PED 7: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED 7 ways to encourage a culture of diversity in your school

TEACHING
1. Re-evaluate your teaching materials
Metacognition 2. Get to know your students
-Term coined by John Flavell (1970) 3. Be willing to address inequality
- Consists of both metacognitive knowledge and 4. Connect with families and community
metacognitive experiences. 5. Meet diverse learning needs
“Thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn” 6. Support professional development opportunities
-Refers to higher order thinking which involves active
awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged Learning and Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences
in learning.
Sensory System
Strategies to Develop Metacognition -Sensory Receptors
1. Knowledge of Task Specialized cells or multicellular structures that collects
2. Knowledge of Strategies information from the environment
3. Knowledge of Self -Sensation
4. Planning A feeling that occurs when brain becomes aware of sensory
5. Monitoring impulse
6. Evaluation -Perception
A person’s view of the situation; the way the brain interprets
Learning- Centered Psychological Principles the information
1. Nature of Learning Process General Senses
2. Goals of the Learning Process -Receptors that are widely distributed throughout the body
3. Construction of Knowledge -Skin, various organs and joints.
4. Strategic Thinking
5. Thinking about thinking TYPES OF RECEPTORS
6. Context of Learning 1. Thermoreceptors - Respond to changes in Temperature
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning (heat)
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn 2. Pressure-mechanoreceptors - Respond to mechanical
9. Effects of motivation on effort forces (movement)
10. Developmental influences on learning 3. Pain Receptors (Nociceptors) - Respond to tissue damaged
11. Social influences on learning (muscles, joints visceral organs and digestive tract)
12. Individual differences in learning -sprains, bone fractures, burns, bumps, bruises, inflammation
13. Learning and diversity (from an infection or arthritic disorder), obstructions, and
14. Standards and assessment myofascial pain (which may indicate abnormal muscle
stresses)
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles 4. Special Senses -Specialized receptors confined to structures
and distilled them into five areas in the head (Eyes, ears, nose and mouth)
1. The knowledge base 5. Chemoreceptors -Respond to changes in chemical
2. Strategic processing and control concentration (taste and smell)
3. Motivation and affect 6. Photoreceptors - Respond to light(eyes)
4. Development and Individual Differences 7. Mechanoreceptors - Respond to mechanical forces
5. Situation or context (balance) Equilibrium; Respond to sound (hearing)
8. Osmoreceptors -Respond to changes in solute
Individual differences concentration (hypothalamus/carotid artery)
-Diversity is everything that makes people different from each
other. Factors that make us different. The Eye and Vision
➢ Race - 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes
➢ Ethnicity -Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
➢ Gender
➢ sexual orientation Parts of the EYE
1. Sclera. 8. Aqueous Humor
➢ socio-economic status,
2. Cornea. 9. Vitreous Humor
➢ Ability
3. Iris. 10. Ciliary Body
➢ Age 4. Pupil. 11. Macula
➢ religious belief 5. Lens. 12. Conjuctiva
➢ or political conviction. 6. Retina.
7. Optic nerves.
EARS Houses two senses Common Nose Problems
-Hearing (interpreted in the auditory cortex of the temporal 1. Sinus infections (sinusitis)
lobe) 2. Congestion
-Equilibrium (balance) (interpreted in the cerebellum) 3. Airway blockage
-Receptors are mechanoreceptors
-Different organs house receptors for each sense The Sense of Taste
1. Taste buds house the receptor organs
Parts of the EAR 2. Location of taste buds
External Ear 3. Most are on the tongue
1. Pinna or auricle 4. Soft palate
2. External auditory Canal or tube 5. Cheeks
3. Tympanic Membrane (eardrum)
The tongue is made up of three elements
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity) ➢ Epithelium
1. Ossicle -Papillae
- Malleus - Taste buds
-Incus ➢ Muscles
-Stapes ➢ Glands
2. Eustachian Tube -Mucous Glands
-Serous Glands
Inner Ear -Lymph Nodes
1. Cochlea (nerves for hearing)
2. Vestibule (receptors for balance) Common Tongue Problems
3. Semicircular Canal (receptors for balance) ➢ Aglossia absence of the tongue (congenital)
➢ Hypoglossia a short and incompletely formed tongue
Common EAR Disorders and Diseases
➢ Burning Mouth Syndrome also known as glossodynia,
1. Balance Disorders.
glossopyrosis, and stomatopyrosis. It’s a chronic condition
2. Cholesteatoma- abnormal collection of skin cells deep
that can causeTrusted Source a burning sensation on the
inside your ear
tongue or elsewhere in the mouth.
3. Ear Infections.
4. Ear Ringing (tinnitus) ➢ Macroglossia refers to when your tongue is larger than
5. Hearing Loss. what it should be. The condition is also called “big tongue” or
6. Otitis. “enlarged tongue.”
7. Perforated eardrum. ➢ Atrophic glossitis is a condition in which the tongue is
missing some or all of its papillae, making its usually rough
Chemical Senses – Taste and Smell surface smooth.
Both senses use chemoreceptors
➢ Stimulated by chemicals in solution Hemisphere of the Brain
➢ Taste has four types of receptors
Brain one of the largest and most complex organ in the body
➢ Smell can differentiate a large range of
-Pruning is the degradation of neurons because of aging
➢ chemicals -Plasticity is the ability of the brain to continuously change in
response to learning or injury.
-Both senses complement each other and respond to many -The human brain contains 50 billion neurons at birth
of the same stimuli -At age 10, children have developed half of the brain cell
Olfaction – The Sense of Smell connections
-Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal cavity -Myelination begins prenatally and continues after birth.
-Neurons with long cilia
-Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection Brain Anatomy
The human brain is comprised of 3 parts:
Parts of the Nose
➢ Hindbrain
1. External meatus.
➢ Midbrain
2. External nostrils.
3. Septum. ➢ Forebrain
4. Nasal passages. The Hindbrain is located at base of skull and consists of:
5. Sinuses. ➢ Cerebellum: posture, balance, voluntary movement
➢ Medulla: breathing, heart rate, reflexes
➢ Pons: bridge between the spinal cord and the brain
➢ Brainstem is the most primitive part of the brain and Learners with Exceptionalities
controls the basic functions of life: breathing, heart rate, The arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted
swallowing, reflexes to sight or sound, sweating, blood equipment's and materials, accessible settings and other
pressure, sleep, hormonal maturation, and balance. interventions designed to address the needs of students with:
1. Learning Differences
The Midbrain integrates sensory information 2. Mental Health Issues
-Handles all sensory information that passes between the 3. Physical Disabilities
spinal cord and the forebrain. 4. Developmental Disabilities
-It is also involved in body movement in relation to auditory 5. Giftedness
and visual signals.
