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Fire spread via exterior walls of buildings

Yung, D. T.; Oleszkiewicz, I.

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https://doi.org/10.4224/40001415
Paper (National Research Council of Canada. Institute for Research in
Construction), 1988

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1+1 Natlonal Research
Council Canada
Consell national
de recherche* Cenada
Institute for lnstitut de
Research in recherche en
Construction construction

Fire Spread Via Exterior Walls of Buildings

by O.Yung and I. Oleszkiewicz

Reprinted from
Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on Building
Science and Technology
Toronto, Onlaria, February 18 - 19,1988
p. 1-12
(IRC Paper No. 1532)

Price 5.00

NRCC 2891 8
Ce document dkcrit le programme de recherche du ConseiI national de recherches sur les
feux de murs ext6ieurs. Ce programme englobe des Ctudes sur tous les principaux
rndcanismes de propagation du feu h l'extdrieur, rani vers les &ages supirieurs que vers les
bitiments voisins. On dkrit d'abord les essais effectuCs pour dkterminer les effets de la
configuration architecturale extdrieure sur la propagation du feu. Les dsultats montrent que
les saillies verticales augmentent la propagation du feu vers le haut en constituant des
canaux; par contre, les saillies horizontales ralentissent la propagation par le haut en
kloignant les flammes du bltiment. On d&rit ensui te des dudes sur les caract6ristiques de
progagation du feu vers le haut sur les murs exttrieurs combustibles. Les essais realists
comprennent des essais en vraie grandeur, des essais h plus petite kchelle en canaux
verticaux et des essais norrnalisCs en tunnel Steiner. L'essai en vraie grandeur est
actuellement le seul qui perrnette d'kvaluer le comportement au feu des murs extkrieurs
combustibles. On effectue actuellement des essais h plus petite 6chelIe pour tenter dlCtablir
une correlation enme les essais en vraie grandeur et ceux h 6chelIe rauite. On d 6 d t
egalement un essai d'exposition au feu en vraie gahdeur effectuk en vue d'6vdue.r Ie risque
de propagation du feu A un mur voisin situk 1,8 m de distance. Les dsultats montrent
que la propagation est assez rdpide, le mur voisin &ant devenu la proie des flammes apr6s
seulement 5 minutes. On fait aussi drat des plans de recherche pour l'avenir.
 FIRE SPREAD VTA EXTERIOR WALLS OF BUILDINGS
D. YUNG' and I. OLESZKIEWICZ~

ABSTRACT
The rescarch program on exterior-wall fires at the National Research council is described.
The program includes studies on all mjor exterior fire-spread mechanisms. both upward and to
adjacent buildings. Te.sts which were conducted to determine the effects of exterior architectural
designs on fm spread are described first. Results show that vertical projections enhance upward
fire spread because of the channeling effect, whereas horizontal projections hinder up ward fire
spread kcause of the diversion of flames away from the building. Studies of upward fire spread
characteristics on combustible exterior walls are then descrikd. Tests conducted include full-
scde tests, smaller vertical channel tests and the standard Steiner tunnel tests. The full-scale test
is shown to be the only test at present that allows evaluation of fire performance of combustible
exterior walls. S m d e r tests are king conducted to see whether a correlation can be developed
&tween full-scale and smaller tests. A full-scale fire test to assess the fire-spread potential to a
neighbouring wall at 1.8 m away is also described. The results show that the fire spread is quite
rapid, engulfing the neighbouring wall in just 5 minutes. Future research plans are also
discussed.

Dr. Yung is a Senior Research Officer at the Fire Research Section, Institute for Research in
Construction, National Research Council of Canada.

