Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tewa20

Electromagnetic emission measurement

prediction of buck-boost converter circuits using
machine learning methods

Furkan Hasan Sakaci & Suayb Cagri Yener

To cite this article: Furkan Hasan Sakaci & Suayb Cagri Yener (2023): Electromagnetic emission
measurement prediction of buck-boost converter circuits using machine learning methods,
Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, DOI: 10.1080/09205071.2023.2227849

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09205071.2023.2227849

Published online: 03 Jul 2023.

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JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS
https://doi.org/10.1080/09205071.2023.2227849

Electromagnetic emission measurement prediction of

buck-boost converter circuits using machine learning
methods
Furkan Hasan Sakacia,b and Suayb Cagri Yenerc,d
a Department of Electronic and Communication Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkiye;
b Simulation and Autonomous Systems, HAVELSAN, Ankara, Turkiye; c Department of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkiye; d Electromagnetic Research Center, Sakarya
University, Sakarya, Turkiye

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

In this paper, a prediction system has been developed using machine Received 19 January 2022
learning techniques to obtain the conduction emission levels ensure Accepted 15 June 2023
they remain below the limit values specified in test standards. An KEYWORDS
LED (Light-emitting diode) driver circuit based on a buck-boost type Power electronics; filtering;
DC-DC converter has been employed in the experiments. Standards- electromagnetic interference
compliant conducted emission testing processes have been per- (EMI) control; conducted
formed and measurement results have been used to generate immunity and emissions;
datasets. These datasets have been organized and processed accord- machine learning
ing to the targeted machine learning methods. GPR, has achieved the
highest success rate of 99% among ANN and regression methods. In
order to improve the performance in EMI harmonic prediction, train-
ing was conducted using deep learning, and the obtained model has
a mean squared error of 0.78. The harmonics are well captured with
the method and the results are in good agreement with measure-
ments. Consequently, the number of required pre-compatibility tests
for a similar topology can be significantly reduced.

Introduction
Today, the number of electronic devices and their interactions with each other is constantly
increasing. This increase reveals an important phenomenon called EMI (Electromagnetic
Interference) and brings with it the need to perform a higher number of EMC (Electromag-
netic Compatibility) experiments within the scope of relevant commercial or military stan-
dards [1–4]. An “electromagnetic compatible” device/system is considered a device/system
that does not affect or is not affected by another device/system in the same environment
[3–5]. Essential principles and rules in terms of ensuring electromagnetic compatibility
at the design stages have been applied by the engineers who manage these processes [6].
However, even when all necessary theoretical approaches are applied, it is not possible to
definitively determine the required performance without experimental results due to the

CONTACT Furkan Hasan Sakaci fhsakaci@havelsan.com.tr Mustafa Kemal Mahallesi, Sehit Ogretmen Senay
Aybuke Yalcin Caddesi, No-39, PK-06510 Cankaya, Ankara, Turkiye

© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

2 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

nature of electromagnetic compatibility. Mathematical modeling becomes challenging due