-Located just above the hind brain. INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY: CAUSE
- When viewed in cross-section, the midbrain can be divided BRAIN MALFORMATION
into three portions: INFECTIONS - VIRAL
➢ Tectum (posterior) NUTRITIONAL - METABOLIC
➢ Tegmentum DOWN SYNDROME – CHROMOSOMAL
➢ Cerebral peduncles (anterior)
-contain part of the substantia negrae, which (like the ventral LEARNING DISABILITY
tegmental area) contain large DYSLEXIA
collections of dopamine-producing neurons. - Developmental disorder characterized by delay and difficulty
in:
The Forebrain contains- ➢ WRITING
➢ Cerebrum: the largest and most developed part of brain. ➢ SPELLING
-Responsible for intelligence, personality, thinking The ➢ READING
cerebral cortex is a gray tissue that covers the cerebrum. DYSCALCULIA
➢ The limbic system is the area of the brain that regulates Poor capacity in mathematics that is not par with age:
emotion and memory. It directly connects the lower and 1. Arithmetic facts
higher brain functions. 2. Numerical magnitude
➢ Thalamus: relay station for all sensory information except 3. Calculations
smell. 4. Numbers
➢ Hypothalamus: controls hunger, thirst, sexual behavior 5. Patterns
➢ Hippocampus: important in forming memories 6. Shapes
➢ Amygdala: involved in memory and emotions (fear, anger, 7. Graphs
pleasure, aggression) 8. Charts
9. Directions
LOBES of the Brain 10. Measurement
➢ Occipital lobe: for vision and recognition 11. Card-board-video Games
12. Schedules
➢ Parietal lobe: handles information from the senses
➢ Temporal lobe: hearing, memory, emotion, speaking, DYSGRAPHIA
smelling, tasting, perception, 1. Impaired Handwriting
aggressiveness, and sexual behavior. 2. Difficulty putting ideas into written form
➢ Frontal lobe: organization, planning, creative thinking. 3. Writes slowly or letters go in all directions
4. Trouble holding pencil, pen, crayons, scissors
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY BY HOWARD GARDNER 5. Problems with Punctuations
These are: 6. Erases a lot
1. Naturalistic 7. Mix upper-lower case letters
2. Musical 8. Spelling issues
3. Logical–mathematical ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
4. Existential ✓ Neurological condition that involves problems with:
5. Interpersonal I NATTENTION
6. Linguistic H YPERACTIVITY
7. Bodily–kinesthetic I MPULSIVITY
8. Intra–personal ✓ Developmental failure in the Brain circuitry that monitors
9. Spatial intelligence. inhibition and self-control.
❖ Cerebral Cortex delayed for about 3 years.
❖ Brain Size 5% Smaller
❖ Decreased Dopamine
✓ Males 3x affected
 ‒ Inability to learn not explained by other factors
POSSIBLE CAUSES: ‒ Inability to have interpersonal peer relationships
1. GENETIC ‒ Inappropriate behavior or feelings under normal
2. BRAIN INJURY circumstances
3. ENVIRONMENTAL ‒ Pervasive mood of depression or unhappiness
4. TIME ON SCREENS ‒ Tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears
5. FOOD
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUALS WITH EMOTIONAL OR
Common Speech Disorders BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
➢ Stuttering
➢ Cluttering Clinically derived classification systems
➢ Apraxia • The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
➢ Lisping Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-V) provides criteria
• Diagnosis involves observation of behavior over time and
➢ Articulation Disorders
across different settings.
➢ Dysarthria
Statistically derived classification systems
AUTISM
• Involves categories of disordered behaviors
✓ A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and • Externalizing behaviors
non-verbal communication and social interaction. • Internalizing behavior
✓ Onset is before 3 years old
✓ Lifelong Disability DIMENSION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
✓ Males 4x more affected 1. Conduct disorder
✓ Cause: Unknown 2. Socialized aggression
✓ Risk Factors 3. Attention problems/immaturity
* Genetic 4. Anxiety/withdrawal
* Environmental: Lead, Mercury 5. Psychotic behavior
* Parental Age: Over 40 6. motor tension excess

Features of Mental Retardation Etiologies of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

-DSM-IV Criteria significantly subaverage IQ (<70) concurrent
deficits or impairments in adaptive functioning characteristics
evident prior to age 18.
The DSM-IV classifies mental retardation into four stages
based on severity:
1. mild (IQ score of 50-55 to approximately 70)
2. moderate (IQ score of 30-35 to 50-55)
3. severe (IQ score of 20-25 to 35-40)
4. profound (IQ score of less than 20-25)
Level of Needed Supports
level of support or assistance needed (rather than on IQ):
✓ Intermittent
✓ Limited
✓ Extensive
✓ Pervasive
Causes of Mental Retardation
➢ Genetic and Constitutional Factors chromosomal
abnormalities
➢ Neurobiological influences
Emotional/Conduct Disorders
-“a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked
degree that adversely affects a child's educational
performance”
➢ Biological risk factors
➢ Psychosocial (environmental)
Characteristics of Students with Emotional or Behavioral
Disorders
1. Learning characteristics
▪ Range of intellectual abilities, chronic school failure,
absenteeism, grade retention, school dropout
2. Social characteristics
▪ Difficulty building and maintaining relationships,
aggressive behavior, experience rejection,
externalizing and internalizing behaviors
3. Language/communication characteristics
▪ Deficits in the areas of pragmatics, receptive, and
expressive language and limited or inappropriate
language use.
Assessing Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
1. Assessment strategies include:
2. Interviews with student, parents, and teachers
3. Examination of student records
4. Parent, teacher, and student rating scales
5. Observations in multiple natural settings
6. Medical evaluations
7. Standardized academic and IQ testing
8. Functional behavioral assessment (FBA)
9. Strength-based assessments
10. Other informal assessment strategies

Physical and Health Impairments
Physical disabilities are those that impair normal physical
functioning. They may be:
➢ Orthopedic
➢ Neuromotor
➢ musculoskeletal impairments
Types of Physical Disability
1. Cerebral Palsy
2. Spina Bifida.
3. . Neuromotor Issues
4. Orthopedic Impairments
5. Neuromotor Issues
6. Orthopedic Impairments
7. Musculoskeletal disorder
The following are guidelines when teaching a student with
physical disabilities in the general classroom:
1. The school and classroom should be assessed by a physical
or occupational therapist to determine
its accessibility.
