1. Clot forms
2. Blood vessels and cells produce callus
3. Osteoblasts form spongy bone
4. Spongy bone remodeled to compact bone
Clinical Impact: Bone Fractures p. 118

6.4. Bone and Calcium Homeostasis (Fig. 6.9, p. 118)

A. Bone is major storage site for calcium
B. Movement of calcium into and out of bone determines blood calcium levels
C. Regulated by two hormones
1. Parathyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin

6.5. General Considerations of Bone Anatomy

A. 206 bones in the average adult skeleton (Table 6.1, p. 119)
B. Anatomical terms for bone features (Table 6.2, p. 120)
1. Foramen
2. Canal or meatus
3. Fossa
4. Tubercle
5. Process
6. Condyle
C. Bones of the skeleton are divided into axial and appendicular portions (Fig. 6.10, p. 121)

6.6. Axial skeleton

A. Skull – 22 bones divided into braincase and facial bones
1. Lateral view (Fig. 6.11, p. 122)
2. Frontal view (Fig. 6.12, p. 123)
3. Paranasal sinuses (Fig. 6.13, p. 124)
4. Interior of the cranial cavity (Fig. 6.14, p. 124)
5. Base of skull seen from below (Fig. 6.15, p. 125)
6. Hyoid (Fig. 6.16, p. 126)
B. Vertebral column (Fig. 6.17, p. 126)
1. General plan of the vertebrae (Fig. 6.18, p. 127)
2. Regional differences in vertebrae (Fig. 6.19, p. 127)
(1) Cervical
(2) Thoracic
(3) Lumbar
(4) Sacrum (Fig. 6.20. p. 128)
(5) Coccyx
C. Rib cage (Fig. 6.21, p. 129)
1. Ribs and Costal Cartilages
A Case In Point: Rib Fractures, p. 128
2. Sternum

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6.7. Appendicular Skeleton
A. Pectoral girdle (Fig. 6.22, p. 130, Fig. 6.24, p.
132 - surface view)
1. Scapula (Fig. 6.23a,b, p. 131)
2. Clavicle (Fig. 6.23c,d, p. 131)
B. Upper limb (Fig. 6.28, p. 133 - surface view)
1. Arm—humerus (Fig. 6.25, p. 132)
2. Forearm—radius and ulna (Fig. 6.26, p. 133)
3. Wrist (Fig. 6.27, p. 133)
Clinical Impact: Carpal Tunnel Syndrome p. 131
4. Hand (Fig. 6.27, p. 133)
D. Pelvic girdle (Fig. 6.29, p. 134)
1. Ilium, ischium, and pubis (Fig. 6.30-6.31,p. 134-135)
2. Comparison of male and female (Fig. 6.32,pg. 135,Tbl. 6.3, p.134)
E. Lower limb (Fig. 6.36, p. 138 - surface view)
1. Thigh--femur (Fig. 6.33, p. 136)
2. Leg--tibia and fibula (Fig. 6.34, p. 137)
3. Ankle (Fig. 6.35, p. 137)
4. Foot (Fig. 6.35, p. 137)

6.8. Joints
A. Fibrous joints (Fig. 6.37, p.138)
B. Cartilaginous joints
C. Synovial joints (Fig. 6.38, p. 139)
1. Types of synovial joints (Figs. 6.39, 6.40, pp. 140-141)
a) Plane joint
b) Saddle joint
c) Hinge joint
d) Pivot joint
e) Ball-and-socket joint
A Case In Point: Dislocated Shoulder p.143
f) Ellipsoid joint
2. Types of movement (Fig. 6.41, p. 142)
a) Flexion and extension
b) Abduction and adduction
c) Pronation and supination
d) Eversion and inversion
e) Rotation
f) Protraction and retraction
g) Elevation and depression
h) Excursion
i) Opposition and reposition
j) Circumduction

6.9. Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints

A. Bone matrix becomes more brittle
B. Joints lose articular cartilage

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 Systems Pathology — Osteoporosis p. 144
Diseases and Disorders of the Skeletal System p. 146

Learning Outcomes Correlation with Question Types

Question Type Question# Bloom’s Level Learning Outcome

Learn to Predict 1 2 6.6e,f
Predict 2 2 6.2a

Predict 3 2 6.3b

Predict 4 2 6.6b

Predict 5 2 6.8f

Predict 6 2 6.3b, 6.5a, 6.9a

Review/Comp 1 1 6.1a

Review/Comp 2 1 6.2a

Review/Comp 3 1 6.5a

Review/Comp 4 1,2 6.3a

Review/Comp 5 1,2 6.3a

Review/Comp 6 1 6.3b

Review/Comp 7 1 6.3b

Review/Comp 8 1 6.3b

Review/Comp 9 1 6.6a, 6.7a

Review/Comp 10 1 6.6d

Review/Comp 11 1 6.6c

Review/Comp 12 1 6.6d

Review/Comp 13 1 6.6a

Review/Comp 14 1 6.6e

Review/Comp 15 1 6.6f

Review/Comp 16 1 6.6g

Review/Comp 17 1 6.7a,b

Review/Comp 18 1 6.7c

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 Review/Comp 19 1 6.7e

Review/Comp 20 1 6.8a

Review/Comp 21 1,2 6.8d

Review/Comp 22 1 6.8e

Review/Comp 23 1 6.8f

Critical Thinking 1 2 6.3b

Critical Thinking 2 2 6.7e

Critical Thinking 3 2 6.7b

Critical Thinking 4 2 6.7c,d

Critical Thinking 5 2 6.7d