to the number of relationships that arise in the physical world and the non-ideal behavior
of components and wires [3,4,7,8]. Artificial intelligence and machine learning methods
can offer significant achievements in the creation of these models.
In general, artificial neural networks (ANN) and regression algorithms are used in
machine learning when there is limited data and a need for obtaining various features from
that data. On the other hand, deep learning is employed when there is a vast amount of data
and features alone are insufficient. When dealing with abundant data, the deep learning
method produces superior results compared to artificial neural networks and regression
algorithms.
Technologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning are employed to predict
new data based on historical data [9–11]. Machine learning involves selecting the appro-
priate algorithm or method according to the dataset and application. The resulting model
from machine learning is designed to make new predictions using input data. Artificial
intelligence can enhance solution speed and efficiency, optimize manpower allocation in
labor-intensive structures, standardize analyses that vary between individuals, and tackle
complex datasets that traditional methods struggle to handle [12–14]. To extract the sys-
tem model using machine learning, the parameters influencing system dynamics must first
be identified and examined [15]. Once these parameters are determined, a machine learn-
ing model is created according to these parameters [16]. Components and parameters of
the physical structure can be utilized to derive mathematical models for electronic circuit
boards. Studies also exist examining the electromagnetic propagation of these components
and parameters [17–19].
Electromagnetic compatibility tests aim to evaluate the emission and immunity levels
of devices in relation to each other, taking into account the current standards. In terms
of test direction and path, four different groups can be considered, which are conducted
immunity, conducted emission, radiated immunity, and radiated emission.
In this study, the focus lies on emission tests, which measure the electromagnetic emis-
sions of devices. These tests are carried out by accredited EMC laboratories in accordance
with the standards applicable to the product’s scope, and the results are shared with the
manufacturer. Based on the result, the manufacturer revises the product and initiates a new
test-evaluation process. These studies require a long time and their costs are an important
expense parameter for companies.
There are studies that utilize machine learning methods to reduce electromagnetic emis-
sion levels and ensure electromagnetic compatibility [20–30]. To the best of our knowledge,
there are not any studies in the literature available that directly determine conducted
emissions using machine learning methods. The following studies can be reviewed for
the prediction of EMI levels and EMC solutions of electronic circuits. Spadacini et al
obtained the frequency spectrum of electromagnetic emission by mathematically modeling
a DC-DC converter [28] The calculations considered shielded cables while semiconductor
properties were not taken into account. In [29], the authors examined the effects of EMI
from heatsinks on PCB/IC (Printed Circuit Board/Integrated Circuit). The results obtained
using deep learning have been reported and then compared with the actual results. The
measurements were taken in the 2-8 GHz band as they were made from the radiated
emission.
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 3

In this study, we initially examined buck-boost type DC-DC converters to design a

machine learning-based electromagnetic emission prediction system. Buck-boost-type
converters convert one DC level to another DC level by means of the switching components
they contain. Buck-boost type DC-DC converters can serve as a source of electromag-
netic emission (EMI) due to the generation of electromagnetic noise during the energy
transfer process. Undesirable high-frequency emissions occur depending on the other
passive circuit components selected. Although various approaches can mitigate the dynam-
ics occurring at multiples of the switching frequency, it is impossible to obtain a fully
accurate theoretical model due to parasitic components, suboptimal dynamics of circuit
components, and additional distortions introduced by the circuit board. Consequently, the
electromagnetic characteristics of the circuits are best determined solely through exper-
imental methods based on electromagnetic measurements. Therefore, in this study, a
machine learning model was developed by collecting data during the design and operation
of a buck-boost-based constant-current LED driver. Changes in the circuit component and
electrical values were used to increase and decrease the electromagnetic emission value.
Due to this reason, no special effort has been made to bring the ripple level of the out-
put voltage to the level expected from a well-designed LED driver. The main objective of
the study is to accurately estimate the level of electromagnetic emission, regardless of the
chosen circuit topology or component values.
The paper is organized as follows: After this introduction section, the second section
presents the design and operation of the circuit according to the determined requirements.
Then, the EMC test measurement results and information for generating dataset process
have been presented in the Conducted Electromagnetic Emission Measurement and Gen-
erating Dataset section. The subsequent section focuses on training the machine learning
network using the collected data. An interface has been created with Python to facilitate
the training of the system. Essential information on the mathematical background, hierar-
chical features and architecture of the model are presented. The study concludes with the
conclusion section.

Buck-boost converter design

In this study, electromagnetic measurements of radio frequency disturbance are required
to predict emissions using machine-learning techniques from an electronic circuit. For this
purpose, a buck-boost converter-based LED driver structure has been chosen since it is one
of the most important switched power electronics circuits in the literature [31,32].
The buck-boost converter used consists of a voltage source, an inductor, a diode, a MOS-
FET (Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor), an input capacitor, an output
capacitor, and a load parallel to the capacitor, as seen in Figure 1. The buck-boost converter
can work in two different operation modes: either the buck or the boost mode. The opera-
tion mode changes according to the duty ratio value of the converter. In the buck converter
mode (duty cycle < 0.5), the output voltage is lower than the input voltage. It works as a
boost converter circuit if duty cycle > 0.5, and, in this mode, the output voltage is higher
than the input voltage.
The buck-boost converter is designed to control the LED load connected to the out-
put. The output voltage value can be chosen between 10 and 36 V, and the output nominal
4 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

Figure 1. Buck-boost converter topology.

voltage is selected as 24 V. To meet these design requirements, the LM3429 driver, a con-
stant current LED driver, has been used to realize the prototype. LM3429 can function as
a boost, a buck, and a buck-boost converter. It has been used as a buck-boost within the
scope of the study.
Each one of the circuit component values shown in Figure 1 and the electrical operation
parameters such as input voltage, output voltage, load current, load current ripple, and
switching frequency influence the EMI level of the converter. The component values of the
capacitors and the inductor of the converter are chosen to minimize the ripple values in the
load current, the input voltage, and the inductor current. The Application Note of LM3429
gives the optimum component formulas considering the design requirements such as the
load current, the input voltage, and the inductor current [33].
Using the formulas (1), (2), and (3) provided in the datasheet [33], calculations have
been performed, resulting in the selection of a 100 μH inductor, and 10 μF input and
output capacitors in the DC converter These components help in keeping the ripple value
reasonable in both the current and voltage waveforms.

(Vin ∗ D)
L1 = = 100μH (1)
(IL−pp ∗ fsw)
(ILED xD)
Cin = = 10μF (2)
(Vin−pp xfsw)
(ILED xD)
Cout = = 10μF (3)
rd xILED−pp xfsw

where L1 is the inductance of the converter inductor, Cin is the capacitance of the input
capacitor, and Cout is the capacitance of the output capacitor. Vin is the input voltage, D
is duty cycle, fsw is the switching frequency, the IL−PP is the ripple of the current of the
L1 inductor, VIN−PP the ripple in the input voltage, and ILED−PP is the ripple of the
current flowing through the LED array load, respectively.
In these calculations, the input voltage is selected as 24 V and duty cycle is selected as
0.5. Switching frequency and ripple values of the DC converter affect its electromagnetic
emission levels. Using the component values do not mean the best EMI level results can be
obtained. The purpose of this paper is not to design a best DC converter but to show that
the effect of the value of the circuit components and the electrical operation parameters
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 5

Figure 2. (a) The implemented PCB board of buck-boost converter-based LED driver circuit, and (b) the
LED load.

can be predicted using machine learning. That’s why the circuit components and the elec-
trical operation parameters are changed to obtain different EMI levels to be measured in
the experiments to use in the machine learning methods. The switching frequency of the
converter was initially selected as 70 kHz. However, during the data collection process for
machine learning, additional data have also been obtained at different switching frequen-
cies while the component values remain constant. If the switching frequency changes, the
ripple value also changes, as indicated by the formulas. Modifying the calculated com-
ponent values will also alter the levels of electromagnetic emissions, as it directly affects
the ripple value as seen from the formulas. As a result, the values of the input and output
capacitors are also used as parameters in the input layer of the machine learning model.
It has been observed that taking into account all the electrical operation parameters
and the component values yields more optimal EMI results for different input and output
capacitance values than that for the ones calculated by the formulas, considering the influ-
ence of experimental parasitic effects and real physical conditions. For the experiments,
measurements have been conducted with various additional capacitance values, following
this principle, and these values have been used in the training of the system.
The implemented board is equipped with an LED load, operating at a current of 2 A
and connected to a 24 V output voltage. Figure 2(a and b) display photographs of the
implemented circuit and the LED load, respectively.
After the design and implementation phase, current and voltage measurements have
been performed to examine the operational characteristics and performance accuracy of
the system. Figure 3 presents the graphs obtained for switching frequencies of 400 kHz (a)
and 70 kHz (b). It is important to note that the components (resistor and capacitor) con-
nected to the LM3429 driver need to be modified in order to enable switching at different
frequency values.
Testing the system performance for various switching frequency values and getting con-
vincing results are extremely important for realistic applications. It has been observed that
the spikes in the measurement results vary according to the switching frequency. These
spikes largely determine the emission characteristic in switched-power electronic circuits.
This characteristic is evident in all buck-boost converter circuits and poses a challenge for
achieving satisfactory EMC results. To mitigate emission levels, inlet and outlet filters are
employed.
6 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

Figure 3. The measured output voltage at (a) 400 kHz and (b)70 kHz switching frequencies.

Considering the output voltage ripple values, the input capacitance Cin has been reduced
from 34 to 10 μF at a switching frequency of 70 kHz and the output voltage values is shown
in Figure 4. The figure illustrates that changing the input capacitance causes the signal
to expand in the time domain, thereby reducing emissions Consequently, input capaci-
tance Cin is an essential input parameter in machine learning for achieving desired EMC
results. However, increasing the input capacitance Cin excessively will decrease system effi-
ciency, albeit potentially yielding better EMC outcomes. Therefore, striking a balance and
identifying the optimum point are crucial considerations.

Conducted electromagnetic emission measurement and generating dataset

The emissions tests performed serve the purpose of measuring the noise emitted by the
power cord conductors of the product. Emission tests included in electromagnetic com-
patibility tests have certain limits so that the amount of emission from the devices does not
affect other devices in the surrounding environment.
The impedance observed at the AC mains outlet shows significant variations across
different locations within the measured frequency range. These variations, caused by the
product load, affect the level of noise conducted through the power cord. To ensure con-
sistency between test sites, the impedance seen by the product from the product’s power
cord should be stable at each measurement site. This is the primary objective of using a
Line Impedance Stabilization Network (LISN).
Moreover, the amount of noise present in the power grid network differs from one loca-
tion to another. This “external” noise enters the product’s power cord and contributes to
the measured conducted emissions unless mitigated in some way. Ideally, only the con-
ducted emissions generated by the product itself should be measured, which becomes the
secondary objective of using an LISN.
In summary, the two main purposes of employing LISNs can be summarized as follows
[3]:
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 7

Figure 4. Output voltage measured at a frequency of 70 kHz with reduced input capacitance.

– Presenting a constant impedance to the output of the product’s power cord across the
frequency range of conducted emissions tests.
– Blocking conducted emissions that are not attributed to the EUT (Equipment Under
Test) to ensure that only the conducted emissions of the product are measured.

These two objectives can only be achieved within the frequency range of conducted
interference emissions (150 kHz to 30 MHz).
The test setup, which complies with the regulations, is illustrated in Figure 5 [34,35].
The EUT is connected to the LISN instead of directly connecting to supply; both present
a constant impedance to the product’s power cord output over the frequency range and
block conducted emissions not attributable to the EUT.
The power input section of the LISN device is connected to the supply intended for
the EUT, while the test port of the LISN device is connected to the EMI receiver through
a transient limiter. The EMI receiver allows the observation and recording of the con-
ducted emissions levels generated by the EUT. In emission tests, it is crucial to ensure
that the limit line, which represents the maximum allowable levels at different frequen-
cies, is not exceeded. In fact, taking into account the measurement uncertainty, it is
aimed to obtain a measurement value below the margin level determined from the limit.
8 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

Figure 5. Setup for Conducted Emission tests.

For the required measurement result for each specified detector type, if the measure-
ment value exceeds the accepted maximum limit level at any point, it means the result is
“failed”.
The emission limits specified in the MIL STD-461 F/G standard were taken into
account, particularly the CE102 Conducted Emissions Radio Frequency Potentials test.
The specific conducted emission limits are determined based on the source voltage of the
EUT. The emission limits specified in the standard document start from 94 dBμV at 10
kHz and decrease linearly to 60 dBμV at 500 kHz. However, it should be noted that the
frequency axis is logarithmic. It remains at 60 dBμV from 500 kHz to 10 MHz. Since the
device does not exhibit any meaningful technical emission behavior further than 1 MHz,
the measurements have been performed up to this point. The difference between the cur-
rent result and the limit value is checked for each frequency to determine the pass/fail status
of the EUT.
The conducted emission measurement setup, which includes all the specified equipment
is formed in accordance with the regulations and is depicted in Figure 6. Measurements
have been conducted between 10–and 150 kHz and 150 kHz and 1 MHz, practically CE102
lower-frequency and upper-frequency bands, respectively.
Once the test setup was established, the input/output capacitances and switching fre-
quency values were varied and the emission levels have been obtained. Due to space
considerations, only 2 of 27 different measurements are presented in Table 1 for a general
consideration.
By selecting different parameter values during the measurements, improvements were
achieved in the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) results of the circuit, and a dataset
was created to extract a machine learning model.
Two of the measurement results given in Table 1 are depicted in Figure 7 for Measure-
ment 1 and Figure 8 for Measurement 7, respectively. Figures 7 and 8(a) and (b) are the
continuations of each other in terms of the frequency line on the horizontal axis. In terms
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 9

Figure 6. Conducted Emission measurement setup of the prototype EUT.

Table 1. Some parameter values selected during EMC measurements.

Measurement # Input capacitance Output capacitance Switching frequency Input voltage Avg. output voltage
Measurement 1 10 μF 29.4 μF 31 kHz 24V 24V
Measurement 7 20 μF 4.7 μF 70 kHz 24V 24V

of the values obtained in the measurements, the two graphs are basically compatible with
each other. However, the visual effect of the switching frequency and its harmonics on
the characteristic is much more dominant in the graphs of Figures 7(a) and 8(a), which
present the lower frequency results. Additionally, the reason for the difference between the
two graphs is that various measurement parameters such as Measurement Time, Step Size,
and Resolution Bandwidth are independent and different from each other for both ranges
in the standard document and are taken into account in the measurements in this way.
As evident from the figures, the input capacitance value and the switching frequency
directly impact the emission levels. Since the increase in the input capacitance value
reduces the emission while reducing the efficiency, it is necessary to reach the optimum
point. The same principle applies to the effect of the switching frequency and output
capacitance. The determination of optimum values can be made through theoretical or
experimental methods.

Machine learning results

The Artificial Neural Network method, which is one of the machine learning methods,
training is conducted using the existing datasets. The determination of the input layer,
hidden layer, and output layer is crucial in this method. Once these layers are determined,
the functions or methods to be utilized on each layer should be specified, and the ANN
10 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

Figure 7. Measurement 1 conducted emission results for (a) 10 kHz-150 kHz (b) 150 kHz-1 MHz, respec-
tively.

Figure 8. Measurement 7 conducted emission results for (a) 10 kHz-150 kHz (b) 150 kHz-1 MHz, respec-
tively.

can be created as given in the Figure 9. The weights (wij and zij ) between the neurons
are updated at the end of each iteration according to the dataset used, and a relationship
is found between the input parameters and the output parameters. The input and out-
put parameters employed in the study for machine learning purposes are presented in
Figure 10. These input and output parameters are utilized for both ANN and regression
methods.
In order to train the system by creating the weights, first of all, the input-output values
should be normalized between 0 and 1 or −1 and 1. Any of the min–max or mean-variance
formulas can be used for this. While calculating the parameters at the output using the
input data, the first step is to calculate the values of the neurons in the hidden layer using
Eq. (4).

n
H =b+ xi wij (4)
i=1

where xi is the ith input, wij is the weights between the input-hidden layer, b is the bias
(offset) value, and n is the length of the input layer. These calculated values are given as
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 11

Figure 9. Artificial Neural Network architecture.

the input to the activation function used in the output. The activation function is used
to determine the output by processing the incoming input. After the output is obtained,
the required value is used as given in (5), new weights (wx ) are calculated, and the ANN is
updated. The model is created by performing these operations until the appropriate weights
are found or a sufficient number of epochs is reached.
 
∂Error
∗wx = wx − a (a : learning rate) (5)
∂wx

To train the system using ANN, regression algorithms, or deep learning, input-output
parameters need to be extracted. The model used in this study is given in Figure 10. Input
parameters include input-output voltage (ranging from 5 to 36 V), ripple values (ranging
from 0 to 36 V), input capacitance (ranging from 3.3 to 100 μF), output capacitance (rang-
ing from 3.3 to 100 μF), measurement frequency (ranging from 10 kHz to 1 MHz) and
switching frequency (ranging from 14 to 100 kHz).
As depicted in the model, semiconductor parameters as well as input and output com-
ponents values of the circuit can be considered. When a single semiconductor is used,
the model assumes constant semiconductor parameters, allowing it to function properly.
However, when different semiconductors are utilized, their relevant electrical parameters
are taken from their datasheet. Information from datasheets is utilized for semiconductor
components. MOSFETs and LED drivers have minimum-maximum input-output voltage
and current values beside conductance and gate resistance parameters.
The model has been designed in this paper to be applicable universally. Various semi-
conductors have been utilized in experimental processes, and the performance of the
model has been tested during experimental processes. However, for the sake of space
saving, the results have been provided for a single semiconductor in the study.
12 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

Figure 10. Input-output parameters used in machine learning.

In the machine learning model, the switching frequency value is determined by a capac-
itor and resistor connected to the LED driver circuit. Details regarding these capacitor
and resistor values can be obtained from the datasheet of the LED driver. Throughout
the electromagnetic emission measurements, variations were made in the switching fre-
quency, filter parameters, and power level. For the same driver or MOSFET, data points
were extracted from the datasheet considering constant semiconductor properties, result-
ing in the creation of a dataset. A total of 500 different records were collected for the
conducted emission tests conducted.
In this method, following the model extraction and data editing steps, the appropriate
software language and library should be selected for training. In this study, first MATLAB
was chosen as the programming language due to its efficient mathematical operations that
facilitate machine learning tasks.
LVM (Levenberg-Marquardt), Bayesian Regularization and Scaled Conjugate Gradient
algorithms from artificial neural network methods are convenient algorithms for targeted
results. The number of neurons and hidden layers can be selected according to the number
of input parameters used and the intensity of the calculations. If more than one hidden layer
is required, deep learning structures such as MLP (Multi-Layer Perceptron), CNN (Convo-
lutional Neural Network), RNN (Recurrent Neural Network), and Deep Neural Networks
should be used instead of ANN structure. It is known that deep learning structures work
well when there is a large number of data, and if there is not enough data, they do not work
well. Therefore, a single hidden layer ANN structure and 20 neurons in the hidden layer
are used. For neuron selection, the number of neurons with the highest success rate was
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 13

selected by comparing the trainings with different neuron numbers. The weights between
the input, hidden layer and output layer are updated using the data from the dataset. The
mathematical function is formed with the updating of the weights. As an example, the for-
mula used for the forward propagation calculation of the LVM algorithm is given by (6)
[36]. In the given equation, xi is input, wij is the weights between the input and the hidden
layer, wj is biases between the input layer and the hidden layer, f(1) function is the activa-
tion function between input layer and hidden layer, f(2) function is the activation function
between the output layer and the hidden layer, j is the number of cells in the hidden layer,
n is the number of cells in the input layer, m is the number of cells in the output layer, Wjm
is the weights between the output layer and the hidden layer, Wm is the bias between the
output layer and the hidden layer.
⎧  n
 ⎫
⎨ m  ⎬
(2) (1)
ym = f f xi wij + wj wjm + wm (6)
⎩ ⎭
j=1 i=1

With the formation of the artificial neural network model, the output value can be esti-
mated with the inputs from the input layer. Thus, the value of the components to be used
in the buck-boost converter topology to reduce the electromagnetic emission below the
limits can be predicted with this model.
In order to avoid overfitting in the machine learning process, 400 and 100 records were
used during training and testing, respectively [37]. The results obtained with artificial neu-
ral networks are given in Table 2 and the measurement results obtained as a result of
regression are given in Table 3. The results given are the results taken from the data used
for testing in machine learning.
Considering the performance of artificial neural networks and the results of regression
algorithms, input has been applied to the system and tests were carried out. The GPR
(Gaussian Process Regression) algorithm, which provides the highest success, has been
used during the tests. The loop is basically created on the basis of frequency, which is one
of the input parameters, and other parameters are taken into account at each step. Each

Table 2. Testing results with artificial neural

network methods.
Model name MSE Accuracy (%)
Levenberg-Marquardt (LVM) 4,70 98
Bayesian regularization 4,51 98
Scaled conjugate gradient 8,8 96

Table 3. Testing results with regression methods.

Model name RMSE MSE Accuracy (%)
Linear regression 1,54 18,43 87
Interactions regression 4,29 15,81 89
Robust regression 3,98 18,90 87
Stepwise regression 4,35 15,84 89
Squared GPR 2,29 5,23 96
Matern 5/2 GPR 0,94 0,88 99
Exponential GPR 0,75 0,56 99
Quadratic GPR 0,70 0,49 99
14 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

Figure 11. Conducted emission measurements and estimated results for (a) 35 μF input capacitances,
5 μF output capacitances and 14 kHz switching frequency and (b) 10 μF input capacitances, 30uF output
capacitances and 70 kHz switching frequency.

step the measurement value is estimated; it assigns the voltage level (dBμV) corresponding
to each specific frequency of the array. After these values have been taken in the desired
frequency range, result graphs were created. The theoretical calculation of electromag-
netic emission emitted through electronic cards is quite complex. Tolerances of electronic
components and their interactions, adjustments are necessary when incorporating various
component values in experimental studies. In order to test the accuracy of the machine
learning model, it is necessary to compare the measurement results not used in machine
training with the predicted results. The results estimated using the Rational GPR model
and measurement are given in Figure 11.
In Figure 11, basically the results obtained for different input and output capacitances
and switching frequency values are given. Reactive component values and switching fre-
quency have critical effects on system dynamics and, on emission behavior. With increasing
switching frequency, the system produces a signal with higher spectral width. It is seen
that these test signals, which were not used for training before, are predicted with a high
performance with the proposed model
As can be seen from Figure 11, the measurement results and the predicted results are in
good agreement in terms of the average values. While the GPR algorithm performs well in
capturing average characteristics, there is a need to improve its ability to obtain peak val-
ues. To address this; the training was carried out using the deep learning method, with the
aim of combining multiple layers, thus allowing it to carry out more complex mathematical
operations, providing performance in estimating harmonics accurately. Accurately identi-
fying these peak values is crucial as they correspond to significant points in EMC tests and
determine the pass/fail result of the EUT.
The Python programming language, specifically the TensorFlow module, provides vari-
ous opportunities for training using different models, layers, and optimizers when it comes
to utilizing deep learning algorithms. The Python interface given in Figure 12 is designed
both to ensure the continuous improvement of the system and to improve the predicted
results. By using this interface, it was ensured that the proposed technique was applied sys-
tematically and continuously, and it was seen that high-performance results were obtained
effectively. The Tkinter module has been used in the design of this interface. The training
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 15

Figure 12. Application interface prepared with Python Tkinter module.

Figure 13. Cross entropy characteristics.

and testing part of the system for machine learning has been developed with Tensorflow.
Thanks to Tensorflow GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) support, CUDA (Compute Unified
Device Architecture) cores have been used for training and prediction. CUDA is an archi-
tecture and technology for GPU that are available as an add-on to the C programming
language offered by NVIDIA. It can perform mathematical operations in parallel with the
grid, block and thread structures. Thus, a system that can respond quickly in case the
dataset grows has been designed.
16 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

Figure 14. Measured signal and predicted signal using TensorFlow for conducted emissions.

Following the interface design, machine learning training has been made using Tensor-
Flow. The Cross Entropy output of training is given in Figure 13. The developed model
consists of four ReLU layers and one sigmoid layer. Also, the output is optimized with
Adam Optimizer.
As a result of this training, the same inputs used in Figure 11(b) have been applied in
Figure 14 to test the system. Here, the black solid line is the measured signal, while the
red one is the predicted waveform. It has been seen that harmonics can also be obtained
through the use of multiple layers in TensorFlow. A value of 0.78 was obtained in terms of
mean squared error (MSE), and in this sense, the level of performance achieved by deep
learning is quantitatively higher than the regression algorithm. Although there are differ-
ences between the measured signal and the predicted in terms of the specific dynamics
of the harmonic, especially the peak values and the overall characteristic performance are
very good. In particular, it should be emphasized that results are obtained with the data
set that is not used in the training. This is another aspect that reveals the success of the
method. By incorporating the measurement points of various semiconductors and differ-
ent power levels into the system, it will be capable of supporting various electronic circuit
boards.
In terms of the reliability and consistency of the results obtained, studies on the esti-
mation of electromagnetic emissions in the literature have been reviewed for comparison
purposes. The reviewed studies encompassed various methods and estimation techniques,
each with their own advantages and disadvantages, which are summarized in Table 4. Based
Table 4. Comparative analysis of previous studies in the literature.
Author Prediction con- Solution Method description Advantage Disadvantage
sideration method
and dataset
Weßling and Simulation / Circuit Model The electromagnetic emission of the Inclusion of component and PCB SPICE-based electromagnetic emission
Dickmann Theoretical DC-DC converter is predicted by parasitics for conducted emissions prediction for DC-DC converters
[38] using SPICE modeling prediction. may have limitations in accurately
capturing real-world effects.
Zhang et al. Theoretical The Black-Box It focuses on predicting electromag- The ability to accurately identify The mutual influence of components

JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS

[39] Model netic emissions generated by DC-DC noise-source parameters and and the effect of layout have been
converters using mathematical predict conducted emissions with disregarded in this study.
approaches. different loads.
Boyer et al. [40] Simulation / Bottom-Up It focuses on a methodology to predict Prediction does not require any Due to relying solely on theoretical
Theoretical approach conducted emissions according to experimental data calculations, the predictions do
bottom-up approach. not take into account real-world
behaviors.
Kostov et al. Theoretical Analytical Conducted emissions were predicted Prediction does not require any In the prediction of electromagnetic
[41] calculations using general signal equations and experimental data emissions, the influence of PCB,
mathematical expressions. layout, and real-world effects is not
taken into account.
This study Experimental ANN, Regres- Conducted emissions were predicted Capable of predicting behavior of Accurate definition of the structure
sion and with machine learning approaches complex electronic circuits and can necessitates a specific param-
Deep predict real-world effects eter definition. However, this
Learning requirement serves as an advan-
tageous aspect that ensures high
performance response.

17
18 F. H. SAKACI AND S. C. YENER

on these evaluations, it is evident that the proposed system, built upon real-world results,
provides the closest prediction to the actual emissions. This aspect of the study represents
its strength and credibility. Moreover, the use of machine learning techniques and the
derivation of results from experimental data may make the proposed system applicable
and accurate even in more complex systems.

Conclusion
This paper presents the design of a radio-frequency disturbance characteristic prediction
system based on an examination of conducted emission results from a buck-boost DC-DC
converter-based LED driver topology. An LED driver circuit specifically designed for this
prediction system was subjected to electromagnetic emission measurements in an EMC
laboratory environment, adhering to applicable standards. During the measurements,
using various parameter values, electromagnetic interference levels have been analyzed.
The necessary data set has been created by labeling the obtained measurement results and
selected parameters.
Measurement estimations can be carried out based on the input parameters by develop-
ing new machine learning models on this interface. For systems with the basic topology of
buck-boost converters, a prediction has been made utilizing the designed estimation sys-
tem. By utilizing the obtained results, it is possible to derive optimal component values that
adhere to the electromagnetic emission limit values. This approach has made it possible to
determine a radio-frequency disturbance characteristic with high accuracy without having
to measure the circuits for each unique change.
The datasets have been organized and processed according to the specified machine-
learning techniques. Regression, deep learning, and artificial neural networks are used
as machine learning techniques in this study. The specifics of all three approaches are
discussed, and the comparative outcomes are provided. It is known that deep learning
structures yield better results in systems with higher amounts of data, which has been
confirmed by the obtained performance values. Among the regression methods, the GPR
algorithm demonstrated the highest success rate with a 99% accuracy. Using the GPR
algorithm, tests were conducted using this approach. Although GPR algorithm shows
good performance in capturing the average characteristics, the performance level should
increase in terms of obtaining peak values. For this purpose, training was conducted using
the deep learning method, and the mean squared error (MSE) was found to be 0.78. The
method’s ability to perform more mathematical operations, thanks to its multiple layers,
has contributed to its high success in accurately predicting harmonics. It is crucial to cor-
rectly identify these peak values, which correspond to the most significant points in EMC
tests determining whether the device practically pass/fail status. Once the system is trained,
it allows for accurate observation of the effects of varying component values in the cir-
cuit without conducting real lab experiments. The obtained model is highly beneficial and
useful from this perspective.
Companies can get high-performance and realistic outcomes by methodically adjust-
ing the necessary electrical magnitudes and component values in the electronic systems
they manufacture by employing such a machine-learning system in the design, test and
measurement processes. It is obvious that this will result in a significant time and money
savings for the EMC test operations.
 JOURNAL OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND APPLICATIONS 19

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Sakarya University Electromagnetic Research Center (SEMAM) for
its technical infrastructure during the experimental studies.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributors
Furkan Hasan Sakaci PhD student (since 2021), Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Yildiz Technical University. First degree in Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Sakarya
University, 2018. He is currently working as a software engineer at Havelsan. Publications: author of
8 research papers and proceedings.
Suayb Cagri Yener Assoc. Prof. (since 2018), Department of Electric-Electronic Engineering,
Sakarya University. Doctor of Science (Electronics Engineering), Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 2014. Master of Science (Electronics
and Communication Engineering), Istanbul Technical University, 2007. First degree in Electrical-
Electronics Engineering, Sakarya University, 2004. Publications: author of 68 research papers and
proceedings.

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