2. School arrangements such as ramp handrails, widening of
sidewalks, and doorways, and adjustment of the heights of
equipment might be necessary.
3. In the classroom, the teachers should make sure that there
is ready access to all parts of the room,
including centers and materials.
4. Sometimes classroom temperatures may have to be
adjusted to accommodate a student's heath
needs (Rosenberg, Westling, & McLeskey, 2011 p. 390).
Health impairments are diseases, illnesses, or conditions,
such as asthma and epilepsy that require
special care or attention and may impair learning and normal
functioning. Students may be weak, tired, or
in pain.
Students with other health impairments tend to have more
absences due to their illness. Common health conditions that
may classify a student as other health impaired are:
➢ Asthma
➢ HIV/AIDS
➢ Sickle-Cell Disease/anemia
➢ Epilepsy
➢ Cancer
➢ Type 1 (Juvenile) Diabetes
➢ Cystic Fibrosis/ Tourette Syndrome Rheumatic fever
(Rosenberg, Westling, & McLeskey, 2011)
The following are guidelines when teaching a student with
other health impairments in the
general classroom:
1. Know the warning signals for students with conditions such
as respiratory problems, heart conditions, or other chronic
health problems and how to respond to students' needs.
2. Follow universal precautions to avoid contact with any
communicable diseases.
3. Have emergency plans in case of an equipment failure, an
emergency physical problem, or problems
occurring due to natural disasters.
4. Be aware of routine treatments and who is responsible for
carrying them out.
5. Know the medication the student takes, who is to
administer it, and the possible side effects.
6. Know special nutritional needs such as dietary restrictions,
special diets, or special eating
procedures.
7. Know how much the student is expected to participate in
self-managing his special physical or
health needs.
8. It is essential that the student practice as much
independence as possible (Rosenberg, Westling, &
McLeskey, 2011 p. 390).
Severe and Multiple Disabilities
-Students with Multiple impairments have more than one
disability in cognitive, physical and/or functional abilities.
They typically require intensive intervention and supports for
activities of daily living.
Multiple disabilities this means a student has more than one
serious disability which may affect mobility,
behavior, emotion or sensory abilities. Some characteristic
challenges of individuals with severe multiple impairments
are:
➢ Limited communication or speech impairment
➢ Problems with physical mobility
➢ Cognitive impairments
➢ Tendency to forget skills through disuse;
➢ A need for support in major life activities (e.g., domestic,
leisure, community use, vocational
Causes/etiology of Multiple Disabilities Having multiple
disabilities means that a person has more than one
disability. Causes can include:
➢ Chromosomal abnormalities
➢ Premature birth
➢ Difficulties after birth
➢ Poor development of the brain or spinal cord
➢ Infections
➢ Genetic disorders
➢ Injuries from accidents (1)
Multiple Disabilities Aren’t All the SAME
Multiple disabilities gives two examples of possible
combinations of disabilities:
1. Intellectual disability and blindness; and
2. Intellectual disability and orthopedic impairment.
Developmental disabilities include
1. Autism
2. behavior disorders
3. brain injury
4. cerebral palsy
5. Down syndrome -In central hearing loss, the problem lies in the central
6. fetal alcohol syndrome nervous system, at some point within the brain.
7. intellectual disability Comprehending speech is a complex task. Some people can
8. spina bifida. hear volume perfectly well, but have trouble understanding
what is being said.
Severe disabilities requires mental retardation but does not 4. Mixed hearing loss
require an additional disability. -occurs when an individual has both a conductive and
1. Seizures sensorineural hearing loss in the same ear.
2. cerebral palsy 5. Unilateral hearing loss refers to hearing loss in one ear only
3. sensory loss which can range from mild to total hearing loss in that ear.
4. Hydrocephalus
5. scoliosis. Strategies available to Deaf/hard of hearing students can be
broken down into two general categories.
Visual Impairments ➢ Sign Language
Visual impairment is a term experts use to describe any kind ➢ Speech/Oral Communication (refers to the use of
of vision loss, whether it's someone who speechreading and auditory cues)
cannot see at all or someone who has partial vision loss. ➢ Hearing Aids
Usually caused by the following:
1. Injury Disability- impairment or limitations
2. Congenital Handicap- degree of disadvantage
3. Infection
4. Inherited People First Language
-refers to the individual first and the disability second.
Common Eye Disorders and Diseases -People with disabilities are - first and foremost –people.
1. Myopia -Nearsightedness, or myopia is the difficulty of - It is about respect and dignity, and it puts the person-not the
seeing objects at a distance. condition first.
2. Hyperopia, or farsightedness, is when light entering the eye ➢ Say: People with Disabilities
focuses behind the retina. Instead of: Mental Retardation
3. Presbyopia (loss of near vision with age)
➢ Say: Cognitive Disability
4. Cataract -a cloudy area in the lens of your eye. Cataracts
Instead of: Mental Retardation
are very common as you get older.
➢ Say: He has autism.
5. Diabetic Retinopathy. a complication of diabetes, caused
Instead of: He is autistic
by high blood sugar levels damaging the
back of the eye (retina) ➢ Say: Joan uses a wheelchair
6. Amblyopia. (also called lazy eye) is a type of poor vision Instead of: Joan is in wheelchair
that happens in just 1 eye. Say: Bob has a mental health condition
7. Strabismus. a disorder in which both eyes do not line up in Instead of: Bob is mentally ill.
the same direction ➢ Say: Accessible Parking
8. Colorblindness Instead of: Handicapped Parking
9. Glaucoma is an increase in pressure inside the eye ➢ Say: He has autism
Instead of: He is autistic
Hearing Impairments ➢ Say: Anthon has a disability
Hearing impairment -whether permanent or fluctuating, that Instead of: Anthon is crippled
adversely affects a child's educational performance. ➢ Say: She has a learning disability (diagnosis)
Instead of: She’s learning disabled.