Mr. Oleszkicwicz is a Research Officer at the National Fire Laboratory, Instirute forResearch in
Cunswuc~ion,National Research Council of Canada.
 FIRE SPREAD VIA EXTERIOR WALLS OF BUILDINGS
D.YUNG and I. OLESZKIEWICZ

INTRODUCTION
Fire spread via exterior walls is a serious problem, as fire may spread not only upward on
3 building but also to an adjacent building. With the increasing use of combustible exterior

cl:~ddingmateriaIs and the desire for higher density of buildings, the exterior fire-spread problem
is becoming even more of an issue. The National Research Couricil is concerned a b u r chis
problem and has directed one of its major fire research programs at resolving it. Full-scale fire
tests were carried out to try to understand fire spread mechanisms, both upward and to adjacent
buildings. Small-scale tests and mdelling were also initiated to ny to determine the flame
projection characteristics from an exterior wall opening. In the present paper, results of some of
our recent full-scale fire tests are presented. Studies on flame projection characreristics are
ongoing and are not discussed.
In an exterior-wall fire, the fire can spread upward on a building via three different
mechanisms. The first is an internal spread mechanism where fire leaks through cracks at the
junction of an exterior wall and a floor. The second is a window-to-window "leap-fragging"
mechanism where combustible materials inside an upper window are ignired as a result of [he
intense heat from flames projected out of a lower window. The third is a surface spread
mechanism where fire propagates upward along the exterior wall assembly. The first spread
mechanism is not considered in our research program kcause it can be easily eliminated by the
;~pplicationof the Building Code provisions. Methods that can k. used to alIeviate the second
spread mechanism and tests that can be used to assess the third spread mechanism ,me. considered
in our research program and are discussed in the present paper.
I n ,an exterior-wall fire, the fire can also spread to an adjacent building via radiant heat and
thermal convection. In the full-scale tests, thermal exposures from projecting flames out of
openings and from upward spreading flames on exterior-wall assemblies were also determined.
Results are discussed in the present paper. In addition, a test was conducted to study the fire
ch;lractenstics to an adjacent wall at 1.8 m from an exposing wall. The results of this test
are also discussed.
VERTICAL FIRE SPREAD
Our study of the problem of fire "leap-hogging"from window to window began witb the
study of fire exposure to exterior walls as a result of flames issuing from an opening. Tests were
conducted using the ASTM Standard Room Burn facility, which is located in the burn hall of the
National Fire Laboratory. The room is 2.4 m by 3.6 m by 2.4 m high, with a window opening
of 1.1 m2. The front wall was extended to 6.0 m in height and 3.6 m in width, and was
constructd of nnn-combustible materials (Mminite on concrete blwks). W d cribs were used
as fuel in the room, and a post-flashover condition was set up so that the resulting flames issuing
from the window provided a severe exposure to the outer wall. T h e m o u p l e s , radiometers and
total heat flux meters were installed on the wall at various locations. Figure 1 shows typical heat
flux data collected in one of the tests.

Effect of Facade Geometry

One of the tests that is of particular interest to the study of fire "leap-fragging" is the one
dedicated to the study of the effect of facade geometry on fire exposure. During this particular
test, two types of projections were applisd to the exterior wall at different times. One was a
horizontal panel, 1.2 m deep by 2.4 m wide. The horizontal panel simulated a balcony and was
applied to the wall immediately a b v e the window opening. Such a panel acts as a flame
deflector to the fire plume issuing fmm the w i ~ ~ d oopening.
w The other was a pair of vertical
panels, 2.4 rn wide and running the full length of the wall. The vertical panels simulated typical
building projections such as sunshades and were applied perpendicularly to the wall on both
sides of the window. Figure 2 shows the deflection and stretching of the fire plume as a result of
the presence of these proje.cbuns. Figure 3 shows the ~otalheat flux readings o n the wall at
various levels above the top of the window. It is clear from Fig. 3, despite the scatter of the data,
that the horizontal projection offered substantial protection to the wall above the window. The
vertical projections, on the other hand, channeled the fire plume upward, thus increasing the
intensity of fire exposure to the wall above.
We plan to continue the study ofhorizon td flame deflectors. Future plans include the
study of their performance under combustible ex terior-wall conditions. The objective is to see
whether tire can spread upward around corners at the joint between the deflector and the wall,
and whether the flame deflector will enhance horizontal fire spread.

Effect of Combiislible Exterior-Wall Constructions

As to the assessment of the upward fire-spread potential of combustible exterior-wall
constructions, an extensive test program is being carried out at the Nationd Research Council.
Various exterior-wall assemblies were tested in the Full-Scale Exterior-Wall Test Facility, which
i s also located in the bum hall of the National F k Latmratory. The full-scale test facility, shown
in Figure 4, is a three-storey high (10.4 m) facility. In these tests, propane burners were used in
the rmrn on the ground floor to produce fire plumes that would provide the same fire exposure to
the exterior wall as was established in previous experiments using w d cribs. The rationale for
the use of propane burncrs is that the fire exposure can k controlled, and that the same fire
exposure can be reprduced in each of the tests to provide consistency.
Smaller exterior-wall samples, sirnilm to those tested in the full-scale studies, were also
tested in smaller facilities. The objective is to see whether the upward fm-spread potential can bz
assessed equrilly well, and thus more economically, using smaller test facilities. Samples were
tested in the Vertical Channel Test Facility which, as shown in Fig. 4, is a narrower test setup
attached to the Full-Scde Test Facility. The Vertical Channel Test Facility produces the same fue
exposure as in the full-scale tests, hut the sampks needed are only 0.85 n~ wide, much smaller
t h m the 6 m wide samples used in the full-scale tests. Even smaller samples were tested in fl)e

S teiner Tunnel Test Facility, which is a hori wntal, enclosed tunnel test setup used mainly as a
test standard for flame spread rating certificarion. Other smaller-scale test facilities were also
used, but the results are too preliminary to he discussed in the present paper.
Combustible exterior w d l assemblies tested so far include the foHowing: wood frame
with various sheathings, sidings, and insulations; composite panels with plastic foam core and
FRP (Fibre Reinforced Plastic) membranes; and plastic foam insulation attached to the outer face
of a wall and coated with a synthetic plaster. Test results are summarized in Table 1, where the
flame spread distance and time are shown for different wall assemblies and for different tests
conducted in three different test facilities. Also shown i n the Table are heat flux readings at
3.5 m and 5.5 m above the top of the window opening. The details of the assemblies are nor
discussed here, partly &cause they are proprie~aryinformation and partly h a u s e they are not
critical in the present &scussions. What is important here is not only the assessment of the
upward fm-spread characteristics of the various wall assemblies, but whether the smaller-scale
tests can reproduce the same u p w i d fire-spread characteristics as obtained from the full-scale
tests. Full-scale tests can always k used to assess t h e fire-spread characteristics, but they are
very expensive to use considering the high cost of running the facility and the large site of the
test samples. If the same information can be obtained using a smaller test facility, future
assessment of upward fire spread potential of wall assemblies can be perfomled in a more
ecorlornical manner.
The results in Table 1 show that test assemblies 3.1 to 3.6 in the full-scale tests did not
support flame spread all the way to the top, whereas assemblies 4.1 to 4.2 did. Heat fluxes
measured in tests 4.1 and 4.2 were also much higher, indicating a much stronger fire. The
results from the smaller vertical-channel tests follow basically the same pattern as obtained fTom
the full-scale tests, except that the results from the vemcal-channel rests show a more severe fire
spread. For example, lest assernbly 3.6 had a limited fire spread in the full-scale test but a more
severe fire spread to the top in the vertical-channel test. (Assembly 3.3 had a slightly slower fire
spread in the vertical-channel test, but the rue-spread distance was about the same as in the full-
scale test.) Results from the tunnel tests show roughly the same trend with a higher flame spread
rating fc)r test assembly 4.1 than for test assemblies 3.1 to 3.6. The results from the tunnel tests,
however, are not concIusive b x a u s e there were other tests (not shown) which exhibited
inconsistencies with the fdl-scale tests.
What we have presented here are some preliminary results of tests conducted in three
different test facilities. We plan to continue this study by carrying out more tests and more
mathematical mdelling, to see whether the assessment of upward frre spread can k performed
on a smaller and therefore more economical scale.

FIRE SPREAD TO ADJACENT BUILDINGS

Studies were dso carried out on the problem of fire spread to adjacent buildings. One of
the stuQes consisted of a series of tests conducted to measure the fire exposure to adjacent
buildings. Significant fire exposure causes ignition of combustible materials and subsequent fire
spread to the adjacent building. The tests were conducted in conjunction with the fuI1-scale tests
on upward fire spread which were descrikd i n the previous section. During these tests, heat
flux measurements were made using radiometers at 3 m from the test wall and at various distance
above the centre of the window opening. The results are shown in Fig. 5, where fire exposures
from four different types of exposing walls are plotted. The results show, as expected, that the
exposure decreases with the increase in vertical distance from the centre of the window and that
the exposure increases with the combustibiljty of the exposing wail. It is interesting to note that
the exposure directly across from the centre of the opening i s quite close to the critical heat flux
for non-piloted ignition of most combustible materials (25 k ~ / m Z )[I].
In addition to the dependence on the combustibility of the exterior wall, one of the factors
that governs the intensity of the exposure to the adjacent building is the size of the flames which
issue from the opening. Numerous studies have been carried out by others on the geometric and
thermii profiles of these flames, notably those of Yokoi 131 and Seigel 131. Studies have also
k e n carried out by Harmathy 431 at the National Research Council on the effect of fuel on the
size of the projected flames. We are continuing this effort and hope to develop a model that can
characterize the dependence of the fire exposure on all of the relevant factors such as the nature of
the fuel, the window geometry and the ventilation condition. Such a model will be very valuable
for future studies on fire spread to adjacent buildings. This model, however, is at an e u l y stage
of development and is not discussed here. Instead, we descrik in the following a test which was
supported by the Ontario Ministry of Housing.

F u Il-Scale Fire Test

A full-scale ire test was conducted to assess the fire-spread potential to a nejghbouring
wall located 1.8 rn away. The test was carried out i n the bum hall of the National Fire
Laboratory utilizing the Two-Storry Facility. Fi @]re6 is a schematic of [he general arrangement
o f the experimental setup. The room at the lower level is the fue cornpamnent, with a window
opening in the front and a lower ventilation opening in the back. The window opening was fined
with a typical, regular-glass window. During the test, the window was manually removed soon
after the glass was cracked by the fm. This was done to simulate the worst-case fire scenario of
the window blown wide open by the fire at the first instant.
Also shown in Fig. 6 is the target wall located 1.8 m from the facade of the Two-Storey
Facility. The target wall and the facade of the Two-Storey Facility were of the same size and of
the same typical combustible consmction: vinyl siding with waferboard sheathing. The target
wall also had a similar opening directly across from the window opening of the tire cornpmlent.
Four heat-flux meters were mounted, as shown, on the target wall to measure the intensity of the
heat flux received from the fire cornpartmen t and from the hut gases and flames.
Inside the fire compartment, the block walls and the concrete flmr were lined with typical
consmction materials: gypsum board (13 mm thick) on the walls and plywood (13 rnm) on the
flmr. Since typical ceiling materials do not contribute significantly to the room fire, the ceiling
was lined with Fikrfrax insulation, mainly to protect the ceiling construction. Two w m d cribs
with a total weight of 150 kg were used to simulate a typical fire load in North American
residential buildings: 17.1 kg/m2 [ 5 ] . One w d crib was constructed using nominal 50 mm by
50 mm pine and the other 50 mrn by 100 mm pine to represent two different fuel geometries.
During the test, the room temperature was monitored using four thermocouples placed, as shown
in Fig. 6 , at equal intervals k t w e e n the ceiling and flmr in a vertical array near the centre of the
room. Two additiond thermocouples were placed at the top of the mom window opening and at
the top oP the rear ventilation opening to monitor the temperatures at those two locations.
The test was started by igniting the two w d cribs with a stmer fluid. The temperature
and heat flux readings were recorded every 10 s using a computerized data acquisition system.
Two video canleras and a regular camera were used to provide visual recording of the fire
scenario. Figure 7 shows the target wall heat flux readings as a function of time.
The fire cornpatmen t window was in the closed p s i tion when the test started. A little
more than 2 nlin after the fire s m e d , the ulndow glass cracked but the window was left i n place
for an additional 25 s before it was manually removed. This is marked as time line "A" in
Fig. 7. At this point, the upper r m m temperature and the window temperature were a b u t
450°C. Up to this point, the heat flux on the target wall was insignificant.
After the window was removed, the fire i n the room grew more rapidly until the room
experienced flashover around 3 mjn 40 s. This is shown as time line "B" in Fig. 7. At this
point, the upper room temperature and the window temperature were around 750°C, above the
threshold temperature for room flashover ( 6 0 0 O C ) . As a result of hot gases and flames issuing
from the window, the heat flux on the target wall was now getting dose to 12 kwlm2. which is
the critical heat flux for piloted ignition of many combustible materials [I]. I t is interesting to
note that the heat flux measured at 3 m above the opening centre was the highesr during this
as a result of the convection pattern of the hot gases impinging at a location high above the
opzning rather than at the opening.
Both the fire and the heat flux on the target wall continued to p w after flashover. Visual
observation indicated that the vinyl siding started to melt and drop down from the walls,
 exposing the waferbard sheathing. The flames were well extended from the fire r m m window
but did not in any way touch the target wall. Also during this period, the facade above the fire
room window ignited, increasing the radiant heat flux to the target wall, especially at Imations
above the opening. At approximately 4 min 40 s, the heat flux readings on the target wall were
a 1 above 25 kwh2,which is the critical heat flux for non-piloted ignition of most combustible
materids [I]. The readings were 29 k ~ / m at 2 the opening centre, 38 kwlm2 at 1.5 m a b v e the
opening centre and 55 kw/m2 at 3.0 m above the opening centre. The heat flux reading on the
side of the opening (#4) was erroneous as a result of melted vinyl siding covering the heat flux
meter. Shortly after. at 4 min 50 s, the target waIl above the opening ignited. This is marked as
time line "C" in Fig. 7 . At this point, the fire mom temperature was more evenly distributed and
the avenge temperature was about 1 0 ° C .
After the ignition of the target wall, the fire between the two walls developed very rapid1y
into an intense channel fire. At approximately 5 min 20 s, 30 s after the ignition of the target
wall, the objective to assess the fire-spread potential was acwmpIished and the test was
terminated by suppressing the fire with water. This is marked as time line "D" in Fig. 7. After
the fwe was extinguished, the walls were examined. It was found that the cenm portion of each
wall above the window opening was charred and void of vinyl siding, in the shape of an inverted
triangle, with the area above the window of the exposing wall more deeply charred. Inside the
fire room, the wood cribs were about 113 burned, as judged from the depth of the char layer.
This is in accordance with predictions that a room fire with this fuel load and ventilation is
e x p e c t d to have a fire duration of about 15 rnin.

Wired-Gluss Window Test

A subsequent test was conducted to see whether a wired-glass window could have
reduced the fire exposure and hence prevented the fire spread. The wired-glass window test was
carried out in Building M-59, utilizing the Wall Fire Resistance Furnace to simulate the room fire
condition. The wired-glass window was about the same size as the window used in the full-scale
fire test, 0.90 m by 0.90m, and was fitted with typical 6.5 rnrn thick wired glass. R nd'lometers
were used to measure the heat flux at various locations. The duration of the test was a b u t 25
min. The results show that the wired-glass prevented the flames from issuing from the window,
and reduced significantly the radiant heat flux transmitted through the window. At 1.8 m away,
the maximum heat flux was only 5.0 kw/mz, less than half the critical heat flux of 12 kwh2for
piloted ignition of most combustible materials [I j.
In addition to the wired-glass window test, other tests using "Iesscombustible" exterior-
wall constructions are being proposed. These include vinyl siding or aluminum siding with
gypsum b a r d sheathing instead of the waferbard sheathing as was used in the present
experiment. Such tests will show whether this type of "lesscombustible" constructions can
prevent the rapid fire spread to neighburing walls at close distance.
 CONCLUSIONS
Studies have beet1 carried out on the problem of fire spread via exterior walls of
buildings. Tests conducted so far on the problem of fire "leap-frogging"from window to
window show that horizontal and vertical projections have opposite effects on the fire-spread
mechanism. Horizontal projections deflect flames discharged from a lower window, suppressir~g
the fire spread to the upper window. Vertical projections, o n the other hand, channel the flames
upward, enhancing the fire spread upward.
Studies were carried out to assess the upward fue spread of various exterior-wall
assemblies. Tests were conducted using the Full-Scale Test Facility, the smaller Vertical
Channel Test Facility, and the even smaller Steiner Tunnel Test Facility. The results show the
smaller Vertical Channel tests to be quite consistent with the full-wale tests, but slightly on the
conservative side. The Steiner Tunnel tests, on the other hand, were not that consistent. Further
tests and studies are being proposed before any conclusions can be drawn.
Studies were also carried out on flame projections and subsequent fire spread to adjacent
walls. A full-scale fire test was carried out to assess the fire spread potential to a neighbouring
wall located 1.8 m away. Both the exposing wall and the exposed wall were of combustible
construction. The results show that the fire growth was very rapid, developing into a full-scale
fire in just 5 min from the start of the fire. Further tests and studies are k i n g proposed to
investigate fire-spread characteristics of "lesscombustible" wall constructions such as vinyl or
aIuminum siding with gypsum board sheathing. Such tests wiil inhcate whether this type of
"less combustible" constructions can slow down the fire spread to neighlmuring walls at close
distance.

REFERENCES
[ I ] Grubits, S .J. "Recent Development in External Drencher Protection", Technical Bulletin
No. 45, Department of Housing and Construction, Australia, March 1987, pp. 23-25.
[ 2 ] Yokoi, S. "Study of the Prevention of Fire Spread Caused by Hot Upward Current",
Building Research Institute, Report No. 34, Tokyo, 1960.
[3] Seigel, L.G. "The Projection of Flames from Burning Buildings", Fire Technology, Vol. 5 ,
NO. I , 1969, pp. 43-5 1.
[4] Hmnat hy, T.Z. "Effcct of the Nature of Fuel on the Characteristics of Fully Developed
Compartment Fires", Fire and Materials, Vol. 3, No. I , 1979, pp. 49-60.
[ 5 ] Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA,
1986, pp. 7-112.
Table I. Results of combustible exterior wall tests. Lncluded in the table are test
data for a non-combustible wall (Marinite) designated as assembly
No. 1, and a gypsum-bard wall designated as assembly No. 2

TIME, HIN

Fig. 1. Heat flux on exterior wall at 0.25 m above the top ofthe window opening
 Fig. 2. Effect of wall projections on fire plume

TIME. HIN

Fi g.3. Total heat flux on exterior wall at four different levels above the
top of the window opening
 Fig. 4. Full-scale and vertical channel test facilities

Raanant Heat Flux. kw/m:

F i g .5 . Maximum radiant heat flux recorded by radiometers on target m s t , full-scale

tests: Marinite, o gypsum sheathing, w assembly showing limited
flame spread, assembly showing flame spread to the top of the wall
 "6 --- . 4 TARGET
LVALL
TWO-STOREY FACILITY FKUP4T dIEW OF TARGET WALL

Fig. 6. Full-scale fire spread test setup

'A' WfWOW AEIIOYED

A
'8' ROM FLASHOVER

'C' T A M E 1 MALL I G H I T E I I

'0' TEST TEWIMAfED

..:

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 60

TIME. MIN

Fig. 7. Heat flux at target wall

T h i s paper is b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d I n r e p r i n t
f o r m by the 'Insritute Ear Research in
Construction. A L 5 s t of b u i l d i n g practice
and research publications available f r o m
the I n s t i t u t e may be o b t a i n e d by writing t o
t h e P u b l i c a t i o n s Section, I n s t i t u t e f o r
Research in Construction, N a t i o n a l Pesearch
Council of C a n a d a , O t t a w a , Ontario,
KIA ORb.

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