Class 12

Electrostatics (I+II)
Quick Revision ELECTROSTATICS (I+II)

TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 8) Electric flux:
Q/q : Charge Flux linking an area is defined as the number
Fc : Force between the charges of field lines passing through given area
E : Electric field intensity perpendicularly.
: Linear charge density 9) Gauss’s law : Flux linking any closed surface
 : Surface charge density 1
: Volume charge density is always equal to times the net charge
0
0
: Permittivity of free space enclosed by the surface.
: Permittivity of medium 10) Electric potential:
: Relative permittivity Electric potential at a point in a field is defined
r
as the amount of work done in bringing a unit
k : Dielectric constant
positive test charge from infinity to that point.
: Electric flux 11) Potential difference:
n̂ : Unit vector along normal The potential difference between two points is
r : Distance from charge / body centre defined as the amount of work done in bringing
R : Radius unit positive charge from one point to another.
: Gradient 12) Electric potential energy:
V : Electric potential / Potential difference (Voltage) Work done in bringing a charge particle from
 infinity to a point in field, will store as potential
dr : Small change in position vector
W : Work done energy in the charge.
 13) Equipotential surface:
p : Dipole moment
It is the surface where the potential at any point
u : Potential energy of the surface has the same value.
C : Capacitance 14) Electric dipole:
b/w : Between Two equal and opposite charges, separated by
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS a finite distance constitute a dipole.
1) Charge : 15) Dipole moment:
It is the fundamental property of matter due to Product of magnitude of either of the charges
which matter experiences the effect of electric in a dipole and the dipole length is known as
and magnetic fields. dipole moment.
2) Linear charge density: 16) CORONA Discharge:
Charge per unit length of a body. When the electric field on the surface of
3) Surface charge density:
Charge per unit surface area at the body. conductor ( ) exceeds the electric strength
4) Volume charge density: of air, the air becomes conducting and the
Charge per unit volume of the body. surface of conductor loses charge. This action
5) Electric field: usually occurs at sharp points, where  will be
The region of influence surrounding a charged high. This phenomena is known as ‘CORONA
body upto which it can influence other charge Discharge’.
particles. 17) Capacitance:
6) Electric field intensity: Capacitance of a body is defined as the amount
Number of field lines passing throught uniform. of charge required per unit rise of potential of
or the body.
Force acting per unit charge placed in the field. 18) Condenser OR Capacitor:
7) Neutral point (Null point): An arrangement of conductors which increases
Point where resultant electric field intensity is the capacity of the one conductor at relatively
zero. low potential is called as capacitor or condenser.
RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC * RCC 52
19) Series Combination: 5) Electric field intensity due to point charge
Two or more capacitors are said to be in series
if same amount of charge passes through all the
capacitors one after the other.
1 Q
20) Parallel Combination: E
4 0 r 2
Two or more branches are said to be in parallel
if they are connected between same set of points direction : away from charge if q is +ve towards
(or) if they have same voltage across them. charge if q is –ve.
FORMULAE
FORMULAE 6) Null point : q Q
1) Quantization of charge : Like charge
net charge on any body is given by  ne d
x
n : number of electrons supplied to the body or Q
removed from the body. 1
q
2) Coulomb’s law : Force between two charges
Unlike charge
d
x
Q
1 Q1Q2 1
F q
4 0 r 2 (for air medium)
7) Electric flux :
1 Q1Q2 For a closed surface
F (for other media)  
4 ( k 0 ) r 2  ( E)d cos  E ds

3) ds  ds nˆ
1 Q1Q2
F
4  0 ( r  t  t k )2
4) Force on a charge particle placed in electric 8) Electric flux for uniform field is
field.  
 ES cos  E S
max
 ES when lines are perpendicular to
surface.
F = qE
min
 0 when liens are parallel to surface.
  ve for leaving flux.
 
in vector form F  qE   ve for entering flux.
  9) Number of field lines coming out (or) entering
direction of F and E is same if q is +ve and
opposite if q is –ve. q
in for a charge ‘q’ is .
0
10) Electric field due to charged wire / cyling 14) Field due to uniformly charged conducting
plate
E
2 0 r 
E
0
11) Field due to charged circular arc at centre C(EC)
Q 15) Field due to uniformly charged conducting

sphere / spherical shell
+ + +
Q+ + +
+ +
R + +
+ R + P
O +r
Q +
R + +
 + +
C ++ +
EC + + +
E = 0 (inside point; r < R)

 2 kQ  
EC  sin    1 Q
2  
R 2 4 R2 (at surface; r = R)
0 0
1
where k  4 and should be in radian. 
1 Q
0 4 0 r 2 ; (at outside; r > R)
12) Field due to uniformly charged ring at a point
16) Electric field due to uniformly charged non-
an axis.
conducting sphere
r
E ; (at inside point ; r < R)
3 0
Q x
Eaxis  
1 Q
4 0 3
4 R2
; (at surface; r = R)
( R2  x ) 2 2
0
13) Field due to uniformly charged sheet 1 Q

 ; (at outside; r > R)
4 0 r2
17) Electric field at a point inside the cavity of
conducting sphere

E
2 0
18) Field inside the cavity of uniformly charged 24) Potential due to charged wire / rod:
non-conducting sphere P
+ ++ ++ ++ ++
 L x
+ + +  r
+ ++ E  O O'
3 0 Uniform  x L
+ +O O’ Vp  ln  
++ + + + field 4 0  x 
+ +
+ ++ +
+ ++ 25) Potential due to charged disc:
+
O - centre of sphere ++++
O’ - centre of cavity
+++
+++
P
++ +
Note : In all above formulae, incase of any other  ++++
+
x
medium than air, replace 0
with k 0
. 
Vp  ( R 2  x 2  x)
K = dielectric constant. 2 0
19) Electric potential at any point ‘p’:
R
Vcentre 
W p 2 0
Vp 
q0 26) Potential due to uniformly charged conducting
sphere (Or) spherical shell:
Where W p is work done in bringing charge
+
q0 from  to point p. + + ++
R
+ ++ +
++
20) Potential due to point charge: P
++ +
r
++
1 Q
Vp 
++
r + ++
4 0 r Q P
21) Potential difference between two points A & B: 1 Q

V
4  0 R (At any point inside sphere: r R)
W
VB  V A  A  B
q0 1 Q

4  0 r (At point outside sphere: r > R)
where WA  B is work done in moving charge q0
27) Potential due to uniformly charged non-
from A to B. conducting sphere:
22) Electric field due to group of charges q1, q2, q3,
++
......., qn is + + +R+ +
+++++++ P
+ + ++ +++
V  V1  V2  V3  ......  Vn + + + + + ++
++ ++ +++
++ +++ +
r
++ +
1  q1 q2 qn 
    ...... 
4 0  r1 r2 rn  Q  3 R2  r 2 
V  
n
4  0 R3  2 
1 qi
V (At any point inside sphere : r < R)
4 0 i 1 ri
1 Q
23) Potential due to uniformly charged ring: 
4  0 R (At point on surface: r = R)
1 Q ++
Vp 
+++ +++++ +
++
4 R x2 2

1 Q
++ +++++ +
0 P
4  0 r (At point outside sphere: r > R)
x
1 Q
++
Vcentre 
++
4 0 R 3
Vcentre  Vsurface
2
28) Potential energy stored between two point 36) Electric dipole moment:
charges: 
P
1 Q1Q2
U Q1
r
Q2 –q l +q
4 0 r
P  ql
29) Potential energy of a charge placed in electric 37) Dipole placed in uniform field:
field:
+
U = qV 
V - Potential at point where charge is placed P
30) Potential energy of two charge system placed –
in external field:
  
Torque =  P E   PE sin
(i)
V1 r V2
q1 q2 max = PE at = 90°
min = 0 at = 0°/180°
(ii) Fnet = 0 at any value of .
1 q1 q 2 (iii) Potential energy of dipole
U  q1 v1  q2 v2   
4 0 r U   PE cos   P.E -
Umax = PE at = 180°
31) Work to be done by external agent to change  Unstable equilibrium position
the distribution of charges in a system: Umin = –PE at = 0°
W  U f  Ui  Stable equilibrium position
Uf : Final potential energy of system (iv) Time period of oscillations performed by dipole
Ui : Initial potential energy of system when disturbed at stable equilibrium position
32) Work done in moving a charge particle between ( = 0°) is
two points in a field: I
WA B  q( V B  V A )  By external agent T  2
PE
= q( V B  V A )  By electric field where I is moment of inertia of dipole.
Where, WA  B : Work done in moving charge q 38) Electric field due to dipole:
(i) Axial line (End-on position):
from A to B.

33) Gain in kinetic energy of a charge particle when P P 
accelerated through a potential difference of E
–q +q
V volt is
 K .E .  q(  V ) r
34) Relation between electric field and potential is 1 2P
 FAxis 
E V 4  0 r
3
 Vˆ V ˆ V ˆ (ii) Equitorial line (Broad-on Position)

E i j k 
x y z E P
 
V   E.dr

 
rB
V A  VB  E.dr

rA 
–q P +q

where, dr  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ
1 P
35) n small drops of V volt each are combine to form Eeq . 
4 0 r 3
big drop, then potential of big drop is
 
VBig  n 2/3 Vsmall Angle between P and E is 180°.
(iii) At any point: (iii) At any point:
E  M
 r
r
– +
–q O +q –  +
P
1 P
E 3cos 2  1 1 P cos
4 0 r 3 VM 
4 0 r2
1
tan   tan 41) Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:
2
39) Electric force between two dipoles: A
A
Air C
P1 P2 d
(i) – + – + d
r
d
1 6 P1 P2 A
F A
4 0 r 4 CK 0
d
K
+
P1
P2 K
(ii) – +
r A
C 0
–
l
dl
K
1 3P1 P2 l
F
4 0 r 4
K1 K2
40) Electric potential due to dipole:
(i) Axial line: A
C 0
 l1 l 
 d  (l1  l2  ...)   2  ... 
P  K1 K2 
P l1 l2
– +
r
42) Relation between voltage on a capacitor and
1 P
VP  charge stored in it:
4 0 r 2
Q = C.V

P 43) In Series combination
P – r +
1 1 1 1
   ..... 
1 P C eff . C1 C2 Cn
VP  
4 0 r 2
In Parallel combination
(ii) Equitorial line:
V=0 (At any point on equitorial line) Ceff .  C1  C 2  .....  C n
44) Charging of a capacitor: 46) Induced charge on dielectric:
Q0 –Qi +Qi
C + – +
+ – +
+ – +  1
+ – + Qi  Q0  1  
q + – +
+ – +  K
+ – +
+ – +
47) Effect of dielectric on capacitor:
V
Physical Quantity Before Dielectric After Dielectric Placed
Total work done by battery = CV2 Placed With cell Without cell
Capacitance C0 = 0A / d KC0 KC0
1 2
Energy stored in capacitor = CV Voltage V0 V0 V0 / K
2
Charge stored Q0 = C 0V0 KQ0 Q0
1
Heat loss in process = CV 2
2 Electric field
E0 = V 0 / d E0 E0 / K
between plates
45) Sharing of charges:
1
Energy stored U0  C V2 KU0 U0 / K
C 2 0 0
+ 1–
Force between the Q 20
V1 F0  KF0 F0 / K
plates 2A 0
q
48) Force between the plates of capacitor:
Q2
F
C2 2A 0
V2
49) Capacitance of spherical capacitor:
Let (V1 > V2)
R
Sharing takes place until both the capcitors get
a common voltage across them. C  4 0 R
The common voltage is given by
C1V1  C2 V2
VC  b
C1  C 2 a  ab 
C  4 0  
Loss in energy in the process is ba
1 C1C2
Heat loss = (V  V2 ) 2
2 C1  C 2 1 b a  b2 
C  4 0  
ba
Initial charge on capacitors:
Q1  C1V1
Q2  C2 V2 b a
Final charges (after sharing): C  4 0b
C1
Q '1  C1VC  (Q1  Q2 ) 50) n identical small drops are combined to form
C1  C 2
a big drop, then
CBig = n1/3 CSmall
C2
Q '2  C2 VC  (Q  Q2 ) VBig = n2/3 VSmall
C1  C 2 1 UBig = n5/3 USmall
51) Sharing of charges: GRAPHS
GRAPHS
1) Force between two charges (vs) distance
q
R1 R2 between them
Q1 Q2
Common potential
1 Q1Q2
R V  R2 V2 F
VC  1 1 4 0 r 2
R1  R2
R1 R2
Heat loss = 2 (V  V2 ) 2 
0
K1  R2 1 2) E due to point charge w.r.t. distance
Final charges
R1
Q11  (Q  Q2 )
R1  R2 1
1 Q
R2 E
Q  1
(Q1  Q2 ) 4 0 r 2
R1  R2
2
52) Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor:

R2 
3) E due to charged wire w.r.t. distance
R1
L
1
E E
r 2 0 r
r

2 0 L 4) E due to uniformly charged ring on axis (vs)
C distance from centre:
R 
ln  2 
 R1 
E
53) Energy density (energy stored or unit volume) +
++ + ++ +
+++ + ++ + ++
R/ 2
1
 E2 R/ 2 r
+ ++
0
2 +
where, E : Electric field intensity in medium E is max .at x  R / 2
Note:
All the formulae given are for air medium. In
case of another medium, replace 0 with K 0, Q x
E
where K is dielectric constant of the given 4 0 ( R  x2 )3/2
2
medium.
Current Electricity
Quick Revision CURRENT ELECTRICITY
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 8) Series combination:
Q/q : Charge Two or more resistors are said to be in series,
V : Voltage / Potential difference OR Potential if same current flows through all of them.
/E : e.m.f. 9) Parallel combination:
i : Electric current Two or more branches are said to be in parallel,
if they are connected between same set of points
R/r : Electric resistance
(or) if they have same potential difference
G : Conductance (voltage) across them.
: Resistivity 10) Effective resistance:
 : Conductivity The total hindrance/opposition faced by current
Vd : Drift velocity in the circuit.
: Relaxation time 11) Ohmic and non-ohmic conductor:
j : Current density Conductors that obey Ohm’s law are known as
A : Area of cross-section ohmic conductors and those do not obey Ohm’s
H : Heat energy released across resistor law are known as non-ohmic conductors.
P : Power 12) Resistor:
K : Potential gradient A resistor is a two terminal electrical component
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element.
1) Electric current:
13) Cell / Battery:
It is defined as the rate of flow of charge with
respect to time. It is the source of electrical energy. It converts
chemical energy to electrical energy.
2) Current density:
14) Electromotive force (e.m.f.):
Current density at a point inside the conductor
is defined as the amount of current flowing per The total work that the cell can do on one
coulomb of charge in driving the charge
unit area in a direction normal to the current.
through circuit.
3) Drift speed (vd):
15) Internal resistance:
The free electrons within the metal, in addition
to its random motion, acquires a small velocity The resistance offered by the cell to the current
in circuit is known as internal resistance.
towards the positive end of conductor. This
velocity is called drift velocity. 16) Terminal voltage:
4) Relaxation time: The potential difference between the terminals
of the cell.
The average time gap between two successive
collisions of free electrons is known as 17) Maximum power transfer theorem:
relaxation time. The power delivered across external resistance
is maximum, when the value of external
5) Ohm’s law:
resistance will be equal to the internal
Under given physical conditions, the current
resistance of cell.
produced in the conductor is proportional to
18) Kirchhoff’s first law:
the potential difference across the conductor.
At any junction, the sum of currents entering
6) Electrical resistance:
the junction must be equal to the sum of
The hindrance offered by a conductor to the
currents leaving the junction.
flow of current is called the electrical resistance
19) Kirchhoff’s second law:
of the conductor.
The algebraic sum of voltages around any
7) Resistivity:
closed loop of a circuit must be equal to zero.
Resistivity of any material is defined as the
20) Potential gradient:
resistance of that material having unit length
Potential drop per unit length.
and unit area of cross-section.
Current Electricity
FORMULAE
FORMULAE 14) Terminal voltage (V) of a cell:
1) Electric current: V = E – ir  While discharging of cell
dq Q
V = E + ir  While charging of cell
i or i  V = E  When cell is open branch
dt t
V = 0  When cell is short circuited
2) If charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with
15) Energy delivered across a resistor:
speed v, the current is
qv V2 
i H  i 2 Rt    t  Vit
2r  R 
3) Ohm’s law 16) Power delivered across a resistor:
V
I V2
R P  i2 R   Vi
V - Voltage (potential difference) across body R
4) Relation between electric current & drift speed: 17) Resistance of a bulb (or) any device:
i 2
Vrated
R
A Prated
i  neAVd Vrated = Rated voltage of bulb

Prated = Rated power of bulb
n : Density of free electrons 18) Voltage division rule:
5) Relation between current density & drift speed:
I R1 R2
J  neVd 
A V1 V2 In series
6) Resistance of a conductor: i i
v R
l
R A
A V
l
1 V1 R1
7) Conductance, G  
R V2 R2
1 1 l
8) Conductivity   
 V1 
R1
V And V2 
R2
V
Resistivity RA
R1  R2 R1  R2
9) Relation between current density and electric
field: 19) Current division rule:
J  . E (Another form of Ohm’s law) R1
I1
10) Mobility of a free electron: I
V
µ d
E I2
11) Temperature co-efficient of resistance: R2
R  R1
 2 1 I1 R2
R1 (t 2  t1 ) In parallel, I 
R I 2 R1
R1 : Resistance at temperature t1
R2 : Resistance at temperature t2 R2
12) Effective resistance in series combination: I1  .I
R1  R2
Reff .  R1  R2  ......  Rn
13) Effective resistance in parallel combination: R1
I2  .I
1 1 1 1 R1  R2
   ...... 
Reff . R1 R2 Rn
Current Electricity
20) Cells in series: 23) In a balanced meter bridge:
r1 E1 r2 E2 rn En
R X
r eff. E eff. G
reff .  r1  r2  ......  rn
A B
Eeff .  E1  E2  ......  En (100 – l)cm
lcm O
*Follow sign convention for Eeff.
21) Cells in parallel:
r1 E
E1
E2 r2
R l

X 100  l
En rn 24) Potential gradient of potentiometer wire AB is
V AB
K
reff. LAB
E eff.
1 1 1 1 VAB : Voltage on wire AB
   ...... 
reff . r1 r2 rn
LAB : Length of wire AB
E1 E2 E 25) In potentiometer experiment, comparison of
  ......  n
r r2 rn emfs of two cells:
Eeff .  1
1 1 1
  ...... 
r1 r2 rn E1 l1
*  (Direct method)
E2 l2
*Follow sign convention while taking values of
emf.
l1 : Balancing length for cell E1
22) In a balanced Wheatstone bridge:
l2 : Balancing length for cell E2
C
R1 R2 E1 l1  l2
*  (Sum of difference method)
i g =0 E2 l1  l2
A B
G
l1 : Balancing length when E1 supports E2
R3 R4
l2 : Balancing length when E1 opposes E2
D
26) In potentiometer experiment, the value of
* ig = 0 unknown emf is given by
* VC  VD  VC  VD  0
E  K.lbal.
R1 R3
*  (Or) R1 R4  R2 R3
R2 R4 where, lbal. = Balancing length
Current Electricity
27) In potentiometer experiment, internal 3) Deflection of galvanometer ( ) vs resistane R2.
resistance of a cell can be determined using, R2 is variable and deflection is 0 when R2 = 0.
l  i
G
r  RSh  1  1 
 l2 
R1 R2
RSh : Shunt resistance
O R2
l1 : Balancing length without shunt E
l2 : Balancing length with shunt E

i
GRAPHS R1  R2
GRAPHS
1) Current (I) vs voltage (V) for an ohmic conductor: i
E
I
R
R1  R2
= 1/
pe 4) The terminal voltage (V) of a cell vs. current
S lo
V drawn from cell:
V
V  E  Ir
E
2) Area under current–time graph gives amount V   Ir  E
of charge passed through the conductor.
I
O O
t2
y  mx  C
Q  i.dt
t1
Magnetic Effect Of Electric Current
Quick Revision MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 4) Maxwell’s cork screw rule:
B : Magnetic field If a right handed screw be rotated along the
o : Permeability of vacuum wire so that it advanced in the direction of
n : Number of turns per unit length current, when the direction in which the thumb
 : Frequency rotated give the direction magnetic field.
u : parallel component of velocity 5) Clock rule :
l : Length of conductor This rule gives the polarity of any face of the
: Torque coil in anticlockwise direction it behavers like
m : magnetic moment a north pole, if the current flows in clockwise
k : Spring constant direction, it behaves like south pole.
N : Number of total turns 6) Ampere’s circuital law:
Is : Current sensitivity It state that the line integral of the magnetic
Vs : Voltage sensitivity field B around any closed circuit is equal to o
: Deflection produced times the total current threading or passing
S : Shunt resistance through this closed circuit.
G : Galvanometer resistance 7) Lorentz force:
A : Ammeter resistance The total force experienced by a charged
Ig : Galvanometer current particle moving in a region where both electric
Is : Shunt current and magnetic field is present is called Lorentz
I : Total current force.
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS 8) Cyclotron:
1) Biot-Savart Law: It is device used to accelerate charged particles
According to this law, the magnitude of like, protons, deuterons and alpha particles to
 very high speeds. Its working based on
magnetic field B is
principle that charged particle can be
I) Directly proportional to current I through
accelerated to very high energies by making it
the conductors. pass through the moderate electric field a
II) Directly proportional to length of number of times. This can be done with the help
conductor. of perpendicular magnetic field which throws
III) Directly proportional to sin the charged particle in circular path.
IV) Inversely proportional to square of the 9) Ampere:
distance of point ‘p’ from current element. One ampere is that value of steady current.
Idl sin Which on flowing in each of two parallel
dB 2 infinitely long conductors of negligible cross-
r
section placed in vacuum at distance of 1 m
0 Idl sin
dB  apart from each other, attracts or repel each
4 r2 other with a force of 2 × 10–7 N between per
2) Tesla: meter of their length.
One tesla is the amount of magnetic field in 10) Principle of moving coil galvanometer:
which when a charge of 1 coulomb moves with A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic
velocity of 1 m/s in a direction perpendicular field experiences a current dependent torque,
to magnetic field, experiences a force of a 1 N. which tends to rotate the coil and produces
3) Right hand thumb rule: angular deflection.
If we hold the straight conductor in the grip of 11) Sensitivity of galvanometer:
our right hand in such a way that the extended A galvanometer is said to be sensitive it is
thumb points in the direction of thumb current, shows large scale deflection even when a small
then the direction of finger curl will give the current is passed through it or a small voltage
direction of magnetic field. is applied across it.
Magnetic Effect Of Electric Current
12) Current sensitivity: 15) = N I BA sin
It is the deflection produced per unit current = MB sin
applied in galvanometer.   
M B
13) Shunt: 16) In M.C.G.
A very low resistance connected in parallel to
k
galvanometer to convert it into ameter. I
14) Radial magnetic field: NBA
A magnetic field which always remain k
Figure of merit (G) =
perpendicular to plane of coil . It is achieved by NBA
inserting soft iron core between moving coil NBA
galvanometer. Concave shaped magnets are Current sensitivity ( I s )  
I k
used to achieve this.
I
FORMULAE
FORMULAE Voltage sensitivity (Vs )    s
V IR R
o Idl sin 17) Conversion to ammeter
1) dB 
4 r2
I gG GS
2) Magnetic field due to long straight conductor S A
I  Ig , GS
I
B  o [sin 1  sin 2 ]
4 a IS
Ig 
oI GS
3) Infinitely long conductor : B  2 a 18) Conversion to voltmeter
I V V
4) Circular loop centre : B  o R G , Ig  , VR = G + R
2r Ig R G
2
o Ia
5) Axis of ring : B  GRAPHS
GRAPHS
2(r 2  a 2 ) 3 / 2
6) Solenoid interior : B = o nI 1) Variation of magnetic field from centre of wire
1
7) Solenoid end : B = nI B
2 o
8) Force on moving charge in magnetic field
F = B qv sin
  
F  q(v B)
mv Bq r 2 m
9) r v T
Bq m Bq
B2 q 2 r 2 O r=R r
10) K.E. 
2m
2) Variation of magnetic field at axis of circular coil.
2 mv cos B
11) Pitch = vllT 
Bq
B0
12) Force current carrying wire
  
F  I (l B ) F  B I l sin
13) Force per unit length
II
f  0 1 2
2 r
14) Force on wire of length ‘L’
0 I1I2 L
f 
2 r x = -r / R O x=r/2
Magnetism And Matter
Quick Revision MAGNETISM AND MATTER
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 7) Unit pole strength: Unit magnetic pole strength
B : Magnetic field may be defined as that pole strength which
when placed in vacuum at a distance of 1 meter
qm : Pole strength
apart from identical pole, repels it from a force
o : Permeability of vacuum
of 10–7 newton.
t : Time taken
8) Magnetic dipole: An arrangement of equal and
: Torque
opposite magnetic poles separated by a certain
e : Charge on electron distance called a magnetic dipole.
h : Planck’s constant
9) Magnetic dipole moment (M): The magnetic
BH : Horizontal component of magnetic field dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is defined
Bv : Vertical component of magnetic field as the product of its pole strength and its
: Angle of dip magnetic length. S.I. unit of magnetic dipole
V : Volume moment is Am2.
m : Pole strength 10) Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines may
I : Intensity of magnetisation be defined as the curve, the tangent to which
at any point gives the direction of magnetic field
M : Magnetic dipole moment
at that point. It may also be defined at the path
m : Susceptibility along which a unit magnetic pole would tend
H : Magnetising force to move if free to do so.
C : Curie’s constant 11) Bohr Magneton: It is defied as the magnetic

DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS moment associated with an electron due to its
orbital motion in the first orbit of hydrogen
1) Magnetic field: The space around a magnet in
atom.
which its influence can be felt.
2) Uniform magnetic field: A magnetic field is 12) Magnetising field (H): When a magnetic
said to be uniform if it has same magnitude and material is placed in magnetic field a
direction at all points of that region. magnetism induced in it. The magnetic field
3) Magnetic poles (m): The regions of apparently that in vacuum and induced magnetism is
concentrated magnetic strength in a magnet called magnetising field.
where magnetic attraction is maximum. 13) Magnetic Induction (B): The total magnetic
4) Magnetic axis : The line passing the poles of field inside a magnetic material is the sum of
magnet is called the magnetic axis of magnet. equal magnetic field and additional magnetic
5) Magnetic length: The distance between two field produced by magnetisetion of material ,
poles of a magnet is called magnetic length. and is called magnetic induction B.
6) Coulomb’s law of magnetic force: The law states 14) Magnetising field intensity: The ability of
that the force of attraction or repulsion between magnetising field to magnetise a material
two magnetic poles is directly proportional to medium is called magnetising field intensity. Its
their pole strength and inversely proportional to magnitude may be defiled as number of ampere
square of distance between them.
turns flowing round the unit length of solenoid
q q required to produce given magnetic field.
F  o 12 2
m m
4 r
15) Intensity of magnetisation (I): The magnetic when l < < r
moment developed per unit volume of material
when placed in magnetising field is called o 2M
Baxis =
intensity of magnetisation. 4 r3
Intensity of magnetisation may also be defined
as the pole strength developed per unit cross M o
Beq. =
section of material. 4 r3
16) Magnetic permeability: The magnetic
Torque = MB sin
permeability of a material is defied at the ratio
of its magnetic induction B to magnetic intensity W = U = –MB ( cos 2 – cos 1)
H.
M = NIA
17) Relative permeability: It is defined as the ratio
of permeability of the medium to the neh 
permeability of free space. l
  B. ds  0
4 me B
18) Magnetic Susceptibility: It is defiled as the

ratio of intensity of magntisation to the Bv
magnetic field intensity H.  tan B  BH2  Bv2
BH
19) Diamagnetic materials: These are those
substances which develop feeble magnetisation 2 Mr 2M
in the opposite direction of magnetising field. BH  0
 0 3
4 (r  l ) 4 r
2 2
Such substance are free to repelled by magnets
and tend to move from stronger to weaker parts
B
of field.   0 (1  m)
H
20) Paramagnetic material: These are those
substances which develop feeble magnetisation   1
r m
in the direction of magnetising field. Such 0
substances are freely attracted by magnets and
tend to move from weaker to a strong magnetic I

field. m
H
21) Ferromagnetic substance: There are those
materials which develop strong magnetisation C
m  (Curie’s Law)
in the direction of magnetising field. They are T
attracted by magnets and tend to move from
weaker to stronger part. B 0
(H  I )
FORMULAE
FORMULAE GRAPHS
GRAPHS
Magnetic dipole moment : M = qm × 2l 1) Intensity of magnetisation as a function of H/T
qm1 qm2
F 0
4 r2
2 Mr I
Baxis 
0
4 ( r  l 2 )3/ 2
2
M
Beq. 
0
4 ( r  l 2 )3/ 2
2
H/T
2)  T graph for diamagnetic material 4) Hysteresis curve for soft iron core
m
B
H
O T
dia
5) Hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic material

3) m
– T graph for paramagnetic material B
m H
Electromagentic Induction
Quick Revision ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 6) Eddy currents: Eddy currents are the induced
B : Magnetic Field current set up inside the body of conductor
wherever the magnetic flux linked with it
: Magnetic flux
changes.
: Angle between area vector & magnetic field
N : Number of turns of coil 7) Inductance: It is the inherent property of all the
n : Number of turns per unit length coils by virtue of which they opposes any
change in the strength of current flowing
e : e.m.f (Induced)
through the coil. Its S.I. unit is Henry (H).
E : e.m.f. (Induced)
e0 : E0 = maximum e.m.f. 8) Mutual inductance: Wherever there is change
: Initial flux in current flowing in one coil, an induced emf
appears in neighbouring coil. This property is
: Final flux
called as mutual inductance. Its SI unit is also
: Angular velocity Henry (H).
 : f = Frequency of revolutions
L : Self inductance 9) Motional E.M.F.: The emf induced across the
ends of a conductor due to its motion in
M : Mutual Inductance
magnetic field is called motional e.m.f. Its
K : Coefficient of coupling magnitude is same as given by Faraday’s second
v : Velocity of motion law.
o : Magnetic permeability of free space
Methods of generating induced em.f.:
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
1) Magnetic flux ( ): It is the number of magnetic i) Changing the magnetic field
field lines passing through a surface
perpendicularly. Its S.I. unit is weber (Wb). Its ii) Changing the area in magnetic field
CGS unit is maxwell. 1 weber = 108 maxwell.  
2) Faraday’s first law: Wherever the amount of iii) Changing the relative orientation of B & A
magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) passing
through a a coil changes an emf called induced 10) Sparking: When the break of a circuit is very
emf is produced in the circuit. This induced emf quick, the circuit is switched off, a large self
exists as long as the change of flux continues. induced emf is set up in the circuit in the same
3) Faraday’s second law: The magnitude of direction as original emf. It creates a big spark
induced emf is directly proportional to rate of across the switch.
change of magnetic flux.
11) Coefficient of coupling: Coefficient of coupling
4) Lenz’s law : The direction of induced current
of two coils gives us a measure of manner in
is such that it tends to oppose the cause of its
creations. which two coils are coupled together. It relates
their coefficient of self inductance to mutual
5) Fleming’s right hand rule: According to this
inductance.
rule if we stretch thumb and first two fingers
of our right hand in three mutually 12) Electromagnetic damping: When the coil of
perpendicular directions such that the first
galvanometer oscillates between magnetic field,
finger points in direction of magnetic field and
an induced current sets up in coil which
thumb shows the direction of motion of
conductor, than central finger points in the opposes it’s motion. This phenomenan is called
direction of induced current. electromagnetic damping.
Electromagentic Induction
FORMULAE
FORMULAE 2
  oN A
16) L 
1)  B.A  BA cos l
Nd 1 2
2) e  17) U  LI
dt 2
 1 MdI
3) e  2 18) e  
t dt
Negative sign indicates that induced emf. o N1 N 2 A
19) M =  o n1n2 Al
opposes the change in magnetic flux. l
4) e = E = Blv
M
e Blv 20) K
5) I=  L1 L2
R R
21) I = Io e–(R/L) t
[ 2  1] Nd 22) I = Io [ 1 – e –Rt/L]
6) I  
tR R dt GRAPHS
GRAPHS
1 2
7) e Bl [ e.m.f is induced across the rod of I) i
2
I0
length ‘l’]
8) E = Eo sin t
= 2 or =2f
I = 0.63I 0
9) Eo = NBA
Eo NBA
10) Io = =
R R
t= t
Eo
11) I o 
R
12) = LI II) i
LdI
13) e   I0
dt
14) L1 + L2 + L3 + .............Ln = L
when inductors are in series
L1L2
15) L  L  L when 0.37I 0
1 2
when inductors are in parellel

t= t
Alternating Current
Quick Revision ALTERNATING CURRENT
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 8) Inductive reactance:
Eav. : Average EMF It is a measure of effective opposition offered
Erms : RMS EMF to current flow by the inductor. It has same unit
Iav. : Average current as resistance. But it differs from resistance at it
Irms : RMS current doesn’t generate any heat when current passes
I0 : Peak current / Max. Current / Amplitude through them.
E0 : Peak voltage / Max. Voltage / Amplitude voltage
 : Frequency 9) Capacitative reactance:
: Angular frequency It is the measure of effective opposition offered
XL : Inductive reactance to current flow by a capacitor. It also has same
XC : Capacitative reactance unit as resistance. It doesn’t disssipate heat, so
Q : Quality factor its power consumption is zero.
r : Angular resonance frequency 10) Susceptance:
r : Resonance frequency
: Phase angle Reciprocal of reactance of AC circuit is called
Z : Impedance susceptance.
UL : Energy of inductor 11) Admittance:
UC : Energy of capacitor Reciprocal of impedance of AC circuit is called
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS admittance.
1) Alternating current: 12) Resonance:
A current whose magnitude changes
continuously and direction changes periodically. A series L-C-R circuit is said to be in resonance
2) Amplitude: condition when current through it becomes
The maximum value attained by alternating maximum.
current in either direction is called its amplitude 13) Q–Factor:
or peak value denoted by I0. Q-factor is the ratio of resonant frequency to the
3) Time period: difference in frequency taken on both sides of
Time taken by alternating current to complete resonant frequency, such that at each frequency,
one cycle of its variations is called its time
period and is denoted by T. 1
the current amplitude becomes times the
4) Frequency: 2
The number of cycles completed per second by value at resonant frequency.
an alternating current.
14) Power factor:
5) Average voltage of AC:
It is defined as the value of direct current which Power factor is the ratio of true power
sends same charge in a circuit in same time as frequency to apparent frequency power at the
is sent by the given alternating current in its half constant frequency. For pure inductive and
time period. pure capacitative circuit, it is always zero.
6) R.M.S. value of AC: 15) Wattless current:
It is defined as that value of AC current which The current in circuit is said to be wattless if the
produces the same heating effect in a given average power consumed in the circuit is zero.
resistors as is produced by the given alternating
current when passed for the same time. 16) L–C oscillations:
7) Argand diagram: When a charged capacitor is allowed to
A diagram that represents alternating current discharge through a non-resistive inductor,
and voltage of the same frequency as rotating electrical oscillations of constant amplitude and
vectors along with proper phase angle between frequency are produced. These are called L–C
them is called phasor diagram or argand oscillations.
diagram.
Alternating Current
FORMULAE
FORMULAE 9) In L–C–R circuit,
I0
1) I rms   0.707 I 0 Erms
2 Z
I rms
E0
2) Erms   0.707 E0
2  1 
2
Z  R 2  ( X L  XC ) 2  R 2   2  L  
2I0  2 C 
3) I av   0.637 I 0

2 E0 X L  XC
4) Eav   0.637 E0 tan 
 R
5) XL  2 L R
cos 
In pure inductor, Z
E E 10) L–C–R at resonance,
I 
XL 2 L
X L  XC
1
6) XC 
2 C 
1
In pure capacitor, 2 LC
E Z=R
I  E.2  C
XC
0
7) In R–L circuit,
tan  0
E  E0 sin t
I  I 0 sin(t  ) cos  1
Erms r L 1 L
Z  R 2  X L2 11) Q  factor   r 
I rms 2  1 R R C
X L 2 L 12) Power in LCR,

tan  
R R
Pav  Eav I av cos
R R
cos   13) R.M.S. Power = Prms = Erms Irms cos
Z R  X L2
2
Power factor,
8) In R–C circuit,
E  E0 sin t R R
14) cos  
Z R  ( X L  XC ) 2
2
I  I 0 sin(t  )
Erms 1 1 2
Z  R 2  XC2 , where XC  15) U L  LI
I rms 2 C 2
16) Average power in inductive circuit = 0
X 1
tan  C  17) Average power in capacitative circuit = 0
R 2 CR
R R 1 Q2
cos   18) U C  CV 2 
Z R 2  XC2 2 2C
Alternating Current
GRAPHS
GRAPHS 6) In purely resistive circuit, voltage and current
1) Variation of resistance v/s frequency: are in same phase.
VR I
R
7) In R–L circuit, voltage leads by some angle .
VL V
2) Inductive reactance v/s frequency

VR I
XL
8) In purely capacitative resistance circuit, voltage
lags by current.
VR
I
3) Capacitative reactance v/s frequency
XC VC V
9) L–C–R circuit voltage and current
VL
V
R VL – VC
4) Purely inductive circuit. Voltage leads by 90°.
VL VR I
VC
10) Band width of a series resonant circuit
E0
90°  I0
I R
E0
5) In purely capacitative circuit, voltage lags by I
R 2
current by 90°.
1 r 2
Lower side Upper side
Bandwidth
band band
VC
Electromagnetic Waves
Quick Revision ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 3) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
ID : Displacement current This law states that emf produced in any coil
IC : Conduction current is directly proportional to rate of change of
magnetic flux.
E : Electric field
4) Modified Ampere’s Law:
E
: Electric flux
This states that line integral of magnetic field
A : Area around any closed circuit is equal to µ0 times
C : Capacitance the sum of conduction current and
displacement current.
c : Speed of light
K : Propagation constant 4) Electromagnetic wave:
: Wavelength An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by
an accelerated charge and which propagates
µ0 : Permeability of free space
through space as coupled electric and magnetic
: Permittivity of free space- fields, oscillating perpendicular to each other
 and to the direction of propagation of the wave.
s : Direction of propagation of wave
UE : Average energy density of electric field 5) Radio waves:
UB : Average energy density of magnetic field These are produced by accelerated charges in
B : Magnetic field conducting wires. Frequency ranges from
500 KHz to 1000 MHz.
p : Momentum
U : Energy 6) Microwaves:
I : Intensity These gigahertz range waves are produced by
klystron and magnetron diodes. They are used
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS in radar and microwave ovens.
1) Displacement current:
7) Infrared waves:
It is the current which comes into existance, in
addition to conduction current, whenever the These are emitted by atoms and molecules of
electric field and hence flux changes with time. hot bodies. These are used in physical therapy.
2) Property of continuity: 8) Visible rays:
The sum of conduction current and That part of electromagnetic waves which can
displacement current remain continuous along be detected by human eye and its wavelength
any closed path while, conduction current and ranges from 400 to 700 nanometer.
displacement current might not be individually 9) Ultraviolet rays:
continuous.
These are produced by special lamps and very
3) Maxwell’s equation: hot bodies like sun. It is harmful for humans.
1) Gauss’s law of electrostatics: It’s wavelength ranges from 400 nm to 0.6 nm.
1 10) X-rays:
The electric flux through a closed surface is These are produced by fast moving electrons
0
when they strike metal target.
times the total charge contained inside the
surface. Wavelength varies from 10 nm to 10–4 nm.
2) Gauss’s law of magnetism: 11) Gamma rays:
The net magnetic flux through any closed These are produced by nuclear reaction and
surface is always zero. radioactive nuclei. Wavelength ranges from
10–10 m to 10–14 m.
Electromagnetic Waves
FORMULAE
FORMULAE 9) Bz  B0 sin( kx  wt )
d (For a wave propagating along x-axis)
1) I0  0 E
dt 1 1
10) U E  E02  2
0 0
Er.m.s .
d dE 4 2
2) I0  0
( EA)  0
A
dt dt 1 2 1 2
dV 11) U B  4µ B0  2µ Brms
3) I0  C 0 0
dt
  1 1 2 B2
4) B.dl  µ0 ( IC  I D ) 12) U av .  2 E2 
0 rms
2µ0
Brms  rms
µ0
2
5) K U
13) p 
c
1
c in vacuum p
6) µ0 14) Intensity of wave ( I ) 
0 A
1 15) I  U avC  2
Erms C
c
0
7) in material medium
µr µ0 r 0  1  
16) s  µ ( E B)
8) Ey  E0 sin( kx  wt ) 0
Ray Optics
Quick Revision RAY OPTICS
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES R = Deviation for red colour
U = Object distance
R = Refractive index of red colour
v = Image distance
mean = Mean deviation
vi = Object velocity
= angle v = Refractive index of violet colour
h = No. of images fo = Focal length of objective piece
vm = Velocity of mirror fe = focal length of eyepiece
i = Angle of incidence = Refractive index of yellow colour
y
r’ = angle of reflection
D = Last distance of distinct vision
r = Angle of refraction
mo = Magnification of object piece
f = Focal length
mi = Magnification of object eyepiece
m = Magnification = transverse
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
m’ = Magnification - lateral
1) Reflection:
1 = Distance of object from focus Ray of light after incidenting on loundary
= Distance of image from focus separating two media comes back into the same
2
media then it is called as reflection of light.
2 = Refractive Index of medium in which 2) Refraction:
refracted ray is hare The bending of light ray passing from one
= Refractive index of medium in which medium to other medium is called refraction.
1
incident ray is hare 3) Optically rares medium:
= Deviation A medium in which velocity of light is more is
called optically rarer medium.
h = height of object
4) Optically denser medium:
h’ = Height of image
A medium is which velocity of light is less is
t = Thickness of glass slab called optically denser medium .
ic = Critical angle 5) Optical path:
R1 = Radius of curvature of first surface The distance travelled by light in vacuum in the
R2 = Radius of curvature of second surface same time in which it travels a given path length
in a medium is called optical path.
fl = Focal length of lens
6) Critical Angle:
fm = Focal length of mirror
The angle of incidence at which refracted angle
P = Power of lens is 90° when light travels from denser to rarer
feq = Equivalent focal length medium is called critical angle.
Peq = Equivalent power 7) Total internal reflection:
= wavelength When angle of incidence is greater then critical
angle then the ray come back in the same
h1 = Height of first image
medium after reflection is called as total
h2 = Height of second image internal reflection
e = Angle of imergence 8) Dispersion:
m = Minimum deviation When white light incident on prism then it
splitted into its own component is called
v = Deviation for violet colour dispersion of light.
Ray Optics
FORMULAE
FORMULAE 5) Object and image velocity
Reflection i) Velocity of object (v0) = velocity of image (v1)
ii) v1 = 2vm if mirror moves towards stationary
I) Plane Mirror:
object
i) Object distance = Image distance
6. Rotation of mirror : -
1) Deviation If plant mirror rotated by an angle keeping
incident ray constant then reflected ray rotated
by an angle 2
= 180 – 2i  i r 7. Law of reflection
i r
II) Spherical Mirror:
1) General equation
R
2) Image formed by two mirror f 
2
360
m = m 1 1 1
 
f v u
360
a) If = even than n = m – 1 2) Magnification
i) Transverse magnification
360 h ' v f f v
b) If = odd then m   
h u f u f
i) n = m –1, if object is at angle bisector ii) Longitudinal magnification
ii) n = m, if object is not at angle bisector
(v 2  v1 )
3) Height of plane mirror m' 
(u2  u1 )
i) To see complete image in a plane mirror
If object is small
Height of person
Height of mirror  v
2
2 m’ =  
u
iii) Areal magnification
M = m2
3) Velocity of image
4m v2
v1   m 2 v o  .v o
u2
4) Newton’s formula
f  x1x2
ii) To see complete wall behind himself Refraction
Height of wall I) Shell’s Law and Law of Refraction
Height of mirror  i) Absolute refractive index
3
4) Object time and image time If comparison with vaccum
i) If object time is in hour 4 3
Image time = 12h – Object time Ex : - w  , g 
3 2
ii) If object time is in hour and minute ii) Relative refractive index
Image time 11h60m – Object time
iii) If object time is in hour, minute and second
1 2
 2
Image time = 11h59m60s – object time 1
Ray Optics
iii) Snell’s Law II) Total internal reflection
sin i v1
1 2
 2    1
sin ic 
1
1 sin r v2 2
i r’
r ic
iv) = i – r, Light travels from rarer to denser

= r – i, Light travels from denser to rarer Height (h) = r 2
1
v) Apparent Depth:
r
Observer in rarer medium
h
 , h = Actual height
h' h
ic
h’ = Apparent height
 1
Shift = h  1  
 
Observer in denser medium III) Refraction through spherical surface
h'
 
h 2
 1
 2 1
Shift = h ( –1) v v R
vi) Equivalent refractive index:
Observer in a rarer medium. 1 2
heff h1  h2  h3
eff  
h'eff h1 h2 h3 O C I
  R
1 2 3
h
IV) Lens
h i) Lens formula
h 1 1 1
 
f v u
vii) Lateral shift:
ii) Magnification:
t sin(i  r )
d Transverse magnification
cos r
h' f f v
i m  
h f u f
Longitudinal magnification
t 2
m'   
v
d
 u
Areal magnification
viii) Optical path:
Optical path = x ma = m2
Ray Optics
iii) Lens maker’s formula ix) No. of images
No. of images = No. of material
1  2  1 1 
   1    
f  1   R1 R2  3
2
Refractive index of lens = 2
Refractive index of surrounding medium = 2 1
If 2 = and 1 = 1 (air) 2
 1 1 
3
1
then   1    x) Refractive index of medium is same as that of
f  R1 R2  surrounding
vi) Focus
f 
f
f
xi) Refractive index of surrounding greater than lens
v) Cutting of lens f = – ive
f f f 2f 2f
xii) Focal length depends on medium
vi) Combination of Lens 1
f
1 1 1
   .......... ....
f eq f1 f 2 xiii) Newton’s formula
Peq = P1 + P2 + ............ f  x1x2
When lens are at distance ‘d’ xiv) Displacement method
f1 f2
1 1 1 d h  h'1 h' 2
  
f eq f1 f2 f1 f2 d VI) Prism
Peq = P1 + P2 – dP1 P2
vii) Silvering of lens ||
A
|||
1 2 1
||||||||
  i
f eq fl f m e
r1 r2
Plane convex lens u
||
R i) General Equation
f eq 
2
||
|||
Convex lens
||||||||
R
f eq 
2(2  1)
||
|
viii) Power of lens A = r1 + r 2
i+e=A+
1
P sin i
f ( m) 2

1 sin r
Ray Optics
ii) Minimum Deviation vii) Dispersion without deviation
i=e, = m, r 1 = r2 = r y = ’y
r=A/2 A ( y – ) = A’ ( ’y – )
m = 2 i – A
A m 
sin  R
  2 
V
sin 
A
2
iii) Condition for grazing emergence
i  sin1[ 2
 1 sin A  cos A]
A V) Defects in eyes
i) Myopia or short sightedness
V 
v = f = shifted for point
ii) Hyper metropia or for sightdness
B C V = D = 25 cm
iv) Angular Dispersion v = shifted near point
= r– R=A( v– R) 1 1 1
 
f v u
R
v VI) Optical Instrument
Red i) Microscope
• Simple microscope
Violet a) Image at infinite
V=f
v
v) Dispersive power () D
m
f

mean
a) If mean = y
A( v  R )  R
   v
y
A (  1) y
1 f
 R
b) If mean
 v
2
vi) Deviation without dispersion b) Image of D
c = – f V<f
( v – R)crown = ( v – R)flimt v=D
A ( v – R ) = A’ ( ’v – ’R ) D
m  1
f
I f O
Ray Optics
• Compound microscope VII) Telescope
a) Image of infinite
a) Image of infinite
vo  D 
  fe
Vo  f e  m
fo
L = vo + f e
L  fo  f e D
m . Objective
fo fe lens
Eyepiece
fe
ue
fo
ue
b) Image of D b) Image of D
vo  D
1    fo  fe 
Vo  fe  m 1  
fe  D
L = vo + Ve
L D fo
m  1  
fo  fe 
ue
uo
I
D
Wave Optics
Quick Revision WAVE OPTICS
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 8) Monochromatic light:
Y1 : Displacement of first wave The light waves of only one wave is called
Y2 : Displacement of second wave monochromatic light.
a1 & a2 : Amplitude of first and second wave 9) Fringe width:
R : Resultant amplitude The distance between the centre of two adjacent
I1 & I2 : Intensity of the first and second wave bright or dark bonds is called as fringe width.
IR : Resultant intensity 10) Diffraction of light:
Imax : Maximum intensity The bending of light near the edges of an
Imin : Minimum intensity obstacle or slit and spreading into the region of
r : Amplitude ratio a geometrical shadow is known as diffraction
d : Distance between slit of light.
 : Fringe width 11) Limit of resolution:
D : Distance between source and screen The smallest angular or linear separation
: Refractive index between the two points objects at which they
t : Thickness of glass slab appear to be just resolved is called limit of
a : Slit width resolution.
: Semi-angle made by object to the lens 12) Resolving power:
The reciprocal of the limit of resolution is called
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
resolving power.
1) Wavefront: 13) Polarisation of light:
A locus of all the points of medium to which The phenomenon of limiting the vibration of
waves reaches simultaneously so that all points electric field vector in one direction in a plane
are in same phase is called wavefront. perpendicular to the direction of propagation
2) Wave normal: of light wave is called polarisation of light.
A perpendicular drawn to the surface of FORMULAE
FORMULAE
wavefront at any point of a wavefront in the
1) Superposition of wave
direction of propagation of light is called wave
Y1 = a1 sin t
normal.
Y2 = a2 sin t +
3) Path difference:
Y = Y1 + Y2
The difference in the path lengths of two waves
Y = R sin t +
meeting at a point is called path difference.
4) Interference of light: R  a12  a22  2a , a2 cos
The modification in the intensity of light I1 = Ka12 , I2 = Ka 22 , IR = K R2
[redistribution of light energy] produced by the
IR = a12  a22  2 a , a2 cos
superposition of two or more light waves is
called interference of light. For constructive interference [  0 ,2 ,.....]
5) Constructive interference: Imax = (a1 + a2)2
The points of which resultant displacement is I max ( a1  a2 )2 (r  1)2
maximum, the waves reinforce each other and the  
I min ( a1  a2 )2 (r  1) 2
interference is called constructive interference.
a
6) Destructive interference: r 1
The points at which resultant displacement is a2
minimum the waves reinforce each other and the
IR = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos
interference is called destructive interference.
7) Coherent sources: If = I1 = I2 = I
Two source of light most be emitting light IR = 4 I cos2  
waves of equal frequency and which are in the  2
same phase or with constant phase difference Imax = 4 I
are known as coherent sources. I min = 0
Wave Optics
2) Young double slit experiment c) Fringe width
Constructive pattern D
Path difference = n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ......  ,  
d d D
Destructive pattern
Path difference = (2n – 1) 2 , n = 1, 2, ......
nd

2 Bright
2nd Dark
st
1 Bright
s1
 D
.
S
1st Dark
Central Bright
st
s2 1 Dark d) In YDSE if n1 fringes are visible in a field of view
st
1 Bright with light of wavelength 1, while -n2 with light
nd
of wavelength 2 in the same field then
2 Dark
n1 1  n2 2
2nd Bright
e) If whole YDSE set up taken is taken in another
medium then changes os fringe with []
changes
2
 2 1
P 1 1
f) Shifting of fringe pattern
x
s1 t
.
S d
C
s2
a) nth bright fringe from central maxima

D(  1)t (  1)t
n D Fringe shift = 
xn  , n = 0, 1, 2............ d
d Additional path difference = ( – 1)t
b) nth fringe from central maxima If shift equivalent to m fringes then
(  1)t
xn  ( 2n  1)
D m
, n = 1, 2, ..........
2d
Wave Optics
3) Fraunhoffer diffraction [Single slit] 4) Resolving power of optical instrument
a) Telescope
Pp 1.22
Resolving limit = d 
a
1 a
Resolving power = 
d 1.22
a a = diameter of objective lens
b) Microscope
Resolving limit 
2 sin
Numerical aperture = sin
5) Polarisation of light
D
Io/2
a) Secondary minima
a sin n = n , n = 1, 2, 3.......
Io
If n is small then a . n = n
b) Secondary minima Polarized
Unpolarized Light
Light
a sin n = ( 2n  1)
, n = 1, 2, 3.......
2 Malu’s Law:
c) Width of central maximum
Polarizer
First Minima
I1
x
Central Io I
Minima
x
Unpolarized Analyzer
First Minima
Light
Malus Law , I1 = I cos2
6) Brewster’s Law
= tan ip
2 D 2 f
Width of central maxima = w = 2x = = Unpolarized Polarized
a a ip
Light Light
f = focal length of lens used
2
Angular width = 2 =
a
d) Intensity graph
7) Doppler’s Law
v  Vr
3 2 2 3  
a a a a a a v C
Dual Nature Of Radiation & Matter
Quick Revision DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 6) Matter waves (De Broglie waves):
E : Energy of photon According to De Broglie a moving material
: Wavelength particle sometimes acts as a wave and
 : Frequency of photon sometimes as a particle.
c : Speed of light The wave associated with moving particle is
m : Mass of particle called matter wave or De Broglie wave.
h : Plank’s constant 7) Davisson–Germer experiment:
p : Momentum This experiment performed to verify the wave
I : Intensity nature of electron and concluded that electron
n : Number of emitted photons exhibit wave nature also, thus supporting the
P : Radiation power hypothesis given by de-Broglie regarding wave
W0 : Work function particle duality of matter.
0 : Threshold frequency FORMULAE
FORMULAE
0 : Threshold wavelength 1) Work function (W0):
V : Potential
c
V0 : Stopping potential W0  0

T : Absolute temperature 0
k : Boltzmann’s constant 2) Einstein’s photoelectric equation:

: Glancing angle OR Bragg’s angle
E  W0  K max
d : Distance between diffracting planes
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS  0
 Kmax
1) Threshold frequency (0):
The minimum frequency of incident radiation K max  (  0
)
required to eject the electron from metal where, E = Energy of photon, Kmax = Maximum
surface. kinetic energy of emitted electron
3) Energy of photon:
If incident frequency 0
 No photoelectric
effect. c
E 
2) Threshold wavelength ( 0):
The maximum wavelength of incident radiation
12400
required to eject the electron from metal E (in eV) 
surface. (Å)
If incident wavelength  0  No photoelectric 4) mass of photon:

Rest mass of photon is zero. But its effective
effect mass is given by
3) Photo-electric effect:
The photo-electric effect is the emission of E
m  
electrons from metal surface. These electrons c2 c2 c
are called photo electrons. Photo electric effect 5) Momentum of photon:
occurs when light strikes a metal surface.
E
4) Work function (W0): p  mc   
The minimum energy of incident radiation, c c
required to eject the electrons from metallic 6) Number of emitted photons:
surface is known as work function. Number of emitted photons emitted per second
5) Photon: from a source of monochromatic radiation of
According to Einstein’s quantum theory, light wavelength and power P is given by
propagates in the form of packets of energy, P P
each packet being called photon. n 
E
Dual Nature Of Radiation & Matter
7) Intensity: GRAPHS
GRAPHS
E P 1) Effect of intensity ( = Constant):
I 
At A
Intensity ( I)
8) de-Broglie wavelength:
1 1 1
   
p m 2 mE p E 2I
9) de-Broglie wavelength associated with the I
charged particles:
12.27
electron
 Å By 
V 2 mqV
–V 0 0 Potential ( V)
0.286
proton
 Å
V 2) Effect of frequency:
0.202
 Å
Intensity
Deutron
V
I = Constant
0.101
 particle
Å 
V
10) de-Broglie associated with uncharged particles:
2
0.286
neutron
 Å 1
E (in eV)
–V 02 –V01 0 Potential ( V)
30.86
thermal neutron

T
11) Bragg’s law:
2 d sin  n
D  Interatomic distance
D sin  n
Atoms
Quick Revision ATOMS
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 3) Excited state:
e– : Charge on electron (1.6 × 10–19C) The state with higher energies than ground
me : Mass of electron state is called as excited state.
b : Impact parameter 4) Excitation energy:
: Scattering angle The energy required to take the e– or atom
x0 : Distance of closest approach froom ground state to excited state is called
Z : Atomic number excitation energy.
n : Principal quantum number 5) Excitation potential:
rn : Radius of nth orbit (Stationary orbit radius) The potential through which an e– should be
Vn : Velocity of e– in nth orbit accelerated to acquire this much energy is called
C : Speed of light as excitation potential.
0 : Permittivity of free space 6) Ionization energy:
h : Plank’s constant The minimum energy required to inize an atom
E = E2 – E1 : Energy of emitted photon (Radiation) is called ionization energy.
L : Angular momentum 7) Ionization potential:
 : Frequency of emitted photon (Radiation) The potential difference through which e –
: Wavelength of emitted photon (Radiation) should be accelerated to acquire this much
T : Time period of electron energy is called as ionization potential.
K.E. : Kinetic energy of e– 8) Binding energy:
P.E. : Potential energy of e– The minimum amount of energy required to
T.E. : Total energy of e– separate e– from atom is called binding energy.
R : Rydberg’s constant (1.09 × 107 m–1) 9) Quantized energy level:
I.P. : Ionization potential Energy of e– in hydrogen atom in 1st, 2nd and
I.E. : Ionization energy 3rd orbit called quantized energy level.
E.E. : Excitation energy 10) Hydrogen spectrum:
E.P. : Excitation potential Hydrogen gas enclosed in a flask and heated
B.E. : Binding energy to high temperature, it emits radiation.
N : Number of spectral lines obtained due to If these radiations are passed through prism
transition of e– from nth orbit to lower and thus we get hydrogen spectrum.
n : Angular velocity of e– in nth orbit The most important feature in this spectrum is
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS that any some sharply defined wavelength exist
1) Bohr’s postulates: in the radiation (656.3 nm or 486.1 nm).
a) Electron revolves around the nucleus in 11) Lyman series:
circular orbit. Series arises due to transition of e – from
b) The orbit of the e– around the nucleus can different outer orbit to first Bohr’s orbit is called
take one some special values of radius, that lyman series.
orbit is called as stationary orbit. 12) Balmer series:
e– does not radiate energy from this orbit. Series arises due to transition of e – from
c) The energy of the atom has a definite value different outer orbits to second orbit is called
in a given stationary orbit (e– can jump from Balmer series.
one orbit to another). 13) Paschen series:
d) In stationary orbit, the angular momentum Series arises due to transition of e – from
of e– about the nucleus is an integral multiple different outer orbit to third orbit is called as
of h/2. Paschen series.
2) Ground state: 14) Series limit:
The state of an atom with the lowest energy The smallest wavelength emitted in series is
(–13.6 eV) is called its ground state. called as series limit.
Atoms
FORMULAE
FORMULAE  Z2 
12) T.E.  13.6 eV  2
1) m V V=0 n 
Z 1e x0 Z2e For hydrogen atom,
E1  13.6 eV

E2  3.4 eV
Z1Z2 e 2 E3  1.51 eV
x0  ..... *** 1
2 0 mV 2
** x0
* E4  0.85 eV
m
E5  0.54 eV
2) b is less , is more
b=0 , = 180° Head on collision 1 1 1
13)  RZ 2 2
 2 ..... n2  n1
n1 n2
2 2
hn n2
3) rn  0
.... rn n( n  1)
me 2 Z Z 14) Number of spectral lines (N) =
2
Ex.: n = 4
 n2 
 0.53 Å   N=6
Z n= 
n =5
n =4
Ze 2 Z
3
n =3
4) Vn  ..... Vn 2 5
2 0 hn n n =2
1 4 6
Z n = 1 (Ground state)

 2.2 106   m/ s Absorption
n of energy
15) Series:
hc
5) E2  E1  .....Radiation Name Of Series n1 n2 Region
1) Lyman series 1 2, 3, 4, .....  Ultra violet
nh 3, 4, 5, .....  Visible
6) L  mVn rn  2) Balmer series 2
2
3) Paschen series 3 4, 5, 6, .....  Infra red
2rn n 3
7) Time period, T  V ..... T 4) Brackett series 4 5, 6, 7, .....  Infra red

n Z2
5) P-Fund series 5 6, 7, 8, .....  Infra red
2 4
1 mZ e
8) K.E.  me Vn2  e2 2 2 16) For hydrogen atom:
2 8 0h n Z = 1
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ....., 
1 Ze e m Z2e 4
9) P.E.     e2 2 2 n=  E = 0
4 0 r 4 0h n n=5 E5 = –0.54 eV
n=4 E4 = –0.85 eV
E3 = –1.51 eV
 me Z 2 e 4 n=3
10) T.E. = K.E. + P.E. 

8 20 h2 n2 n=2 E2 = –3.4 eV
12.75 eV
13.06 eV
10.2 eV
12.1 eV
13.6 eV
10.2 eV
Absorption Release
10.2 eV energy
P.E.
11) Relation : T.E. =  K .E.  n=1 E1 = –13.6 eV
2
Nuclei
Quick Revision NUCLEI
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 6) Mass defect ( m):
Z : Atomic number The difference between the sum of masses of
A : Mass number nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest
R : Radius of nucleus mass of nucleus is known as mass defect.
R0 : 1.1 × 10–15 m 7) Binding energy:
: Density of nucleus The energy equivalent to the mass defect of the
m : Mass defect nucleus.
mp : Mass of proton 8) Binding energy per nucleon:
mn : Mass of neutron It is the average energy required to extract one
E : Energy nucleon from the nucleus.
C : Speed of light 9) Radioactivity:
dN The spontaneous transformation of an element
: Rate of disintegration into another with the emission of some particles
dt
is called radioactivity.
N : Number of atoms present at that time
: Decay constant 10) Laws of radioactivity decay:
N0 : Number of atoms present at initially (i) When a radioactive atom disintegrates, -
particle (nucleus of helium) then its atomic
t1/2 : Half life
number decreases by 2 units and atomic
tAvg. : Mean life mass decreases by 4 units.
MN : Mass of nucleus
 decay
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS Z
XA  Z  2Y A  4
1) Isotopes: (ii) The emission of -particle by radioactive
The atoms of an element, which have the same atom results in a daughter atom, whose
atomic number but different mass numbers, are atomic number is 1 unit more but mass
called isotopes. number is same as that of the parents atom.
Ex.: (i) 8O16, 8O17, 8O18
(ii) 17O35, 17Cl37 Z
X A  decay  Z  1Y A
2) Isotones:
(iii) A XZ  decay  ZY A
The atoms whose nuclei have same number of
neutrons are called isotones. Because of -emission, there will no change
3) Isobars: in atomic number and atomic mass.
The atoms which have same mass number but (iv) According to radioactive decay law, the
different atomic numbers, are called isobars. rate of disintegration at any time t is
Ex.: (i) 1H3, 1He3 directly proportional to the number of
7
(ii) 2Li , 4Be 7 atoms present at that time t.
4) Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.):
dN dN
It is defined as (1/12)th of mass of one 6C12 atom. N or  N
dt dt
1 a.m.u. = 1.660565 × 10 kg –27
5) Energy equivalent of atomic mass unit: or, N  N0 e  t

According to Einstein’s mass-energy
11) Half life:
equivalence reaction, the energy equivalent of
mass m is given by Time interval in which the number of atoms
E = mc2 reduces to half of its initial value is called half
1 a.m.u. = 931.5 MeV life.
12) Mean life or average life: FORMULAE
FORMULAE
Average time for which the nuclei of the atoms 1) Radius of nucleus:
of radioactive substance exist, known as mean R  R0 A 1/ 3
life or average life. 2) Nuclear density:
13) Activity of radioactive substance: Mass of nucleus
 = 2.97 × 1017 kg/m3
It is defined as the number of disintegrations Volume of nucleus
takes place in the given sample per second.
3) E = mc2
14) Nuclear fission: 4) Mass defect (m):
The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into m  [Zmp  ( A  Z)mn  M N ]
two or more than two nuclei with liberation of
energy is called nuclear fission. 5) Binding energy = m 931.5 (in Mev)
 [Zmp  ( A  Z)mn  M N ] 931.5
Ex.: 92
U 235  0 n1  56 Ba141  30 Kr 141  3 0 n1  Q
6) Binding energy per nucleon:
15) Neutron reproduction factor (K):
Binding energy

Rate of production of neutrons A
K
Rate of loss of neutrons Mass defect
7) Packing fraction 
If K = 1 ; Reaction will steady A
8) Law of radioactivity decay:
K > 1 ; Reaction will accelerate
dN
K < 1 ; Reaction will retard  N
dt
16) Nuclear fusion:
N  N0e t
In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter

9) Half life (t1/2):
nuclei combine to form a single heavy nucleus.
0.693
17) Nuclear reactors (Main parts & their function): t1/2 
(i) Fuel : It is a fissionable material (U235)
1
(ii) Moderator : Used to slow down the 10) tavg. 
neutrons
11) Activity of radioactive substance (A):
Ex.: Water, heavy water, graphite
dN
(iii) Control rods: These rods controls the A
dt
reaction by absorbing neutrons.
Ex.: Cadmium or Boron rods A  N0 e  t
(iv) Coolent: The most commonly used A  A0 e  t , where N0  A0

coolents are liquid sodium and heavy
water
Semiconductor Devices
Quick Revision SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
TERMINOLOGY
VALUES 6) n–p–n Transistor:
ne : Concentration of free electrons
nh : Concentration of free holes
ni : Intrinsic concentration
µe : Mobility of electrons
µh : Mobility of holes
e : Drift speed of electrons 7) p–n–p Transistor:
h : Drift speed of holes
Fg : Energy gap (OR) Forbidden gap
V : Knee voltage
E : Emitter
B : Base 8) OR Gate:
C : Collector
I : Current
Ib : Base current 9) AND Gate:
Ic : Collector current
IE : Emitter current
V : Voltage 10) NOT Gate:
R : Resistance
i/p : Input
o/p : Output 11) NOR Gate:
RL : Load resistance
 : Current transfer ratio
 : Current amplification factor (Current gain) 12) NAND Gate:
AV : Voltage gain
f : Frequency
13) X–OR Gate:
 : Efficiency
Y : Output
S.C. : Semiconductor 14) X–NOR Gate:
SYMBOLS
SIGNS
1) p-n Junction Diode:
p n DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
1) Energy Band Gap: (Eg) (Forbidden Energy Gap)
2) Zener Diode: The gap between the top of valence band and
bottom of conduction band is called the energy
band gap.
2) Conductors:
3) Photo Diode: Solids in which conduction band and valence
band overlap i.e., band gap is zero.
3) Insulators:
4) Light Emitting Diode (LED): Solids in which band gap is greater than 3 eV.
4) Semi Conductors:
Solids in which band gap is less than 3 eV.
5) Hole:
5) Solar Cell: The vacancy in valence orbit of semiconductor
atom with the effective positive electronic
charge is called a hole.
It behaves as an apparent free particle with
effective positive charge.
6) Intrinsic Semi Conductor: 19) Forward Resistance And Reverse Resistance:
Pure semi conductors are known as intrinsic The resistance of the diode in forward and
semi conductor. reverse bias conditions are known as forward
7) Extrinsic Semi Conductor: resistance and reverse resistance respectively.
Impure semi conductors i.e., semi conductor 20) Cut-in Voltage OR Threshold Voltage: (V)
obtained after doping is known as extrinsic (Knee Voltage):
semi conductor. The forward voltage at which the diode current
8) Doping: increase significantly (exponentially) even for
The process of adding impurities to intrinsic a small resistance in the diode bias voltage.
semi conductor in order to rise its conducting 21) Reverse Breakdown Voltage (VRB):
levels is known as doping. The reverse voltage at which, the reverse
9) n–Type Semiconductor: current increases sharply and the diode gets
The extrinsic semiconductor obtained after destroyed is known as reverse breakdown
adding pentavalent impurities to an intrinsic voltage.
semiconductor is known as n-type 22) Rectifier:
semiconductor. A device (or) circuit which converts A.C.
10) p–Type Semiconductor: voltage to D.C. voltage.
The extrinsic semiconductor obained after 23) Zener Voltage (VZ):
adding trivalent impurities to an intrinsic The reverse voltage point at which the
semiconductor is known as p-type voltage across zener diode becomes stable and
semiconductor. reverse current rises sharply is called the zener
11) Trivalent Impurities: voltage (VZ).
Atoms with valency 3. 24) Avalanche Breakdown:
Ex.: Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) It is the phenomenon of current carries
12) Pentavalent Impurities: multiplication due to collision of thermally
Atoms with valency 5. generated minority carries with crysted ions in
Ex.: Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorus (P) a reverse biased zener diode.
13) Depletion Region: (Junction Barrier) It takes place at zener voltage.
The space-charge region on either side of the 25) Transistor:
junction together is known as depletion region. It is a three terminal semiconductor device
14) Biasing: which can be used as an electronic switch (or)
In electronics, biasing is the setting of initial an amplifier.
operating condition (current and voltage) of an 26) Emitter:
active device. Region in a transistor which supplies majority
15) Forward Bias: charge carries for current flow.
When p-terminal of a diode is at higher 27) Base:
potential than n-terminal then the diode is said Region in a transistor which acts as a link
to be in forward bias. between the emitter and collector.
16) Reverse Bias: 28) Collector:
When n-terminal of a diode is at higher It is the region in a transistor, which collects
potential than p-terminal, then the diode is said majority of charge carriers.
to be in reverse bias. 29) Amplifier:
17) Forward And Reverse Voltage: Device which enhances the amplitude of input
The voltage across diode in forward bias signal voltage. Transistor in active region acts
condition and reverse bias conditions are as an amplifier.
known as forward voltage an reverse voltage 30) D.C. Current Gain ( DC):
respectively. Ratio of output current to input current in a
18) Forward And Reverse Current: transistor.
The current passing through device in its 31) A.C. Current Gain ( AC):
forward bias and reverse bias conditions are It is the ratio of change in output current to the
known as forward current and reverse current change in input current of a transistor.
respectively.
32) A.C. Voltage Gain (AV): 8) Zener diode as voltage regulator:
It is the ratio of change in output voltage to RSe I IL
change in input voltage in a transistor.
33) Power Gain: VSc IZ
It is the ratio of output power to input power VZ RL
VPn
for a transistor operating in active region.
34) Transconductance (gm):
It is the ratio of change in output current to the
change in input voltage of a transistor. Vin  VSe  VZ  I R  I L RL
Se
35) Oscillator:
It is a device which delivers a.c. output wave I  IZ  I L
form of desired frequency from d.c. power. 9) Half wave rectifier
36) Logic Gates: i/p  A.C. o/p  Pulsating D.C.
Logic gates are the building blocks of digital- Half Wave
electronics, which work in accordance with Rectifier
some logical relationship between i/p and o/p
voltages. fi/p = fo/p
37) Truth Table: 10) Full wave rectifier
In logic gates, the relation between the possible i/p  A.C. o/p  Pulsating D.C.
values of i/p and corresponding o/p voltages are Full Wave
expressed in the form of a table called truth Rectifier
table.
FORMULAE
FORMULAE fo/p = 2fi/p
1) For intrinsic semiconductor, 11) In a transistor (CE - Configuration)
ne  nh  ni I E  IC  I B
2) For extrinsic semiconductor, IC IC
 ; 
ne .nh  n 2
i IE IB
3) In p-type semiconductor,
1 1
nh  ne  1
 
Holes : Majority carriers 12) Transistor as an amplifier (CE - Configuration)
Electrons : Minority carriers
IC
4) In n-type semiconductor, dc 
IB
ne  nh
Electrons : Majority carriers  I 
ac   C 
Holes : Minority carriers
 I B  VCE  Constant
5) In semiconductors,
I  I e  Ih I C 
gm   gm  ac
VBE Ri / p
Conductivity,   e( ne µe  nh µh )
6) In p–n junction diode V o / p Ro / p
• Forward current  Diffusion current AV   AV  
 Vi / p Ri / p
• Reverse current  Drift current
• Reverse resistance   AV  gm Ro / p
7) In p–n junction diode
• In forward bias acts as closed switch Ro / p
Power gain  2
• In reverse bias acts as open switch Ri / p
13) OR gate 20) Boolean algebra:
1 – High voltage signal
A B Y 0 – Low voltage signal
0 0 0 A, B – Imputs  Can take value 0 (or) 1.
A Y = A+B 0 1 1 • 1×1=1 0+0=0
B 1 0 1 1×0=0 0+1=1
1 1 1 0×0=0 1+1=1
• A × A = A If A = 1
• o/p is high if atleast one i/p is high
• o/p is low when all i/p are low A+A=A A0
14) AND gate 1 + A = 1 If A = 0
0×A= 0
A B Y
0+A=A A1
0 0 0
• De-morgan’s law
A Y = A+B 0 1 0
B 1 0 0 ( A  B)  A . B
1 1 1
AB  A  B
• o/p is high when all i/p are high GRAPHS
GRAPHS
• o/p is low if atleast one o/p is low 1) p–n junction diode:
15) NOT gate
A Y If (Forward current)
A YA 0 1
1 0
16) NOR gate
A B Y VRB
0 0 1 VReverse V Vforward
A Y  A B 0 1 0
B 1 0 0
1 1 0
• o/p is high when all i/p are low Ir (Reverse current)
• o/p is low if atleast one i/p is high
17) NAND gate 2) Zener diode:
A B Y
0 0 1 If
A Y  AB 0 1 1 VRB
B 1 0 1
1 1 0
18) NAND, NOR gates are known as universal
gates. Reverse Vt Forward
bias bias
19) Special gates:
X – OR (Exclusive OR gate)

A Y  AB  AB
B
X – NOR (Exclusive NOR gate)
Ir
A Y  AB  AB
B
3) Half Wave Rectifier: 5) Photo Cell:
A X
mA
~ RL
Reverse bias Voltage
B Y I1
I2
Voltage at A
I3
t I4
mA
I4 > I 3 > I2 > I1
Illumination intensities
Voltage at RL
t 6) LED (Light Emitting Diode):
A
4) Full Wave Rectifier:
D1
X
V
RL o/p
D2
Y
7) Solar Cell:
Voltage at A
I
t
Voc
V
Voltage at B
t
Isc
Voc – Open circuit voltage

Isc – Short circuit current
o/p Voltage at
8) i/p characteristics of transistor (CE configuration):

t IB
V CE1 VCE2
VCE2 > VCE1

o/p Voltage with
capacitor filter
t V BE
9) o/p characteristics of transistor (CE configuraion): 10) Transfer characteristics of transistor:
IC Vo/p
Active region (Amplifier) Active region Amplifier
(Closed switch operation)
IB = 30 µA
Saturation region
IB = 20 µA Cut off Saturation region

Closed swith
Open switch
IB = 10 µA 
AV
IB = 0
V CE
Cut off region V i/p
(Open switch operation)
IMPORTANT
N r.
Items Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

S
o.
D1 R1 V1
1. Circuit I/P R1 V0 I/P
D2
2. Input voltage
V0 V0 V0
t t
The value of Irms of input

3. alternating current I0 / 2 I0 / 2
I = I0 sin t
4. Output direct current I0 /  2I 0 / 
5. Ripple factor 1.21 0.48
6. Maximum ‘’ 0.406 or 40.6% 0.812 or 81.2%

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Electrostatics (I+II)

Quick Revision ELECTROSTATICS (I+II)

11) Field due to charged circular arc at centre C(EC)

Q 15) Field due to uniformly charged conducting

E = 0 (inside point; r < R)

13) Field due to uniformly charged sheet 1 Q

21) Potential difference between two points A & B: 1 Q

 Vˆ V ˆ V ˆ (ii) Equitorial line (Broad-on Position)

52) Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor:

i  neAVd Vrated = Rated voltage of bulb

En rn 24) Potential gradient of potentiometer wire AB is

l2 : Balancing length with shunt E

C : Curie’s constant 11) Bohr Magneton: It is defied as the magnetic

18) Magnetic Susceptibility: It is defiled as the

5) Hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic material

when inductors are in parellel

X L 2 L 12) Power in LCR,

2) Inductive reactance v/s frequency

3) Capacitative reactance v/s frequency

4) Purely inductive circuit. Voltage leads by 90°.

Image time = 11h59m60s – object time 1

iv) = i – r, Light travels from rarer to denser

Path difference = (2n – 1) 2 , n = 1, 2, ......

f) Shifting of fringe pattern

a) nth bright fringe from central maxima

k : Boltzmann’s constant 2) Einstein’s photoelectric equation:

If incident wavelength  0  No photoelectric 4) mass of photon:

Z n = 1 (Ground state)

7) Time period, T  V ..... T 4) Brackett series 4 5, 6, 7, .....  Infra red

10) T.E. = K.E. + P.E. 

5) Energy equivalent of atomic mass unit: or, N  N0 e  t

In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter

(iv) Coolent: The most commonly used A  A0 e  t , where N0  A0

t 6) LED (Light Emitting Diode):

Voc – Open circuit voltage

8) i/p characteristics of transistor (CE configuration):

VCE2 > VCE1

IB = 20 µA Cut off Saturation region

Items Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

The value of Irms of input

4. Output direct current I0 /  2I 0 / 

5. Ripple factor 1.21 0.48

6. Maximum ‘’ 0.406 or 40.6% 0.812 or 81.2%

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