Deafness is defined as "a hearing impairment that is so severe ➢ Say: Congenital disability
that the child is impaired in processing Instead of: Birth defect
linguistic information through hearing, with or without
amplification." John B. Watson
-Father of Behaviorism
Types of Hearing Loss - Little Albert Experiment
There are four basic types of hearing loss: - Understanding fears, love, phobias and prejudice
1. Conductive hearing loss
-occurs when sound waves are not transmitted effectively to Habituation - Decrease tendency to respond to stimuli that
the inner ear because of some interference. become more familiar
2. Sensorineural hearing loss
With the sensorineural hearing loss, the damage lies in the
inner ear, the auditory nerve, or both BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY
3. Central hearing loss
• Operates on the principle of attached to ➢ variable-interval.
a S-R also known as Adhesive Principle
• Prefers to concentrate on actual behavior Kinds of reinforcer
• Conclusions are based on Observations of external ➢ Primary
manifestations of Learning. ➢ Secondary
➢ Positive
Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
➢ Negative
-Classical means “in an established manner.”
-An individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is
Purposive Theory – Edward Tolman
paired with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral
-Often referred to as Sign Learning Theory
stimulus evokes a conditioned response.
-States that organisms learns by pursuing signs to a goal
-Stressed the relationship between stimuli rather than
Principles of Classical Conditioning
stimulus – response.
1. Stimulus Generalization
❑ Learning is purposive and goal-directed
2. Extinction
3. Excitation/Inhibition ❑ Cognitive mapping
4. Discrimination ❑ Latent learning
5. Spontaneous Recovery ❑ Intervening variable
❑ Reinforcement is not essential for learning
Edward Lee Thorndike Connectionism
- Puts more emphasis on the response of the organism, not Albert Bandura -Social Observational Learning Theory
limiting himself to the association between the stimulus and ❑ Vicarious Learning
the response. ❑ Bobo doll experiment
❑ People learn through observation, simulation, modeling
LAWS OF LEARNING which means watching (observing),
1. Laws of readiness 9. Law of requirement another called a model and later imitating the model’s
2. Law of Exercise behavior.
3. Law of Effect ❑ Concentrates on the power of example.
4. Law of belongingness
5. Law of Association Four Phases of Modeling:
6. Law of Multiple Response ❖ Attention
7. Law of Frequency
❖ Retention
8. Law of Contiguity
❖ Motor Reproduction Process
Stages of Learning
• Acquisition ❖ Motivational Process
• Fluency
• Generalization Cognitive Perspective
• Adaptation Contributory of Gestalt Psychology together with Kurt Koffka
and Max Wertheimer
Burrhus Frederic Skinner- Operant Conditioning ❖ Gestalt Psychology – shape of thoughts that looks at the
-Stresses the consequence of behavior in order to learn. human mind and behavior
-Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping and ❖ Gestalt means form, figures, configuration
controlling behavior inside and outside the classroom. (a complete shape)
❖ “The whole is more than the sum of it’s part”
-Operant Conditioning- using pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. DIFFERENT GESTALT PRINCIPLES
1. Figure and Ground – our eye differentiates an object form
Principles of Operant Conditioning its surrounding area. a form, silhouette, or shape is naturally
1. Shaping perceived as figure (object), while the surrounding area is
2. Chaining perceived as ground (background).
3. Extinction -Balancing figure and ground can make the perceived image
more clear.
Schedules of Reinforcement 2. Proximity – when objects close together, unity occurs.
These four schedules of reinforcement are sometimes 3. Continuation
referred to as; 4. Similarity
➢ fixed-ratio 5. Closure
➢ variable-ratio 6. The law of Pragnanz
➢ fixed-interval
Wolfgang Kohler- Insight Learning and Problem Solving relevant components of previous learning.
Theory 2. Rote learning -a memorization technique based on
• Insight Learning refers to the sudden realization of a repetition. The idea is that one will be able to quickly recall
solution of a problem. the meaning of the material the more one repeats it.
• The capacity to discern the true nature of situation 3. Discovery learning refers to various instructional design
• The imaginative power to see into and understand models that engages students in learning
immediately through discovery.
• Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing,
and structuring perception until a solution is arrived at. 4 Processes of Meaningful Learning
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (Richard Shiffrin and 1. Derivative Subsumption
Richard Atkinson) 2. Correlative Subsumption
The individual learns when: 3. Superordinate Learning
1. the human mind takes in information (encoding), 4. Combinatorial Learning
2. performs operation in it, stores the information (storage)
3. and retrieves it when needed (retrieval). Instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of
advance organizers which help to link new
KINDS OF RETRIEVAL learning material with existing related ideas.
1. Recall 1. Expository organizer
2. Recognition 2. Comparative Organizer
3. Narrative
Memory – the ability to store information so that it can be
used at a later time. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
-proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (Atkinson) do this by organizing and categorizing information using a
1. Sensory Register coding system.
2. Short-Tern Memory
3. Long Term Memory Instrumental Conceptualism
Implies the idea is that students are more likely to remember
Kinds of long term Memory concepts they discover on their own.
1.Episodic
2. Semantic Spiral Curriculum- learning is spread out over time rather
3. Procedural than being concentrated in shorter periods. In a spiral
curriculum, material is revisited repeatedly over months and
Declarative or Explicit Memory across grades.
Non-declarative or Implicit Memory
Learning Modes
Cumulative Learning by Robert Gagne 1. Enactive
-Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning -any task or skill can be 2. Iconic
broken down to simpler skills which 3. Symbolic
can still be further broken down to more simple tasks or skills.
Jean Piaget is known as one of the first theorists in
Nine Events of Instruction constructivism
1. Gaining Attention Constructivism is a learning theory which holds that
2. Informing Learner of Objective/s knowledge is best gained through a process of
3. Recalling Prior Knowledge reflection and active construction in the mind (Mascolo &
4. Presenting Material Fischer, 2005).
5. Providing Guided Learning
6. Eliciting Performance Social Constructivism – Lev Vygotsky
7. Providing Feedback Scaffolding - competent assistance or support
8. Assessing Performance ➢ ZPD child acquires new skills and information the level at
9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer which a child finds a task too difficult to
complete alone, but which he can accomplish with the
MEANINGFUL RECEPTION THEORY – David Ausbel assistance or support of an adult or older
Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related peer.
to what a learner already knows.
May occur through:
1. Reception -the learner actively associates the substances of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
new chains concepts and so forth with - gap between actual and potential encounters.
➢ Actual Development – what children can do on their own systematic and logical approach to solve.
➢ Potential Development – what children can do with help. ➢ Researching Skills.
➢ Team Working.
STERNBERG’S THEORY OF SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE ➢ Emotional intelligence
Sternberg (1997) also stated that to be a successful intelligent ➢ Risk Management.
person, one must combine and balance the three abilities: ➢ Decision Making.

➢ Analytical -Analytical intelligence involves analyzation MOTIVATION

(from the word itself), evaluation, judgment or comparison
and contrast. - Ability refers to what an individual can do or is able to do
-his ability is “...valued in tests and in classroom. and motivation (or lack of it) refers to
➢ Creativity - It is ability to pursue endless possibilities of what a person wants to do.
thinking and imagination
-“one [that] goes beyond the range of unconventionality...” THE 5 PRIMARY MOTIVATION FACTORS
➢ Practicality -practical intelligence refers to the ability to - Fear
relate the learning or knowledge to the real - Peer Pressure
world. - Pride
- Recognition
The WICS model is a possible common basis for identifying - Money
gifted individuals (Sternberg, 2003c).
WICS is an acronym standing for; Types of Motivation
➢ Wisdom 1. Extrinsic Motivation – learners reason to work or study lies
➢ Intelligence, primarily outside. themselves.
➢ Creativity 2. Intrinsic Motivation – learners reason for learning resides
➢ Synthesized. primarily inside or upon them.
According to this model, wisdom, intelligence, and creativity
are essential for the gifted leaders of the Need is a physiological deficiency that creates a condition of
Future. disequilibrium in the body.

Creative Thinking David McClelland's Human Motivation Theory (Need Theory)

Dr. E. Paul Torrance (1915 – 2003) - allows you to identify people's motivating drivers.
- is called The Father of Creativity. - He identified three motivators that he believed we all have:
-Torrance invented the “Torrance Tests for Creative Thinking. ➢ a need for achievement
➢ a need for affiliation,
Components Of Creativity ➢ a need for power.
1. Fluency – the ability to generate quantities of ideas
2. Flexibility – the ability to create different categories of Drive Theory Clark Hull
ideas, and to perceive an idea from different points of view Drive is a condition of arousal or tension that motivates
3. Originality – the ability to generate new, different, and behavior.
unique ideas that others are not likely to generate.
4. Elaboration – the ability to expand on an idea by ➢ Drives most typically have been considered to involve
embellishing it with details or the ability to create physiological survival needs: hunger, thirst, sleep, pain,sex.
an intricate plan. ➢ A drive results from the activation of a need.
PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS SELF DETERMINATION And MOTIVATION THEORY
Problem-solving skills help you determine the source of a by Edward Deci
problem and find an effective solution. - We have the capacity to take risks or challenges that can
In order to be effective at problem solving you are likely to enrich our lives and develop ourselves more.
need some other key skills, which include: - Sense of Self-Determination Variables
1. Choices
➢ Creativity. Problems are usually solved either intuitively or 2. Threats and deadlines
systematically. 3. Controlling statements
-Intuition is used when no new knowledge is needed - you 4. Extrinsic rewards
know enough to be able to make a quick decision and solve 5. Surveillance and evaluation
the problem, or you use common sense or experience to
solve the problem. EXPECTANCIES and VALUES THEORY
-complex problems or problems that you have not by John W. Atkinson
experienced before will likely require a more Variables that Affects Motivation:
 1. Expectancy – People must believe that they can
accomplish a task; that is, they should have an
expectancy about what they want to achieve.
2. Value – People should likewise place an importance
or value in what they are doing.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY by Bernard Weiner
Attributions pertain to people’s various explanations for
success and failure – their beliefs about what causes
attributions.
- Dimensions underlying people’s attributions. People can
explain events in many different ways.
SPECIAL EDUCATION
The Council for Exceptional Children lists the following terms
and definitions taken from the individuals with Disabilities
Education Act.
Exceptional Students
The term “exceptional” has often been used to describe
unusual, unique, or outstanding qualities of people or objects.
The term “exceptional” refers to students who learn and
develop differently from most others or students who have:
➢ exceptional learning styles
➢ exceptional talents,
➢ exceptional behaviors.
➢ Exceptional students are those who fall outside of the
normal range of development.
The term "learners with special educational needs" (LSEN)
refers to learners who, for whatever reason, need additional
help and support in their learning.
➢ Persons with disabilities (PWDs), according the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons With Disabilities, include
those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or
sensory impairments which in interaction with various
barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in
society on an equal basis.
BARRIERS TO HEALTHCARE
People with disability encounter a range of barriers when they
attempt to access health care including:
➢ Attitudinal barriers
➢ Physical barriers
➢ Communication barriers
➢ Financial barriers
RA 5250 – An Act Establishing A Ten-Year Training Program For
Teachers Of Special And Exceptional Children In The
Philippines And Authorizing The Appropriation Of Funds
Thereof.
RA. 7277 - The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons was enacted
for the primary reason that persons with disabilities have the
same rights as other people.
The 7 types of disabilities mentioned in RA No. 7277
1. psychosocial disability
2. disability due to chronic illness
3. learning disability
4. mental disability,
5. visual disability,
6. orthopedic disability
7. communication disability.
RA 9442 – An Act Amending Republic Act No. 7277,
Otherwise Known As The “Magna Carta For Disabled Persons,
And For Other Purposes”.
-to provide persons with disability, the opportunity to
participate fully into the mainstream of society by granting
them at least twenty percent (20%) discount in all basic
services.
RA 10754 IRR OF RA 10754 -an act expanding the benefits
and privileges of persons with disability
(PWD).
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE 603 - “the child and youth welfare
code.
BATAS PAMBANSA 232 “EDUCATION ACT OF 1982”
SENATE BILL NO. 1414 "Inclusive Education For Children And
Youth With Special Needs Act"
A PWD ID is a valid identification card issued to persons with
disabilities. This card serves as a proof for availing of the
benefits and privileges for PWDs.
What is the Validity of the PWD Card?
The PWD ID is valid for three years as stated in the National
Council on Disability Affairs Administrative
Order No. 001 series of 2021.
PWD List of Disabilities in the Philippines
The Department of Health (DOH) considers the following
types of disabilities as eligible for a PWD ID:
➢ Psychosocial disability –
➢ Disability resulting from a chronic illness - Includes
orthopedic disability due to cancer, blindness due to diabetes,
and other disabilities due to a chronic disease
➢ Learning disability
➢ Visual disability
➢ Orthopedic (Musculoskeletal) disability
➢ Mental/Intellectual disability
➢ Hearing disability
➢ Speech impairment
➢ Multiple disabilities
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
Fragile X syndrome is a genetic condition that causes a range Acute stress reaction occurs when a person experiences
of developmental problems including learning disabilities and certain symptoms after a particularly stressful event.
cognitive impairment. Bipolar Disorder -formerly called manic depression, is a
mental health condition that causes extreme mood swings
Down Syndrome - Also known as Trisomy 21 that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows
-Genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a (depression).
third copy of chromosome 21.
10 Signs of Bipolar Disorder
A Developmental Delay refers to a child who has not gained 1. Decreased need for sleep. ...
the developmental skills expected of him or 2. Racing thoughts and accelerated speech. ...
her, compared to others of the same age. 3. Restlessness and agitation. ...
4. Overconfidence. ...
Delays may occur in the areas of: 5. Impulsive and risky behavior. ...
➢ motor function 6. Hopelessness....
➢ speech and language, 7. Withdrawal from family and friends and lack of interest in
➢ cognitive, play, and activities. ...
➢ social skills 8. Change in appetite and sleep.
9. Conduct Disorder
Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by some missing genetic
material in a group of genes on chromosome Conduct disorder refers to a group of behavioral and
number 15. emotional problems characterized by a disregard for
others.
Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition in a child that results
from alcohol exposure during the mother's There are four basic types of behavior that characterize
pregnancy. conduct disorder:
➢ Physical aggression (such as cruelty toward animals,
PHYSICAL DISABILITIES assault or rape).
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of disorders that affect a ➢ Violating others’ rights (such as theft or vandalism).
person's ability to move and maintain balance and ➢ Lying or manipulation.
posture. ➢ Delinquent behaviors (such as truancy or running away
from home).
What are causes of cerebral palsy?
Causes EATING DISORDERS
➢ Gene mutations that result in genetic disorders or 1. Anorexia Nervosa
differences in brain development. 2. Bulimia Nervosa
➢ Maternal infections that affect the developing fetus. 3. Pica
➢ Fetal stroke, a disruption of blood supply to the developing 4. Purging disorder
brain. 5. Night eating syndrome (NES)
➢ Bleeding into the brain in the womb or as a newborn.
SPED INTERVENTIONS
Arthritis means inflammation or swelling of one or more Shadow Teaching
joints. -is when an educational paraprofessional, like a teaching aide
A spinal cord injury — damage to any part of the spinal cord or assistant, works directly with young
or nerves at the end of the spinal canal (cauda equina) — students who have learning differences to improve their
often causes permanent changes in strength, sensation and classroom experience.
other body functions below the site of the injury. Behavior Modification
➢ Praise
Epilepsy is a central nervous system (neurological) disorder in ➢ Rewards
which brain activity becomes abnormal, ➢ Behavior Chart
causing seizures or periods of unusual behavior, sensations ➢ Redirection
and sometimes loss of awareness. ➢ Engage
➢ Visuals
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY ➢ Extinction
Muscular dystrophies are a group of muscle diseases caused ➢ Direct Instruction
by mutations in a person's genes.

EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS What are the four steps of direct instruction?
Direct Instruction guides us through intermediary stages to
gently transition from teacher to
student.
1. Modeling – The teacher does it all.
2. Structured Practice – The teacher does it, but with input
from students.
3. Guided Practice – Students do it, with input from the
teacher.
4. Independent Practice – Students do it.

PED – 6 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND

LEARNING PRINCIPLES & FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
• Focus on psychological factors internal to the learner;
acknowledge external environment that interacts with
internal factors
• Deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world
learning situations
• Intended to apply to all learners;
o Children
o Teachers
o Administrators
o parents
o community members
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
1. Nature of the learning process
 The learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and
experience.
2. Goals of the learning process
 The successful learner, over time and with support
and instructional guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge
 The successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking
 The successful learner can create and use a
repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking
 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
6. Context of learning
 Learning is influenced by environmental factors,
including culture, technology, and instructional
practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
• What and how much is learned is influenced by the
learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn is
influenced by the individual's emotional states,
beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
• The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and
natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal
novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
• Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided practice. Without
learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert
this effort is unlikely without coercion.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS
10. Developmental influences on learning
• As individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning
is most effective when differential development
within and across physical, intellectual, emotional,
and social domains is taken into account
11. Social influences on learning.
• Learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with
others.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS
12. Individual differences in learning
• Learners have different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity
13. Learning and diversity
• Learning is most effective when differences in
learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds
are taken into account
14. Standards and assessment
• Setting appropriately high and challenging standards
and assessing the learner as well as learning progress
- including diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment - are integral parts of the learning
process.
SUMMARY OF 14 LCP (MURPHY AND ALEXANDER)
1. The knowledge base
• One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future
learning.
2. Strategic processing and control
• Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their
thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively.
3. Motivation and effect
• Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to
learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have
a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences
• Learning is a unique journey for each person because each
learner has his own unique combination of genetic and
environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
• Learning happens in the context of a society as well as
within an individual.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT refers to the physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial development of humans throughout the
lifespan.
DEVELOPMENT - Increase in complexity of function and skill
progression
GROWTH – quantifiable amount of change in body
dimensions
MATURATION – change that comes with age
LEARNING – change that comes from experiences.
Major Principles of Human Development
1. A learner should be considered as a living human being
Factors of Growth:
Heredity
Environment
2. Development is unique to every individual
Elements: Growth,Structural differences, Alteration in form
3. No two living individuals are exactly the same
DNA, Nipples, Eye Retina, Taste buds, Fingerprint
4. Development is relatively in order;
Proximodistal - the tendency for growth to start at the center
of the body and work its way outward, toward the extremities
Cephalocaudal – development from head-to-toe progression
5. Children grow in the same pattern.
Very rapid growth (First 7 years)
Slowing in the middle (Early to late childhood)
Rapid again (Puberty)
6. Learners respond differently to academic stimuli
7. Almost all human behavior is learned rather than inherited.
Approaches to Human Development
TRADITIONAL APPROACH - emphasizes extensive change
from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood,
and decline in late old age
LIFESPAN APPROACH – developmental change takes place
even in adulthood as it does during childhood.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT
1. Lifelong - development is not completed in infancy or
childhood or at any specific age.
• it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to
death.
2. Plastic - there are many possible developmental outcomes
• there is no single pathway that must be taken in an
individual’s development across the lifespan.
3. Multidimensional - a complex interplay of factors influence
development across the lifespan, including biological,
cognitive, and socioemotional changes
4. Gradual - it does not come all on a sudden
• It is also cumulative in nature.
5. Contextual - occurs in context and varies from person to
person, depending on factors such as a person’s biology,
family, school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity.
6. Involves growth, maintenance, and regulation -
encompasses the broader view and incorporates the
important functions of maintenance and regulation
• Rather than seeking growth in various areas, adults seek to
maintain performance and/or retard deterioration.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK - a task that arises at or about a
certain period in life, unsuccessful achievement of which
leads to inability to perform tasks associated with the next
period or stage in life.
HAVIGHURST’s 6 Stages and Characteristics of Development
and Developmental Tasks
Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5)
▪ Learning to walk
▪ Learning to take solid food
▪ Learning to talk
▪ Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
▪ Getting ready to read
Middle Childhood (6-12)
▪ Learning to get along w/ age mates
▪ Learning appropriate masculine or feminine social role
▪ Developing fundamental skills in learning
▪ Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
▪ Achieving personal independence
▪ Developing acceptable attitudes
Adolescence (13-17)
▪ Establish emotional independence
▪ Learn skills needed for productive occupation
▪ Achieve gender-based social role
▪ Establish mature relationships with peers
▪ Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
Early Adulthood (18-35)
▪ Selecting a mate
▪ Learning to live with a marriage partner
▪ Starting a family; rearing children; managing a home
▪ Getting started in an occupation
Middle Age (36-60)
▪ Maintain a standard of living
▪ Perform civic and social responsibilities
▪ Maintain a relationship with spouse
▪ Adjust to physiological changes
Later Maturity / Old Age (Over 60)
▪ Adjust to deteriorating health
▪ Adjust to retirement
▪ Meet social and civil obligations
▪ Adjust to loss of spouse
JOHN W. SANTROCK’S DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
PRE-NATAL PERIOD (conception to birth)
Involves tremendous growth – from a single cell to an
organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities
STAGES:
1. Germinal – first 2 weeks
2. Embryonic – 2 - 8 weeks
3. Fetal - 2 - 7 months
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Teratology - field of study that investigates the causes of birth
defects
Teratogens are any agents from the environment that can
cause harm to the developing fetus.
• Many harmful agents cause damage only if exposure occurs
during a sensitive period of prenatal development.
- Critical factors that influence the degree of harm a
teratogen will cause:
– The amount and length of exposure
– Individual differences in susceptibility
Key Teratogens:
1. Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs
2. Psychoactive Drugs (caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine, cocaine,
methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin)
3. Incompatible Blood Types
4. Environmental Hazards (radiation, toxic wastes, chemicals)
5. Maternal Diseases
Risk Factors: Age, Nutrition, Exercise, Stress
Language Development (cry – newborn)
-Usually eats every 2 to 3 hours
-Uncoordinated movements
-Toothless, Poor vision
-Responds to human voice and touch.
INFANCY/BABYHOOD (birth to 2 years old)
-Formative years of development.
-Extreme dependence on adults.
EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 to 5 years old)
-Preschool stage
-Language and transductive reasoning
-Initial socialization experience
-Wants to be just like parents
-Vivid imagination; indistinct line between real and imaginary
-Develops fears.
MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD (6 to 12 y.o.)
-School age
-Age of conformity
--Habit formation stage
Large and small muscles well-developed
-Acceptance by peers very important
-Parental approval still important
ADOLESCENCE (12 to 18 years old)
-Puberty
-Period of change
-Problem age
-Search for identity
-Extremely concerned with appearance
EARLY ADULTHOOD/YOUNG ADULT (19-29 yo)
-Physical development complete.
-Emotional maturation continues to develop.
-Usually learned to accept responsibility for actions and
accept criticism.
-Usually knows how to profit from errors.
-Socially progress from age-related peer groups to people
with similar interests.
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (30 to 60 yo)
-Physical changes begin to occur
▪ Hair begins to thin and gray
▪ Wrinkles appear
▪ Hearing and vision decrease
▪ Muscle lose tone
-Main concerns: children, health, job security, aging parents,
and fear of aging. Love and acceptance still take a major role.
LATE ADULTHOOD (61 years old and above)
-Physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination)
-Some memory problems
-Coping with retirement and forms of entertainment
-Very concerned with health and finances
-Significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high.
9 Temperament Categories
1. the level and extent of motor activity.
2. the rhythmicity, or degree of regularity, of functions such as
eating, elimination and the cycle of sleeping and wakefulness.
3. the response to a new object or person, in terms of
whether the child accepts the new experience or withdraws
from it.
4. the adaptability of behavior to changes in the environment.
5. the threshold, or sensitivity to stimuli.
6. the intensity, or energy level, of responses.
7. the child's general mood or "disposition", whether cheerful
or given to crying, pleasant or cranky, friendly, or unfriendly.
8. the degree of the child's distractibility from what he is
doing.
9. the span of the child's attention and his persistence in an
activity.
Separation anxiety in children is a developmental stage in
which the child is anxious when separated from the primary
caregiver (usually the mother).
BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY
Phases of Attachment
Phase 1: Birth-3 months
• Infants show preference for looking at human faces and
listening to human voices.
• Respond to people but don’t distinguish between them.
• 6 weeks: social smiles and eye contact promoting
attachment.
• Babbling, crying, grasping, and sucking bring infant in closer
contact and promotes bonding.
Phase 2: 3-6 months
• start to differentiate between people and begin to reserve
their attachment behaviors for the people they prefer
• won’t do more than stare at a stranger
• If they cry, their favorite people are better able to comfort
them
• preferences are restricted to two to three individuals and
usually favors one person (anyone who most successfully
responded to and had the most positive interactions with the
baby).
Phase 3: 6 months to 3 years
• preference for a specific individual becomes more intense:
when those individual leaves the room, the infants will have
separation anxiety.
• attempt to actively follow their favorite person.
• after a period of absence, babies will enthusiastically greet them.
• At 7 or 8 months old: start to fear strangers (extra caution in the
presence of a stranger to crying at the sight of someone new).
• At 1 yo: developed a working model of their favored
individual, including how well they respond to the child.
Phase 4: 3 years until childhood ends
• at around 3 years old: children start to comprehend that
their caretakers have goals and plans of their own
• the child is less concerned when the caretaker leaves for a
period of time.
PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT
Secure Attachment
• use their caregiver as a secure base from which to explore
the world, but if they're frightened or in need of reassurance,
they will return
• If caregiver leaves, they will get upset, yet they are
confident that their caregiver will return and will greet the
caregiver with joy.
Avoidant Attachment
• insecure in their attachment to the caregiver
• will not become overly distressed when their caregiver
leaves, and upon their return, the child will deliberately avoid
the caregiver.
Resistant Attachment
• become extremely upset when the parent leaves
• when the caregiver returns their behavior will be
inconsistent
• may initially seem happy to see the caregiver only to
become resistant if the caregiver attempts to pick them up.
• often respond angrily to the caregiver; however, they also
display moments of avoidance.
Disorganized Attachment
• most often displayed by children who have been subject to
abuse, neglect, or other inconsistent parenting practices
• seem to be disoriented or confused when their caregiver is present
• seem to view the caregiver as a source of both comfort and
fear, leading to disorganized and conflicting behaviors.
THE STAGES OF ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT
VIKTOR LOWENFELD’S Stages of Drawing
Stage 1 – Scribble Stage (1 – 3 yo)
• Children are engaged in the physical activity of drawing
• no connection made between the marks and representation
• towards the end of this stage children may begin to give
marks names
• mostly about the enjoyment of purely making marks
Stage 2 –Preschematic Stage (3–4 years old)
• beginning to see connections between the shapes that they
draw and the physical world around them.
• Circles and lines may be described as people or objects that
are physically present in the child’s life.
• A child first makes the connection to communicating
through their drawings.
Stage 3–The Schematic Stage (5–6 yo)
• assigned shapes to objects that they are attempting to
communicate
• developed a schema for creating drawings
• defined order in the development of the drawing
• have a clear separation between the sky and the ground
• Objects are often placed on the ground instead of floating in space
• Objects of importance are often drawn larger than objects
of lesser importance.
Stage 4–The Dawning Realism (7–9 yo)
• Children are beginning to become more critical of their own work
• While a schema is still used to create drawings, it is more
complex than the schema used in earlier stages
• Overlapping can be seen and a sense of spatial relationships
is more evident.
Stage 5–The Pseudo-Naturalistic Stage
• (10-13 yo)
• use of value and light is now apparent in drawings
• Children are very critical of their own success
• Success is determined by the level of realism achieved in the
drawing
• Frustration is a common occurrence
• It is exceptionally important to encourage students at this stage
Stage 6 – The Decision Stage (13 – 16 yo)
• Children will decide to continue drawing or view it as an
activity without merit.
• Because of the level of self-criticism inherent at this stage,
many children, (now young adults) view drawing as a skill that
they do not possess.
• Others decide to continue working on their drawing skills
and continue to develop.
• Any skill level can be attained with practice.
• Most critical stage to the development of an artist.
ROBERT SIEGLER’S INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
Main Characteristics of IP Approach:
.
• Thinking – information processing
• Change mechanism – focus should be on the role of
mechanisms of change in development
• Encoding
• Automatization
• Strategy Construction
• Generalization
Self-modification - self-awareness can enable them to adapt
and manage their strategies during problem solving and
thinking.
RESEARCH in CHILD and ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Teachers as Consumer/End Users of Research
• Research gives teachers and policy-makers important
knowledge to use in decision-making for the benefit of the
learners and their families.
• Use and integrate the most authoritative research findings
• Enables teachers to come up with informed decision on
what to teach and how to teach.
• Helps us to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our
teaching with the developmental levels of learners.
Teachers as Researchers
• The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and
dissertation writers.
• Research is for students and teachers.
The Scientific Method
• Research is a systematic and logical process
• Identify and define the problem
• Determine the hypothesis
• Collect and analyze data
• Formulate Conclusions
• Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
Research Designs:
Case Study – an in-depth look at an individual
Correlational Study – determines association
Experimental – determines cause-and-effect relationships
Naturalistic observation – focuses on children’s experiences
in natural settings
Longitudinal – studies and follows through a single group
over a period of time, usually several years or more.
Cross-sectional – individuals of different ages are compared
at one time
Sequential – combined cross-sectional and longitudinal
approaches to learn about lifespan development
Action Research – reflective process of progressive problem-
solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as
part of a community of practice to improve the way they
address issues and solve problems.
- stems from their own questions about and reflections on
their everyday classroom practice.
Data-gathering Techniques:
Observation – can be made in laboratories or natural settings.
Physiological Measures – certain indicators of children’s
development are measured.
Standardized – prepared tests that assess individuals’
performance in different domains.
Interviews and Questionnaires – asking participants to
provide information about themselves based on the interview
or questionnaires given.
Life-History Records – records of information about a lifetime
chronology of events and Activities.
Ethical Principles
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically
or psychologically
2. Children and their families have the right to full information
about the research, including possible risks and benefits.
- Decision must be based on informed consent
3. Children’s questions about the research should be
answered in a truthful manner and in ways that children can
understand
- Researchers must be honest and clear in their
communication
4. There should be respect for privacy.
- Information obtained through research with children should
remain confidential
- Researchers should not disclose personal information or
identity of participants
Data Privacy Act of 2012 (RA 10173)
- To protect the fundamental human right of privacy of
communication while ensuring free flow of information to
promote innovation and growth.
- The collection of personal data “must be a declared,
specified, and legitimate purpose and that...consent is
required prior to the collection of all personal data.”
Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers
1. 1.Teachers who have been involved in research may
become more reflective, more critical, and analytical
in their teaching, and more open and committed to
professional development.
2. participating in teacher research also helps teachers
become more deliberate in their decision-making
and actions in the classroom.
3. Teacher research develops professional dispositions
of lifelong learning, reflective and mindful teaching,
and self-transformation.
4. Engaging in teacher research may lead to rethinking
and reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or
teacher educator and the way teachers relate to
children and students.
5. Teacher research has potential to demonstrate to
teachers and prospective teachers that learning to
teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire.