Sociology A Brief

Introduction Canadian 6th

Edition Schaefer Solution
Manual

Full download at link:

Solution Manual:
https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-
sociology-a-brief-introduction-canadian-6th-
edition-by-schaefer-and-haaland-1259465586-
9781259465581/

Test Bank: https://testbankpack.com/p/test-bank-

for-sociology-a-brief-introduction-canadian-6th-
edition-by-schaefer-and-haaland-1259465586-
9781259465581/

5
5-1
© 2014 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
 SOCIAL INTERACTION, GROUPS,
AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Contents:
• Learning Objectives

• Using Text Boxes to stimulate • Topics for students research

discussion • Additional Audiovisual suggestions
• Classroom activities • Additional readings
• Video suggestions • Class exercise on Gemeinschaft and
• Key points from the text Gesellschaft
• Additional lecture ideas • Thinking About Movies
• Class discussion topics

Learning Objectives:

5. 1. How do we define and reconstruct reality?

5.2 What are the elements of social structure?
5.3 What does a global perspective on social structure look like?
5.4 How are organizations structured?
5.5. How has the workplace changed?

Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion:

Sociology in the Global Community: Disability as a Master Status. Drawing on the earlier work of Erving
Goffman, contemporary sociologists have suggested that society has attached a stigma to many forms of
disability and that this stigma leads to prejudicial treatment. People with disabilities frequently observe that
people without disabilities see them only as blind, wheelchair-ridden, and so forth, rather than as complex human
beings with individual strengths and weaknesses, whose blindness or use of a wheelchair is merely one aspect of
their lives. Apply the Theory: 1) How would interactionist perspectives differ from conflict positions when it
comes to the study of disabilities? 2) What emphases would feminist thinkers be most likely to bring to the study
of disabilities?
Research Today: Social Networks and Obesity: The box examines how obesity has become a public health
issue in the United States and how social networks relate to weigh gain. Apply the Theory: 1) Have you ever
tried to lose weight, and if so, did your cluster of friends and family help or hinder you? In your experience, do
people who are overweight tend to cluster in separate groups from those who of normal weight? 2. Besides
public health campaigns, what applications can you think of for research on social networking?

Sociology in the Global Community: McDonald’s and the Worldwide Bureaucratization of Society. In his
book The McDonaldization of Society (2004), sociologist George Ritzer notes the enormous influence of a well-
known fats-food organization on modern-day culture and social life. Ritzer defines McDonaldization as “the
process by which the principles of the fat-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of U.S.
society as well as the rest of the world”. Worldwide, the giant fast-food establishment’s brand of predictability,
efficiency, and dependence on non-human technology have become customary in a number of services, ranging
from medical care to wedding planning to education. Apply the Theory: 1) Do you patronize McDonald’s and
5-2
© 2014 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
other fast-food establishments? If so, what features of these restaurants do you appreciate? Do you have any
complaints about them? 2) Analyze life at your college or university using Weber’s model of bureaucracy. What
elements of McDonaldization do you see? Do you wish life were less McDonaldized?

Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions. In 1991, unions represented 35.6 percent of workers
in the Canadian economy; in 2014 they represented 29 percent. Labour unions consist of organized workers
sharing either the same skill or the same employer. Few people today would dispute the fact that the Canadian
union movement is in transition. Among the reasons offered are: 1) the feminization of the movement; 2) the
rising rate of unionization of the public sector and the falling rate of unionization in the private sector; 3) the
waning influence of international unions headquartered outside Canada; and 4) the changing scope of union
membership. Both Marxists and functionalist view unions as a logical response to the emergence of impersonal,
large-scale, formal, and often alienating organizations. Apply the Theory: 1) If conflict thinker Karl Marx were
alive today, how do you think he would view the role of unions in contemporary Canadian society? 2) How do
you view the relevance of unions as a means of promoting gender equality?

Classroom activities:

Gesellschaft versus Gemeinschaft – Characteristics of our communities: There is a text box

giving students the characteristics of Gemeinschaft versus Gesellschaft types of communities. At the very end of
this chapter in this Instructor’s manual, there is a handout to turn this into a class activity.

McDonaldization: This can be done as a “Think/Pair/Share” exercise, or in groups. (For Think/Pair/Share

have students first think on their own about the questions, then talk to a partner or someone seated nearby them;
then invite the pairs to share their ideas with the class.) Have students read the opening excerpt from George
Ritzer's book, The McDonaldization of Society. Have students think about the kinds of jobs they have held,
especially those who have worked in fast-food restaurants. Have them make a list of examples of the
routinization of their work. How are they expected to greet customers? How are they expected to respond to
customers who keep changing their order? How are they expected to create a hamburger? Determine whether
students working in non-fast food settings have experienced the same "McDonaldization" of their work. How
has the McDonaldization of work affected their work experience? Is their work easier or harder? More or less
satisfying? What is the purpose of McDonaldization? What types of jobs are or are not McDonaldized? Why?
Has the advent of the computer led to the McDonaldization of many other jobs? When students graduate from
university – are they hoping to get another “McJob?” Ask them to explain how their “ideal” job will differ from
a McJob.

Achieved versus Ascribed characteristics: This works well as a “Think/Pair/Share” activity, and in any
size classroom. After going over the difference between ascribed and achieved characteristics, ask student to
make two lists, one called “ascribed” and one called “achieved.” Then ask them to think, individually, about all
the characteristics they have that fit into each column. Encourage students to think about their cultural
backgrounds, to include characteristics that may not be part of “mainstream” culture, but those that they may
have inherited or achieved within their own cultures. Explore religion, gangs, work, etc. Then get the students to
pair up and share their characteristics with each other, then with two more people. Last, invite students to share
examples from their lists with the entire class.

Video Suggestions:

5-1
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
• Quiet Rage – The Stanford Prison Experiment (50 min., 1992, Palo Alto, California, Stanford
University). The opening vignette to the chapter discusses Phillip Zimbardo’s famous experiment on social
structure. The film is a documentary of a classic experiment in social psychology, which was called off after
only six days because the situation had become so volatile that the researchers felt they no longer had
control over the guards and the safety of their research subjects. This film shows the powerful effects of
social structure (even an “unreal” structure), on human behaviour. As in many real-life prisons, the
simulated prison at Stanford University had a social structure in which guards held virtually total control
over prisoners. The social structure of Zimbardo’s mock prison influenced how the guards and prisoners
interacted. Social structure can be patterns of social relationships that people create through the meanings
they attach to others’ actions; social structure becomes something that is constructed through meaningful
interactions with others.
From the text: Use your sociological imagination: If you had been selected to be a guard in the
Stanford prison experiment, what meaning do you think the actions of the prisoners might have had for you?
In what way do you think social reality was being constructed in the Stanford prison experiment?
Questions to stimulate discussion: Based on Zimbardo's study, what would you conclude about the
impact of social structure on social interaction? Is it valid to generalize from a small experiment like the one
conducted by Zimbardo? Based on the sociological code of ethics that you learned about in Chapter 2, do
you believe that Zimbardo was ethical in conducting this experiment? Ending it when he did? Does
Zimbardo's experiment explain prison guard/prisoner behaviour in a real prison? Do you think that
Zimbardo’s claim that there were no long-lasting effects of the experiment is valid? How would you feel if
you had been a guard or a prisoner in this experiment?

• The Experiment: Exploring the Psychology of Groups and Power (2005, 120 min., BBC Worldwide
Education). This film was stimulated by the years of scholarly reaction to the Stanford Prison Experiment.
Excerpt from the manual accompanying the film: “Filmed by the BBC and conducted by two senior British
academics — Professor Alex Haslam and Dr Steve Reicher — it was a major investigation into the
psychology of groups and power. The Experiment examined the behaviour of 15 participants who had been
assigned to roles as Prisoners and Guards within a purpose-built environment over a period of nine days.
The results provide fascinating, powerful and thought-provoking insights into processes of social, clinical
and organizational psychology. The programs cover a range of issues that help to understand the way that
people and organizations work. They offer vivid, powerful and dramatic examples that bring alive topics
such as leadership and negotiation, conflict and co-operation, work satisfaction and stress, tyranny and
resistance, power and powerlessness, research methodology and social scientific theory.”

• The Corporation: A Documentary (2004, by March Achbar, Jennifer Abbott, Joel Bakan; Big Picture
Media Corporation, Kelowna, B.C.). The whole film is too long for use in class. The first 25 minutes or so
shows how the corporation became a legal person, with all the rights that people have. Part 1 examines the
pathological self-interest of the modern corporation. From the container: “The corporation delivers a laissez-
faire capitalism that fully meets the diagnostic criteria of a psychopath.” Part 2 looks at the scope of
commerce and the sophisticated, even covert, techniques marketers use to get their brands into our homes.
From the container: "In the 1600s, the enclosure movement fenced public grazing lands so they could be
privately owned. Today, every molecule on the planet is up for grabs. Corporations own the song "Happy
birthday"; patents on plants and animals; even your next disease. When they own everything, who will stand
for the public good?" Part 3 examines how corporations cut deals with any style of government - from Nazi
Germany to despotic states today - that allow or even encourage sweatshops, as long as sales go up.

• Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Prices (97 min, 2005, New York: Disinformation Company). Looks at
the effect Wal-Mart stores have on local businesses, their employees' economic status, the rights of women
and minorities as Wal-Mart Associates, the lack of environmental responsibility by Wal-Mart starting with
corporate headquarters on down, and the exploitation of Chinese and Bangladesh workers. Shows that Wal-
Mart has concern for its own profits by heavy in-store security but well-known lack of security in their
parking lots which have an inordinate amount of crime. Gives some case studies of activist groups that have
5-2
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
 won some victories for the workers and have prevented construction of Wal-Mart stores in various
communities.

Key Points from the text:

Social Interaction and Social Structure: Sociologists use the term social interaction to refer to the
ways in which people respond to one another. Social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized
into predictable relationships. These concepts are central to sociological study and they are closely related to
socialization.

Use Your Sociological Imagination: If you had been selected to be a guard in the Stanford prison
experiment, what meaning do you think the actions of the prisoners might have had for you? In what way do you
think social reality was being constructed in the Stanford prison experiment?

Social Interaction and Reality: The distinctive characteristic of social interactions among people,
according to Herbert Blumer, is that “human beings interpret or ‘define’ each other’s actions instead of merely
reacting to each other’s action." Reality is shaped by our perceptions, evaluations, and definitions. The ability to
define social reality reflects a group’s power within a society. Indeed, one of the most crucial aspects of the
relationship between dominant and subordinate groups is the ability of the dominant or majority group to define
a society’s values.

Statuses: We normally think of a person's "status" as having to do with influence, wealth, and fame. However,
sociologists use status to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or
society—from the lowest to the highest position. Clearly, a person holds more than one status simultaneously.

Ascribed and Achieved Status: An ascribed status is assigned to a person by society without regard for
the person’s unique talents or characteristics. Generally, this assignment takes place at birth; thus, a person’s
racial background, gender, and age are all considered ascribed statuses. Unlike ascribed statuses, an achieved
status is attained by a person largely through his or her own effort. One must do something to acquire an
achieved status— go to school, learn a skill, establish a friendship, or invent a new product. A master status is a
status that dominates others and thereby determines a person’s general position within society.

Social Roles: A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status.
With each distinctive social status, whether ascribed or achieved, comes particular role expectations. Roles are a
significant component of social structure. Viewed from a functionalist perspective, roles contribute to a society’s
stability by enabling members to anticipate the behaviour of others and to pattern their own actions accordingly.
Yet social roles can also be dysfunctional by restricting people's interaction and relationships. Role conflict
occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Role
strain describes the difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and
expectations. Role exit describes the process of disengagement from a role that is central to a person’s self-
identity in order to establish a new identity and role.

Use your sociological imagination: If you were a male nurse, what aspects of role conflict would you
need to consider? Now imagine you are a female professional boxer. What conflicting role expectations might
that involve? In both cases, how well do you think you would handle role conflict?

Groups: In sociological terms, a group is any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations
who regularly interact. Groups play a vital part in a society’s social structure. Much of our social interaction
takes place within groups and is influenced by their norms and sanctions. A primary group refers to a small
group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and co-operation. A secondary group refers to a
formal impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. An in-group is a group
or category to which people feel they belong, while an out-group is one to which people feel they do not belong.
5-3
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
A reference group is a group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own
behaviour. Coalitions are temporary or permanent alliances geared towards a common goal.

Social Networks: We all belong to a number of different groups, and through our acquaintances make
connections with people in different social circles. A social network is a series of social relationships that link a
person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people. Some networks may contain people by
limiting their range of interactions, yet networks can also empower people by making vast resources available to
them. Involvement in social networks is commonly known as networking. With advances in technology, we can
now maintain social networks electronically. One such network, in particular, is changing the way people
interact. Virtual worlds provide an opportunity for electronic networking that precludes the necessity for face-to-
face contact.

Use Your Sociological Imagination: If you were hearing impaired, what impact might texting have on
you?

Social Institutions: The mass media, the government, the economy, the family, and the health care system
are all examples of social institutions found in our society. Social Institutions are organized patterns of beliefs
and behaviour centered on basic social needs, such as replacing personnel (the family) and preserving order (the
government).

Functionalist View of Social Institutions: One way to understand social institutions is to see how they
fulfill essential functions. Social scientists have identified five major tasks, or functional prerequisites, that a
society or relatively permanent group must accomplish if it is to survive. These are (1) replacing personnel, (2)
teaching new recruits, (3) producing and distributing goods and services, (4) preserving order, and (5) providing
and maintaining a sense of purpose.

Conflict View of Social Institutions: While both the functionalist and the conflict perspectives agree that
social institutions are organized to meet basic social needs, conflict theorists object to the implication inherent in
the functionalist view that the outcome is necessarily efficient and desirable. From a conflict perspective, major
institutions help to maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society, while
contributing to the powerlessness of others.

Feminist View of Social Institutions: Feminist thinkers such as Patricia Hill Collins argue that social
institutions operate in gendered or racist environments. In schools, offices, and governmental institutions,
assumptions are made about what people that can do reflect the sexism and racism of the larger society.
Liberal feminists, or equality feminists, stress that benefits such as child care or parental leave, are a means of
strengthening employment opportunities for women, thus promoting gender equality. Radical feminist believe
that in order for gender equality to be achieved, patriarchy must be eliminated.

Use your sociological imagination: Would social networks be more important to a migrant worker in
British Columbia than to someone with political and social clout? Why or why not?

Interactionist View of Social Institutions: Interactionist theories emphasize that our social behaviour is
conditioned by the roles and statuses that we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institution within
which we function.

Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity: According to Durkheim, social structure depends on
the division of labour in a society. In societies where there is minimal division of labour, a collective
consciousness develops that emphasizes group solidarity. Durkheim termed this collective frame of mind
mechanical solidarity, implying that all individuals perform the same tasks. As societies become more
technological, they rely on greater division of labour and no individual can go it alone. Dependence on others

5-4
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
becomes essential for group survival. Organic solidarity refers to a collective consciousness resting on the need
a society’s members have for one another.

Tönnies’ Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: According to sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies, the

Gemeinschaft community is typical of rural life. It is a small community in which people have similar
backgrounds and life experiences. By contrast, the Gesellschaft is a community that is characteristic of modern
urban life. Most people are strangers and feel little in common with other community residents.
Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach: Sociologist Gerhard Lenski sees human societies as
undergoing change according to a dominant pattern, known as sociocultural evolution. This term refers to long-
term trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation and selection. There are three types
of preindustrial societies, which are categorized according to the way in which the social institution of the
economy is organized: the hunting-and-gathering society, the horticultural society, and the agrarian society.
As the industrial revolution proceeded, a new form of social structure emerged. An industrial society is a
society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. Industrial societies relied on new
inventions that facilitated agricultural and industrial production and on new sources of energy such as steam. A
post-industrial society is a society whose economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control
of information. The main output of a postindustrial society is services rather than manufactured goods.
Sociologist have recently gone beyond discussion of the post-industrial society to the model of the post-modern
society, a technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images and
which consumes goods and information on a mass scale. Postmodern theorists take a global perspective, noting
the ways in which particular aspects of culture cross national boundaries.

Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies: A formal organization is a group designed for a special
purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Though organizations vary in their size, they are all structured
to facilitate the management of large-scale operations. A bureaucracy is a component of formal organization
that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. Max Weber first directed researchers to the
significance of bureaucratic structure. He developed an ideal type (a construct or model for evaluating specific
cases) of bureaucracy that would reflect the most characteristic aspects of human organizations. The ideal
bureaucracy displays five basic characteristics: 1) division of labour; 2) hierarchy of authority; 3) written rules
and regulations; 4) impersonality; 5) employment based on technical qualifications. The downside of division of
labour is that fragmentation of work into smaller and smaller tasks can divide workers and remove any
connection they might feel to the overall objective of the bureaucracy. Such a work arrangement can produce
alienation, a condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society. Division of labour in some
cases can also lead to trained incapacity; that is, workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots
and fail to notice obvious problems. Sometimes rules and regulations can overshadow the larger goals of an
organization to the point that they become dysfunctional. Goal displacement refers to the overzealous
conformity to official regulations. According to the Peter Principle, every employee within a hierarchy tends to
rise to his or her level of incompetence. The term bureaucratization refers to the process by which a group,
organizations, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. Robert Michels originated the idea of the
iron law of oligarchy, which describes how even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a
bureaucracy ruled by a few (an oligarchy).

Bureaucracy and Organization Culture: According to the classical theory of formal organizations, also
known as the scientific management approach, workers are motivated almost entirely by economic rewards.
This theory stresses that the only physical constraints on workers limit their productivity. Therefore, workers
may be treated as a resource. An alternative way of considering bureaucratic dynamics, the human relations
approach, emphasizes the role of people, communications, and participation in a bureaucracy.

Changes to the Workplace: Organizational Restructuring Collective decision making is the active
involvement of employee problem-solving groups in corporate management. Minimal hierarchy offers workers
greater access to those in authority. Organizations work teams are when team members are released to some
degree from their regular duties in order to contribute to the organizations-wide effort. The common purpose of
work teams, minimal hierarchy, and collective decision making is to empower workers.
5-5
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
Changes to the Workplace: The Postmodern Job Telecommuters are employees who work full-time
or part-time at home rather than in an outside office, and who are linked to their supervisors and colleagues
through computer terminals, phone lines, and fax machines.

Use Your Sociological Imagination: If your first full-time job after college or university involved
telecommuting, what do you think would be the advantages and disadvantages of working out of a home office?
Do you think you would be satisfied as a telecommuter? Why or why not?

Electronic communication in the workplace has raised various controversies. On the one hand, emailing is
convenient and democratic. On the other hand, it does not convey body language, leaves a permanent record,
runs the risk of being sent unintentionally, and has contributed significantly to the fragmentation of work.

Additional lecture ideas:

1: Pathology of Imprisonment
An experiment at Stanford University provided a significant critique of the impact of a total institution.
Philip Zimbardo and a team of social psychologists carefully screened more than 70 volunteers for participation
in a simulated prison. It is important to stress that the two dozen males selected were mature, intelligent,
emotionally stable college students from middle-class homes.
Subjects were paid $15 a day to live in a mock prison created in a classroom building. By a flip of a coin,
half were arbitrarily designated as prisoners and the others as guards. The guards were allowed to make up their
own rules for maintaining law, order, and respect. The students designated as “prisoners” were unexpectedly
picked up at their homes by a city police officer in a squad car, searched, handcuffed, fingerprinted, booked at
the station house, and taken blindfolded to the mock jail.
The results of this experiment startled prisoners, guards, and researchers alike. After only six days (rather
than the intended two weeks) Zimbardo and his colleagues, aware of the ethical implications of using human
subjects, had to terminate the simulation because such frightening behaviour had taken place. The student guards
had begun to take pleasure in cruel treatment of prisoners. Physical punishment was prohibited, but the guards
created their own forms of abuse, including solitary confinement, hourly roll calls throughout the night, and
removal of blankets from uncooperative inmates. About a third were tyrannical and arbitrary in their use of
power; and the remaining guards did not interfere with this tough approach. At the same time, the prisoners
meekly accepted not only their confinement but also their mistreatment. When their requests for parole were
denied, these subjects merely returned quietly to their cells, where they cried hysterically.
This experiment serves as a sobering commentary on the possibility of improving prison life. Although
Zimbardo argues for better training programs for prison guards, it appears that the guards themselves are
“prisoners” of their social position as defined within the prison community and by society at large. Zimbardo’s
participants were not subjected to the racism, sexual aggression, and lethal violence that can be found in
contemporary prisons. Therefore, it is all the more discouraging to read that four inmates were discharged
prematurely because of “severe emotional responses.” Zimbardo’s research suggests that some of the problems
found in prisons are inevitable and casts a disturbing shadow on hopes for reform of correctional institutions. See
Philip Zimbardo, “Pathology of Imprisonment,” Society, 9(April 1972):4,6,8; Zimbardo, “On the Ethics of
Intervention in Human Psychological Research: With Special Reference to the Stanford Prison Experiment,”
Cognition 2(2)(1974):243–256; Craig Haney, Curtis Banks, and Philip Zimbardo, “Interpersonal Dynamics in a
Simulated Prison,” International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1(February 1973):69–97. Sue Titus
Reid. Crime and Criminology (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, 1971, p. 664.

2: The Caine Mutiny and Obedience to Rules

Under what circumstances is an individual justified in challenging the rules of an organization? This
question was explored by Herman Wouk in his best-selling 1951 novel, The Caine Mutiny, later converted into a
Broadway play and a Hollywood film.

5-6
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
 In the 1954 movie version, Humphrey Bogart stars as Captain Queeg, the veteran naval lieutenant-
commander in charge of the Caine, a run-down minesweeper. As the film progresses, Queeg becomes
increasingly neurotic and paranoid. In a typical display, he orders a search of the entire ship in an unsuccessful
attempt to recover an alleged duplicate key to the kitchen, which he insists was used to steal a quart of
strawberries.
The film reaches a climax during a dangerous typhoon. Queeg becomes paralyzed with fear and indecision,
and the fate of the ship seems uncertain. As a result, a lieutenant forcibly relieves him of his command and steers
the ship to safety. Subsequently, this officer and others are charged by the Navy with mutiny. An explosive
court-martial is held, during which the defense attorney exposes Queeg as a neurotic coward. The Navy acquits
the accused officers, and the captain’s career is finished.
However, the film does not end at this point. In a final plot twist, the defense attorney makes a stormy
appearance at a party being held by the freed officers of the Caine and calls into question the moral basis for
their actions. He bitterly charges that they—not Captain Queeg—were the real villains of the Caine mutiny.
Without loyal career officers like Queeg, insists the lawyer, the Navy (and our country) would not survive. No
one can respond to this angry rebuke, and the officers leave the party in embarrassed silence.
The movie’s lesson is plain: it is not for the individual to challenge the rules of the organization. The mutiny
was not justified; the ship should have been left in the hands of its rightful commander. Even when a leader
appears incompetent and insane—even when the ship may sink—subordinates should respect the system and
follow orders.
In The Organization Man, William H. Whyte, Jr., asked if Americans gagged on this extraordinary point of
view. Apparently, they did not. Wouk’s novel received the prestigious Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1952. Reviews
of the book, the play, and the film supported the view that one should not question one’s superiors. Walter Kerr,
a respected theater critic, exclaimed: “We are exhilarated by a ringing, rousing, thoroughly intelligible statement
in Queeg’s defense!" (W. H. Whyte, Jr. The Organization Man. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1959, pp. 245–
246). Thus, the message that the rules and authority of an organization must be obeyed proved to be a popular
one in the United States during the 1950s.

3: Multicultural Groups
The growing diversity of the paid labour force, especially in Europe and North America, is well
documented. What impact will this diversity have on decision making within organizations? How does cultural
diversity affect the performance of small groups in the workplace? Since policies and procedures are typically
developed in meetings of relatively modest size, small-group research can be especially useful in helping us
understand the impact of diversity within organizations.
In many experimental studies, a small group is created and then assigned a task or problem to resolve. The
overall conclusion of such research is that heterogeneous small groups (including culturally diverse groups)
produce solutions of higher quality than do homogeneous groups. In fact, as a group’s composition becomes
more diverse, additional alternatives are proposed that enhance the quality of decision making. The likelihood
that a group will offer many ideas and proposals is particularly attractive in light of the current demands on many
organizations to be more innovative and creative.
This general finding about the advantages of diversity in small groups has been tempered by the fact that
such groups often fail to benefit from racial and ethnic minorities. Researchers report that minorities are less
active participants within small groups and are slightly less committed to the group’s efforts than are other
members.
For example, one Canadian study focused on 45 small groups in which most minority participants were
from Asian backgrounds. In 34 of the 45 groups (76 percent), the member who contributed least often was a
minority group member. Such studies raise two sobering questions for organizations: How do the dynamics of
small groups impede minority participation? and How can organizations assist and benefit from employees who
may be reluctant to participate in small-group decision making?
Viewed from a conflict perspective, the apparently subordinate role of racial and ethnic minorities within
small groups, like the subordinate role of females in conversations with males, reminds us that the power
relations of the larger society influence members of small groups within an organization. So long as inequality
based on gender, race, and ethnicity is evident throughout our society, it will influence people’s self-confidence
and their ability to exercise leadership within a small group.
5-7
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
 Sources: Catherine Kirchmeyer,, “Multicultural Task Groups: An Account of the Low Contribution Level of
Minorities,” Small Group Research, 24(February 1993):127–148; Catherine Kirchmeyer and Aaron Cohen,
“Multicultural Groups: Their Performance and Reactions with Constructive Conflict,” Groups and Organization
Management, 17(June 1992):153–170; and J. Ruhe and J. Eatman, “Effects of Racial Composition on Small
Work Groups,” Small Group Behaviour, 8:479–486.

4: China and People with Disabilities

Having a disability is a master status found throughout the world. Sometimes its power surfaces in unusual
ways. In 1994, Fang Zheng was hailed as China’s discus champion among athletes with a disability. In his case,
the disability that he had overcome was the loss of both legs. But the Chinese government barred him from
international competition when Communist party officials learned that his disability occurred during the
Tiananmen Square uprising of June 4, 1989, when students and workers were demonstrating for democratic
reforms. His legs were crushed and later amputated when a Chinese Army tank ran him down and dragged him
30 feet as the tank plunged into the crowd to suppress dissenters.
Prior to the publicity associated with this event, sociologist C. Edward Vaughan evaluated public policy and
the existing laws regarding people with disabilities in the People’s Republic of China. In 1988, China published
its first five-year plan for the rehabilitation and education of people with disabilities. The Handicapped People’s
Association, an organization sponsored by the Chinese government, participated in the preparatory work and
discussions that led to the final document. The plan focuses on improving educational opportunities for people
with disabilities and on strengthening special education programs. While the plan encourages all levels of
government to enhance the employment, health, education, and general welfare of people with disabilities, these
policies are outlined in broad terms and lack specific goals.
In 1990, China’s national government issued the “Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection
of Disabled Persons.” This law was shaped, in part, through the advocacy efforts of the Disabled People’s
Association. The law suggests that employers offer work opportunities to people with disabilities who pass
entrance examinations. All levels of society are encouraged to offer access to people with disabilities, including
access to cultural materials and transportation. To bring greater recognition to the contribution of people with
disabilities, the third Sunday of every May was established as National Disabled Persons’ Day.
The new legislation prohibits public officials from violating the interests or rights of people with disabilities.
It outlaws violent and insulting behaviour aimed at the disabled, as well as mistreatment of people with
disabilities by family members or caregivers. Unfortunately, as Vaughan observes, it will be difficult for many
people with disabilities to obtain justice. Few attorneys available to represent disabled people in cases arising
from the 1990 law. Most people with disabilities have limited economic resources and few connections to
powerful public officials.
See Patrick E. Tyler, “China Discus Champ: Alone, Disabled, and Barred,” New York Times (September 8,
1994):A3; C. Edwin Vaughan, “The Development of Public Policy and New Laws Concerning the Rights of
People with Disabilities in the People’s Republic of China,” Journal of Disability Policy Studies,
4(1)(1993):131–140.

5: Social Roles amidst Disasters

There have been countless stories of personal sacrifice emerge from the morning of Tuesday, September 11,
2001. But perhaps the one that has come to epitomize the bravery demonstrated by so many is the action taken
by some of the passengers on United Airlines Flight 93 in the skies over rural Pennsylvania. Made aware that
attacks had already taken place against the World Trade Towers and the Pentagon, the passengers of this flight
decided to act. At least four men, and perhaps other men and women who we will never know about,
collaborated to challenge the armed hijackers, preventing them accomplishing yet another act of terrorism.
These individuals, business people and professionals, parents and sons and daughters, acted in ways not defined

5-8
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
by their existing social roles. Their decision to risk their lives came from a sense of responsibility to the
community of which they were a part, in this case, the American nation.

It isn’t often we are faced with life and death situations, but our response to them, beyond any personal choices,
is dictated by our sense of right and wrong as defined by the culture to which we have been socialized.

6: Role Transitions
Sociologists and other social scientists have examined the transitions that people make from one social role
to another. Usually, researchers look at major turning points in the life course, such as rites of passage when
people move between different sets of social networks.
Sociologist Ira Silver notes that these studies fail to acknowledge the importance of material objects and the
physical space in which role transitions take place. He explores one particular role transition, moving away to
college, to illustrate that objects play a central role in how students contract their social identities. By social
identifies is meant the meaning individuals perceive that others may attach to their particular social roles.
Following the work of Erving Goffman and the dramaturgical approach, Silver pays specific attention to the
objects that are used as “props” with which to manage the impressions that others form about the roles a given
individual occupies. Students make what amount to strategic choices about which objects to leave at home,
objects that Silver refers to as anchors or prior identities, and which ones to bring to school as master of new
identities.
The researcher conducted interviews with first- and second-year students at a residential university. Students
indicated the strong ties they had to their anchors, those objects that they associated exclusively with prior stages
in their lives, such as childhood or early adolescence. Students commented that leaving behind the objects
representing the ties they felt to their parents seemed to assume that most of their prized possessions were left
behind. The anchors that the students chose to bring with them often reflected a conscious assemblage of their
different past activities or accomplishments.
By contrast, markers (for example, record and CD collections and mementos from trips to exotic places) are
objects symbolic of where the students saw themselves presently and of the type of impression they wanted to
generate. For example, one female student made it clear that she never considered bringing her stuffed animals.
Another made a similar statement about dolls. While this may seem obvious, such decisions are conscious efforts
to move into another social role. Conscious efforts also go into deciding what to display on the walls of one’s
room. One male student, for example, purposely put up an unusual Beatles poster to signal to others that he was
a real fan and had not just picked one up that could be conveniently obtained anywhere.
The research confirms the enduring accuracy of the famed interactionist Herbert Blumer’s three
fundamental principles: (1) human beings act toward things on the basis of the meaning that the things have for
them; (2) the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with
one’s peer group; and (3) these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by
people in dealing with the things they encounter (p. 2).
Sources: Herbert Blumer. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1969. Blumer, “Role Transitions, Objects, and Identity,” Symbolic Interaction 19(1)(1996):1–20.

7: Organizational variables: How do sociologists study the wide range of formal organizations found in
Canadian society? Sociologist Dean Champion has arranged the variables that have been studied under four
headings:
1. Organizational structure
a. Size: payroll or clientele
b. Complexity: differentiation of duties
c. Formalization: written rules or codes
2. Organizational control
a. Size of administrative component
b. Bureaucratization: degree of specialization and dependence on written rules
c. Centralization: power retained by the central organizational hierarchy
d. Level of authority: numbers of layers of different positions

5-9
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
 3. Organizational behaviour
a. Climate: feelings of workers toward the organization
b. Effectiveness: ability of an organization to achieve its goals
c. Goals: intentions and activities
4. Organizational change
a. Labour turnover: percentage of people who leave in the course of a year
b. Conflict: tension, interference, and disagreements
c. Flexibility: degree to which an organization is adaptable to external and internal changes
d. Growth: change in number of employees, assets, departments, new product markets, and so forth
e. Administrative succession: turnover among administrative heads in an organization
f. Technology: mechanisms or processes, including automation
This model of variables for study is only one of many ways of examining organizations. Owing to the
complexity and importance of this subject, there are many interpretations of organizational structure, control,
behaviour, and change. See Champion. The Sociology of Organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.

8: Community Organizations: During the coming out period of the baby boomers between the late 1960s
through to the end of the 1970s two social forces shifted the way services were provided for the marginalized in
Canadian society. First, the economic boom that accompanied the emergence of the two-income family and its
attendant inflation provided government with a bonanza of tax revenues. Second, the social conscience that
baby boomers displayed in its antiestablishment movements of the 60s laid the foundation for a renewed vision
of the social contract. These two phenomena led to an unparalleled expansion of government involvement in the
provision of generous social programs. This expansion, despite lasting only just over a decade, set a precedent
for expectations that governments at all levels have been trying to shed themselves of ever since. The economic
downturn of the early 1980s produced the exploding debt of most industrialized countries including Canada, and
as a result, a cascade of devolution of responsibility for social services began. First it was the federal
government passing things off to the provinces. Then it was the provinces passing those charges on to the
municipalities and districts. Finally, it was those authorities abdicating responsibility citing excessive debt. In
the end, community organizations stepped forward to take up the slack.

Perhaps the most recognizable symbol of this transition is the food bank. Just over 20 years ago, in an
inner city neighbourhood of Edmonton, a community organization opened the doors of Canada’s first food bank.
In doing so it effectively opened the door to government permanently abandoning at least part of its
responsibility for the country’s poor.

In his article “What is left of community?” Eric Shragge looks at how the role of community
organizations in Canada has changed from being precipitators of social change, to being managers of service
programs. See also: Eric Shragge, “What is left of community?” Canadian Dimension March-April 2002 vol 36
no 2 p41-2; Henri Lamoureux, Robert Mayer, and Jean Panet-Raymond, “Community Action: Organizing fro
Social Change” Canadian Journal of Sociology, winter 1991 vol 16 no 1 p100-2; and Sheldon Goldenberg and
Valerie A. Haines, “Social networks and institutional completeness: from territory to ties, Canadian Journal of
Sociology, 1992 vol 17 no 3 p301-12.

9: Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity

Sociologists have presented many typologies of social structure, among them the theories of Tönnies and
Lenski. In addition, Émile Durkheim presented a twofold typology of mechanical and organic solidarity. In his
Division of Labour (1933, original edition 1893), Durkheim argued that social structure depends on the level of
division of labour in a society; in other words, on the manner in which tasks are performed. Thus, a task such as
providing food can be carried out almost totally by one individual or can be divided among many people. The

5-10
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
latter pattern typically occurs in modern societies; the tasks of cultivation, processing, distribution, and retailing
a single food item are performed by literally hundreds of people.
In societies in which there is minimal division of labour, a collective consciousness develops with an
emphasis on group solidarity. Durkheim termed this mechanical solidarity, implying that all individuals perform
the same tasks. No one needs to ask, “What do your parents do?” since all are engaged in similar work. Each
person prepares food, hunts, makes clothing, builds homes, and so forth. People have few options regarding what
to do with their lives, so there is little concern for individual needs. Instead, the group will is the dominating
force in society. Both social interaction and negotiation are based on close, intimate, face-to-face social contacts.
Since there is little specialization, there are few social roles.
As societies become more advanced technologically, greater division of labour takes place. The person who
cuts down timber is not the same person who puts up your roof. With increasing specialization, many different
tasks must be performed by different individuals, even in manufacturing one item, such as a radio or stove. In
general, social interactions become less personal than in societies characterized by mechanical solidarity. We
begin relating to others on the basis of their social positions (“butcher,” “nurse”) rather than their distinctive
human qualities. Statuses and social roles are in perpetual flux as the overall social structure of the society
continues to change.
In Durkheim’s terms, organic solidarity involves a collective consciousness resting on the need a society’s
members have for one another. Once society becomes more complex and there is greater division of labour, no
individual can go it alone. Dependence on others becomes essential for group survival. Durkheim chose the term
organic solidarity, since, in his view, individuals become interdependent in much the same way as organs of the
human body.
See Émile Durkheim. Division of Labour in Society. Trans. George Simpson. New York: Free Press, 1933
(originally published in 1893).

Class discussion topics:

1. Alternative Social Structure: As a starting point for emphasizing the importance of structure, outline
the island social structure and subsequent breakdown of social control presented in William Golding’s Lord of
the Flies (London: Farber and Farber, 1954). Note that sociologists make a distinction between a slum (a
deteriorated urban community) and a ghetto (an urban community that is home to a particular ethnic group). A
ghetto, as originally discussed by Herbert Gans and later by Elliot Liebow and others may be a highly organized
community, although it may not appear that way to outsiders. See Herbert Gans. The Urban Villagers. New
York: Free Press, 1962. See also Elliot Liebow. Tally's Corner. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967.

2. Heightism: Among our ascriptive characteristics is our height. Does height represent an ascriptive criterion
for social significance in the same way as skin colour and gender? If we think about the situations in which
height does affect our behaviour (such as dating, choice of spouse, perception of one as an authority figure, and
so forth) the answer will be a resounding “Yes.” See Leland P. Deck, “Buying Brains by the Inch,” The Journal
of the College and University Personnel Association, 12(1968):33–37.

3. Physical Attractiveness as a Cultural Construction: See Wolfe, Naomi. 1991. The Beauty Myth.
Toronto: Vintage Books.

4. Social Roles and Dating: Have class members indicate what they like and do not like about dating.
Analyze the results in terms of males’ and females’ responses regarding role performance, differences between
role expectations and actual role performance, and the line between “onstage” and “backstage” behaviour
(impression management). The students may discuss the conclusions they drew from the survey and general
trends in the rituals of dating. This activity always results in enthusiastic discussion as well as insights.

5-11
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
5. Social Participation: See De Ville, Barry. Community infrastructure and participation in culture : A study
of the effects of the supply of cultural facilities and resources on cultural participation in thirty-one Canadian
communities : A report. Ottawa : Secretary of State, 1980, c1981.

6. Hunting and Gathering: Richard Hurzeler has developed a class exercise to help re-create a hunting and
gathering society. See the description on p. 219 of Teodora O. Amoloza and James Sikora (eds.). Introductory
Sociology Resource Manual (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Sociological Association, 1996.

7. Using Humour: David S. Adams has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be
incorporated in lectures associated with this chapter. See Adams, “Interaction and Related Concepts.” In Using
Humor in Teaching Sociology: A Handbook. Washington, DC: ASA Teaching Resources Center. See also
Joseph E. Faulkner, "Forms of Human Organization. " In Sociology through Humor. New York: West, 1987.

8. Effects of Dynamite Charge: Judges often deliver a supplemental instruction that urges jurors to rethink
their views in an effort to reach a unanimous verdict. See Vicki L. Smith and Saul M. Kassin, “Effects of the
Dynamite Charge on the Deliberations of Deadlocked Mock Juries,” Law and Human Behaviour,
17(6)(1993):625–643.

9. Group Behaviour: Everyone has a horror story about working in a task group--the conflicting
personalities, the confusion of processes, and the incompatibility of goals. Richard Ofshe’s classic compilation
of articles on the dynamics of small groups offers insight into how and why small groups are so difficult to work
within. See Ofshe, Richard J. Ed. 1973 Interpersonal Behaviour in Small Groups. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Prentice Hall.

10. Social Networks among the Homeless: See Cynthia J. Boagard, J. Jeff McConnell, Naomi Gerstel,
and Michael Schwartz, "Homeless Mothers and Depression: Misdirected Policy," Journal of Health & Social
Behaviour, 40(March 1999):46–62. See also Susan T. Ennett, Susan L. Bailey, and E. Belle Federman, "Social
Network Characteristics Associated with Risky Behaviours among Runaway and Homeless Youth," Journal of
Health & Social Behaviour, 40(March 1999): 63–78.

11. Nepotism: Employment of relatives is based on the ascriptive characteristic “relationship”; however,
prohibiting nepotism often serves to prevent women from gaining access to jobs for which they qualify. Discuss
examples of nepotism and cases in which it may have been wrongly tolerated or inappropriately denied.

Topics for student research:

1. Sustainable Networks: Creech, Heather. Strategic intentions : managing knowledge networks for
sustainable development / Winnipeg : International Institute for Sustainable Development, c2001 *
2. Interracial Friends: See Maureen T. Hallinan and Richard A. Williams, “Interracial Friendship
Choices in Secondary Schools,” American Sociological Review, 54(February 1989): 67–78.
3. Gerhard Lenski: See Gerhard Lenski and Patrick D. Nolan, “Trajectories of Development:: A Test of
Ecological-Evolutionary Theory,” Social Forces 63(September 1984):1–23; and “Trajectories of
Development: A Further Test,” Social Forces, 64(March 1984):744–795.
4. Economic Prosperity and the Social Structure: See Dayton-Johnson, Jeff. 2001. Social Cohesion
and Economic Prosperity. Toronto: J. Lorimer.
5. Networking among Men and Women: See Gwen Moore, “Structural Determinants of Men’s and
Women’s Personal Networks,” American Sociological Review, 55 (October 1990):726–735.
6. Social Interaction and the Media: See Koelsch, Frank. The Infomedia Revolution : How it is
Changing our World and Your life. /Toronto : McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1995
5-12
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
 7. Prison Interaction: See Geoffrey Hunt, et al., “Changes in Prison Culture: Prison Gangs and the Case
of the ‘Pepsi Generation,'” Social Problems, 40(August 1993):398–409.
8. Social Networks in China: See Peter M. Blau, Canching Ruan, and Monika Ardelt, “Interpersonal
Choice and Networks in China,” Social Forces, 69(June 1991):1037–1062.
9. Women in Social Networks: See Gwen Moore, “Women in Elite Positions: Insiders or Outsiders,”
Sociological Forum, 3(Fall 1988):566–585.
10. AIDS and Structural Support: See Rowe, William and Bill Ryan. Eds. 1998. Social Work and HIV:
the Canadian Experience. Don Mills, Ont. Oxford University Press.
11. Joiners: Membership commitment to voluntary associations is considered in David Knoke,
“Commitment and Detachment in Voluntary Associations,” American Sociological Review, 46(April
1981):141–158.
12. Maternalist Organizations: See Linda M. Blum and Elizabeth A. Vandenvater, “Mother to Mother: A
Maternalist Organization in Late Capitalist America,” Social Problems, 40(August 1993):185–300.
13. Organizational Effectiveness: See Renee R. Anspach, “Everyday Methods for Assessing
Organizational Effectiveness,” Social Problems (February 1991):1–19.
14. Pink Punk Subculture: The Punk subculture has been around long enough to establish its value as a
social phenomenon. See Canadian Woman Studies, December 2000 - February 2001 vol 21 no 1 p46-
50. You can run but you can't hide: the incorporation of riot grrrl into mainstream culture. Alison Jacques.
Canadian Woman Studies December 2000 - February 2001 vol 21 no 1 p46-50 Pretty in punk: girls'
resistance in a boys' subculture. Lauraine Leblanc. Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology
February 2000 vol 37 no 1 p113-14.Revolution, girl style: meet the Riot Grrrls — a sassy new breed of
feminists for the MTV age. Farai Chideya. Newsweek November 23 1992 vol 120 no 21 p84-6
15. Gangs: Bloody biker war: an inside look at Quebec's battlefield. Daniel Wolf. Maclean's January 15
1996 vol 109 no 3 p10-11.
16. Reference Group Theory: See John K. Cochran and Leonard Beeghley, “The Influence of Religion on
Attitudes toward Nonmarital Sexuality: A Preliminary Assessment of Reference Group Theory,”
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30(March 1991):45–62.
17. Sexual Harassment in High Schools: See Valerie E. Lee, Robert G. Croninger, Eleanor Linn, and
Xianglei Chen, “The Culture of Sexual Harassment in Secondary Schools,” American Educational
Research Journal, 33(2)(1996):383–417.

Additional audiovisual materials:

AIDS at Issue: Coping with an Epidemic (1992, 22m). This program gives voice to the many moral, legal,
ethical, and economic concerns that the epidemic raises. It presents a broad range of opinions on such issues
as AIDS education in the schools, needle-exchange programs, mandatory testing, the rights of people with
AIDS, condom advertising on television, and more. The magnitude of this epidemic is forcing people with
deeply held beliefs on personal freedom to confront the conflict between their principles and their fear of
AIDS.
.
Coming Out under Fire (1994, B&W, 71m). Explores through interviews the roots and impact of the “don’t ask,
don’t tell” policy.
Globalization and Maquiladoras ( 2006: 2012, 4;04m(YouTube), 2:58m (New York Times)). These two clips
examine the growing phenomenon of low wage work in the global economy.

.McDonald’s Culture Jam and the Sociology of Health (2007, YouTube, 1:13m). This jam culture montage helps
to draw attention to social problems and health problems facing a “fast food nation.”

5-13
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
Sexual Harassment: It’s Not Just Courtesy—It’s the Law (1990, 27m). Poignant vignettes illustrate the adverse
impact of sexual harassment on individuals and organizations. Through the use of situational examples, this
tape provides insights into how best to handle unwelcome sexual behaviour and demands for sexual favours
in return for career advancement. It also covers the law regarding sexual harassment.
What Happened to the American Dream? (2007, 24:15 m). This PBS production examines the disconnect
between the national dream and the economic reality of many American workers.

Additional readings:

Altman, Dennis. 2002. Global Sex. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A look at how mass media,
transportation, new technologies, and multinational corporations are reshaping our sexual practices and
views in an increasingly globalized world.
Bakan, Joel. 2004. The Corporation: The Pathological pursuit of profit and power. Toronto: Viking Canada. In
this book, Bakan examines the modern business corporation – its history, its power, and its relationships to
government, society, and the environment – likening it to a psychopathic personality.
Beebe, Stephen. Communicating in Small Groups. New York: Longman. A guide for successful interaction in
small groups, especially in educational and business settings.
Berger, Peter L., and Thomas Luckmann. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of
Knowledge. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. 1966. An explanation of how reality is created and modified
through social interaction.
Blumberg, Rhoda Lois. Organizations in Contemporary Society. Englewood, Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987. A
good survey of recent research concerning formal organizations and bureaucracies.
Deutsch, Morton, and Robert M. Krauss. Theories in Social Psychology. New York: Basic Books, 1965. This
book offers a valuable summary of role and reference group theory, as well as profiles of such influential
sociologists as George Herbert Mead, Robert Merton, and Erving Goffman.
Epstein, Steven. Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and Politics of Knowledge. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1997. A sociologist looks at how people with AIDS and sympathetic supporters have created a social
movement seeking to increase support for research into the disease.
Ferguson, Kathy E. The Feminist Case against Bureaucracy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984.
Ferguson draws on a broad range of social science literature to document how women are at a comparative
disadvantage in contemporary bureaucracies.
Fisher, B. Aubrey, and Donald G. Ellis. Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process
(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. Communication specialist Donald G. Ellis has revised the
examination of group structure, decision-making, and conflict resolution by renowned authority B. Aubrey
Fisher.
Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday, 1959. One of Goffman's
major works. A fascinating introduction to the dramaturgical approach that explains social interaction in
everyday settings.
Gahagan, Jacqueline (ed.). 2013. Women and HIV Prevention:Implications for Research, Policy and Practice.
Toronto:Women’s Press.
Hall, Richard. Organizations: Structure and Process (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1987. A
textbook used in many sociology of organizations courses that provide a broad survey of the internal
workings of these groups and their relationship to one another.
Homans, George C. The Human Group. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1950. This book provides a summary of
major studies on small groups, including the Hawthorne studies and research on the Norton Street gang.

Jackson, Andrew. 2010. Work and Labour in Canada: Critical Issues(2nd ed.). Toronto: Canadian Scholars’
Press Inc/WP. A comprehensive examination of work and labour in the Canadian context.
5-14
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
Jacobs, Jerry. The Mall: An Attempted Escape from Everyday Life. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland. 1984. An
analysis of social interaction in the omnipresent suburban mall.
Kollock, Peter, and Jodi O'Brien (eds.). The Production of Reality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1993.
This anthology takes the interactionist approach to social structure and social reality.
Levin, Jack. Sociological Snapshots. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1993. A series of vignettes that
examine social structure and change in everyday life.
Murphy, Julien S. The Constructed Body. AIDS, Reproductive Technology, and Ethics. Albany, NY: State of
New York University Press, 1995. Looks at medical ethics confronted by new developments at the close of
the 20th century, such as AIDS and new birth technologies.
Perrow, Charles. Complex Organizations (3rd ed.). New York: Random House, 1986. An overview of
organizational analysis with an emphasis on economic theories of complex organizations.
Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of Society (rev. ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1996. A look
at the changing nature of contemporary life, with its impact on social behaviour and institutions.
Rowe, William and Ryan, Bill (eds.) Social Work and HIV: The Canadian Experience. Don Mills, ON: OUP,
1998.
Salla, Vivian. 2011. Working in the Global Era: Canadian Perspectives ( 2nd ed.) Toronto: CSPI. This reader
examines work from a critical, Canadian perspective.
Shaw, Marvin E. Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behaviour (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1981. A psychologist offers an extensive overview of small group research, including studies on the
formation of groups and the effects of physical environment.
Ursel, Jane. Private Lives, Public Policy: 100 Years of State Intervention in the Family. Toronto: Women’s
Press, 1992.
Wright, Eric R., and Michael Polgar (eds.) Teaching the Sociology of HIV/AIDS: Syllabi, Lectures, and Other
Resources for Instructors and Students. Washington, DC: The American Sociological Association Teaching
Resource Center, 1997. A collection of syllabi and articles for explaining the sociological interest in this
subject and for teaching courses and units on HIV/AIDS.

5-15
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
 Gesellschaft versus Gemeinschaft – Characteristics of our communities
Class exercise for Chapter 5, Social Interaction and Social Structure

Think about the community where you grew up, or perhaps the community you live in now, if they are different.
Look at the two lists below, and for each characteristic, determine which column fits or describes your
community the best. When you are done, share your answers with a partner, and explain how your community
fits one side or the other better. What kind of community would you like to live in, and why?

Describes my
Describes my
community (a
community (a
lot, a little, Gemeinschaft Gesellschaft
lot, a little, not
not so
so much…)
much…)
People share a feeling of community People are all different, and they don’t
– everyone comes from pretty much seem to have much in common. Their
the same background, and has done differences appear more obvious than
similar things. their similarities.
Social interactions, including Social interactions, including
negotiations, are intimate and negotiations, are more likely to be task-
familiar. I know quite a few people in specific. I know people in different
my community. realms – work, school, home – but they
are kept quite separate.
There is a spirit of cooperation and Self-interests dominate – everyone
unity of will. When tough times seems to be “out for themselves.”
strike, the community tries to pull
together.
Tasks and personal relationships The task being performed is paramount;
cannot be separated. You are likely to relationships are subordinate. There are
know the people who do different lots of people doing every “task” that
things in your community, and there your community needs – you are
may be only one or two of them. unlikely to know people personally
When you go to a store, you might when you go to the store, for example.
know the person working there quite
well.
There is little emphasis on individual Privacy is valued. It is likely that you
privacy – everyone knows what is don’t even know the person or people
going on with everyone else. that live next door to you.
Informal social control predominates. Formal social control is evident. If
anything happens, the police are called.
There is little tolerance of deviance. There is greater tolerance of deviance.
People don’t like it when someone is There are many types of people where I
“different,” and it shows in the way live. People can act in a “different” way
they act towards that person or and nobody pays much attention.
persons.
Emphasis is on ascribed statuses. There is more emphasis on achieved
Most people do what their parents statuses. It is unlikely that you will
did, or they have inherited a status follow in your parents’ footsteps. Most
from their parents or family. people choose what they want to ‘be.’
Social change is relatively slow and Social change is very rapid and evident,
limited. It seems like nothing ever even within one generation. The place I
changes in the place where I live is always changing, whether it is
live/grew up. buildings or the influx of new and
different people.

5-27
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
Thinking About Movies:________________________________________
Hairspray (Adam Shankman, 2007)
This movie about a teen dancing show, “The Corny Collins Show,” illustrates the concepts of in-groups and out-
groups on two levels. Racial conflict separates the high school students into an in-group of white cast members
and an out-group of excluded blacks. And an overweight student, Tracy (Nikki Blonsky), puts her into the out-
group until her dancing skill earns her a place in the in-group.

For Your Consideration

1. How does this movie represent in-group virtues and out-group vices?

2. Who joins the coalition of youths who work to integrate “The Corny Collins Show”? How does their social
network help them to achieve their goal?

Invictus
In post-apartheid South Africa, a rugby team helps Nelson Mandela to build national unity.

The Social Network

This dramatization of the rise of Facebook illustrates the way people connect to one another in the twenty-first
century.

Wendy and Lucy

A young woman wanders through life disconnected from social institutions.

5-38
© 2016 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited