CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

THE PHILIPPINE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM REQUIRES THAT AN EVIDENCE MUST BE

PRESENTED IN ORDER TO CONVICT OR ACQUIT THE SUSPECT. “NO EVIDENCE, NO CASE”, IS THE LEGAL
GUIDING PRINCIPLE. THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF EVIDENCE, ONE OF WHICH IS PHOTOGRAPH.
THROUGH PHOTOGRAPHS, THE CRIME SCENE AND ALL PHYSICAL EVIDENCES WITHIN IT ARE
PRESERVED, WHICH ARE VERY NECESSARY IN THE SUCCESSFUL PROSECUTION OF THE ACCUSED.

THE PHOTOGRAPHS PRESENTED BY THE INVESTIGATOR MUST PASS THE LEGAL SCRUTINY OF
THE COURT OR MUST COMPLY WITH THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS IN ORDER FOR THE PHOTOGRAPHS
TO BE ADMITTED AS EVIDENCE. ONE OF WHICH , IS THAT THE PHOTOGRAPHS MUST BE FREE FOM
ANY DISTORTION. TO SATISFY THIS BASIC REQUIREMENT, THE CRIME SCENE PHOTGRAPHER MUST BE
HIGHLY SKILLED IN TAKING CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS. IN CASE OF DOUBT AS TO THE EXPOSURE
SETTING HE USED, HE SHALL ADOPT THE GENERAL RULE IN TAKING CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS-
THAT IS, “TAKE MANY PHOTOGRAPHS AND SELECT THE BEST”. IT IS A GOOD POLICY TO TAKE TOO
MANY PHOTOGRAPHS RATHER THAN TOO FEW, BECAUSE THE INVESTIGATOR CANNOT GO BACK TO
THE CRIME SCENE LATER TO PHOTOGRAPH THE SCENE IN ITS ORIGINAL CONDITION. JUST A SLIGHT
MISTAKE IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE COULD EITHER ACQUIT A GUILTY PERSON OR
CONVICT THE INNOCENT, REMEMBER THAT FILM IS CHEAPER, THAN LOSING A CASE IN COURT.

BRIEF HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

THE FIRST CAMERA

THE EARLIEST FORERUNNER OF THE CAMERAS WAS NOT ANYTHING LIKE

WHAT WE USE TODAY. NO ONE ACTUALLY KNOWS WHO CONSTRUCTED THE FIRST CAMERA KNOWN
AS THE CAMERA OBSCURA, A LATIN PHRASE MEANING DARK ROOM. IT WAS SIMPLY A DARK ROOM
WITH A SMALL HOLE IN ONE OF THE WALLS THAT LETS LIGHT IN AND PROJECT THE UPSIDE-DOWN
IMAGES OF THINGS OUTSIDE THE ROOM ON THE OPPOSITE WALL OR ON THE INTERIOR WALL
OPPOSITE THE APERTURE. THE IMAGE WAS NOT SHARP BECAUSE NO LENSES WERE ATTACHED TO THE
SMALL HOLE IN THE WALL. WHAT WAS OBSERVED, HOWEVER, WAS THAT THE SMALLER THE HOLE,
THE SHARPER THE IMAGE. ACCORDING TO MANY HISTORIANS, THE CAMERA OBSCURA BEGAN TO BE
EQUIPPED WITH LENSES IN ABOUT THE 16TH CENTURY.

AS INTEREST IN THE CAMERA OBSCURA GREW, THE DARK ROOM BECAME

SMALLER AND SMALLER UNTIL IT BECAME A BOX AND FINALLY, IT BECAME MORE OR LESS PORTABLE.
IT IS USUALLY MADE OF WOOD WITH A LENS ATTACHED AT ONE END. ON THE OTHER END OF THE
BOX, A MIRROR WAS PLACED AT A 45-DEGREE ANGLE. ABOVE THIS WAS PLACED A FROSTED OR
GROUND GLASS PLATE. AN ARTIST WOULD PLACE THIN PAPER OR TRACING PAPER OVER THE
GROUND GLASS AND TRACE THE INMAGES THAT WAS PROJECTED THERE.

IN 1558, GIOVANNI BATTISTA DELL PORTA WAS THE FIRST TO SUGGEST THAT THE CAMERA
OBSCURA BE USED AS A GUIDE FOR DRAWING, AND IT IS FOR THIS IDEA THAT HE IS REMEMBERED.

IN 1676, THE FIRST “REFLECT” CAMERA APPEARED. IN THIS CAMERA, AN INCLINED MIRROR
BEHIND THE LENS REFLECTED THE IMAGE ONTO A TOP-MOUNTED VIEWING SCREEN. ALL THE ARTIST
OR DRAFTSMEN DO WAS TO PUT A PIECE OF TRACING PAPER ON TOP OF THE VIEWING SCREEN AND
TRACE THE OUTLINE.

NOTE: THE OPTICAL TECHNIQUE CAME ABOUT WITH THE REALIZATION THAT A SMALL HOLE IN A
WALL OF A DARK ROOM COULD PROJECT INVERTED IMAGES ON AN OPPOSITE WALL. WITH THE
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUE, ON THE OTHER HAND, PEOPLE REALIZED THAT CERTTAIN CHEMICALS TURNED
DARK WHEN EXPOSED TO LIGHT.

The earliest successfully recorded instances of photography are attributed to

the following persons.

JOHANN HEINRICH SHULZE (1727) - A German physicist, Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered that light
could be used to alter substances. He put silver, chalk, and nitric acid together in a bottle, did the
hokey, pokey, and shook it all about. He then exposed the mixture to bright sunlight and found that
the mixture darkened to black. To prove that this was a photosensitive reaction as opposed to heat-
induced reaction, he repeated the process but exposed the mixture to intense heat. Proving his
theory, this experiment produced no change in the mixture.

JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE (1765-1833)

- Although Daguerre and Fox Talbot are usually credited with the invention of photography, it
was niepce, in the 1820s, who was actually the first to capture and reproduce lasting images.

- He found that bitumen of Judea, a compound that hardens when exposed to light, could
produce negatives.

- He called his process “Heliography” meaning “writing of the sun’’.

- One of his early heliographs from 1827, a view from a window that required an eight-hour
exposure, is the earliest photographic image in existence.

- In 1833, Niepce, the inventor of photography died.

HELIOGRAPHY – A forerunner to the earliest photographic process, invented by Niepce in

1822. It entails using bitumen, a material that hardens and becomes insoluble in light. He hoped
to use this process to transfer images to be printed on a press.

NOTE: Although heliography was unsuccessful, it was an early breakthrough that led to the
development of the Daguerreotype.

LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1787-1851)

A French inventor, who, after collaborating with Niepce, devised the first practicable photographic
process.

• He was experimenting with photo-reactive chemicals at the same time with Niepce.
• He formed a partnership with Niepce in 1829

• He called his process a “Daguerreotype”

• He was considered as the “FATHER OF PHOTOGRAPHY.”

DAGUERREOTYPE – An early photographic process using silver coated, light-sensitive metallic plates
developed by mercury vapor.

The Daguerrotype photographic process was primarily a portrait medium that was executed in
a studio, announced in 1839 by Daguerre, which consisted of a copper plate coated with silver that
was highly polished. The plate was then treated with iodine vapor and became light sensitive. It was
then put in a camera and a photograph was taken. After the plate was developed in mercury vapor,
which is highly toxic, a distinct photographic image appeared on the polished silver surface.

A Daguerreotype can be identified by the polished silver surface, which resembles a mirror,
with an image upon it.

Serious Defects of the Daguerreotype:

a. The daguerreotype produced only one image that could be made from each exposure, since it
was positive process; it only yielded one-of-a-kind images.

b. Exposure times were still lengthy, about 30 minutes.

WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT (1800-1877)

• The inventor of positive-negative photographic process.

• It was Talbot, who first used a process that produced a negative picture on paper, projecting
lights of an image as a dark and darks as lights.

• A positive was then made another on another sheet of chemical sensitized paper exposed to
light through a negative. In other words , he invented the negative-positive photographic process that
enabled the production of multiple prints on paper from a single negative, which continues to be the
basis for photography today.

• Attributed as the person who discovered first true modern photography.

• Talbot is generally regarded as the father of photography.

• He called his process “Calotype”

SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL (1792-1871)

• A British astronomer and photographic chemist.

• Inspired by Daguerre and Talbot, English astronomer Sir John Frederick William Herschel also
began experimenting with the photographic process.
• He discovered that thiosulphate of soda, the chemical now referred as “Hypo”, would fix
images on photosensitive paper by stopping the chemical action of silver salts.

• Herschel is noted for his 1819 discovery of thiosulfates and their ability to dissolve silver salts
completely, which led, 20 years later, after Daguerre and Fox Talbot claimed invention of
photography.

• He suggested to both inventors that sodium thiosulfate, or hypo, could be used as a fixing
agent to wash away the unaltered salts after the photograph was processed

• The chemical, still in use and known as “fixer”, makes photographic negatives and prints
permanently.

• He did not only discovered fixer, but also coined the word photography, which comes from
the Greek word meaning “light writing”

• Herschel used the term photography to differentiate between Talbot’s negative paper prints
and Daguerre’s positive image method that used copper plates.

FREDERICK SCOTT ARCHER (1831-1857)

• In March 1851, he invented a wet-plate collodion photography or wet-plate process now

known as Archerotype, by which finely detailed glass negatives were produced.

• The process entailed using a glass plate coated with collodion that was sensitized and used
while wet.

• Archer is generally accepted as the creator of the process that replaced daguerreotypes. It was
popular from about 1855 to 1880, when the dry collodion process gained acceptance.

• He reduced exposure times from minutes to seconds.

NOTE; Collodion process is an early method for producing glass negatives. The procedure
began with the use of a sticky substance that could hold the silver that produces a photographic
image. This was invented by Frederick Scott Archer in 1851. It derived from Greek word for glue.

RICHARD LEACH MADDOX

• An English physician who took Archer’s discovery a step further with his “dry plate” process,
which used an emulsion or gelatin and silver bromide or a glass plate.

• By 1880, collodion was replaced by gelatin, which was used in dry plate-hence the name, dry
plate photography. For short time, there was a dry-collodion process, but it was very slow. Dry plate
usually refers to the gelatin process.

GEORGE EASTMAN (a.k.a.Mr. Kodak)(1854-1932)

• An American photographic inventor and manufacturer.

• The founder of Kodak Company.

• He introduced the Kodak box camera in 1888 with the promotional slogan “You press the
button, we do the rest.” It was sold for $25 and came already loaded with a 20-foot roll of paper film,
enough for 100 exposures. After all frames were exposed, the user sent the entire camera back to
Eastman’s company. There, the film was processed, printed, and the camera was loaded with a new
roll, after which it was sent back to its owner with the negatives and a set of prints.

• He gave us the flexible roll film and the daylight-loadable camera in the late 1880s or the first
“point-and-shoot” camera.

• In 1932, at the age of 78, Eastman killed himself, leaving a note that said, “My work is done.
Why wait?”

DR. EDWIN H. LAND (1909-1991)

An American inventor in 1947, he invented instant photography and introduced the first Polaroid
camera, which produced a sepia monochrome print in just 60 seconds.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

The ability of film to record color is due to the presence of three layers of color-yellow, red,
and blue-on the film. When combined, these three colors represent the majority of colors that we see.

PHOTOGRAPHY AND ITS PRINCIPLES

PHOTOGRAPHY

IS defined as an art or science that deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light
on sensitized material (film and photographic paper) with the aid of camera and its accessories and
the chemical processes involved therein.

It is the process of producing images of objects by the action of light, on sensitized materials with the
aid of an image forming device known as camera and its accessories and the chemical process
involved therein.

The process of forming and fixing images of an object or objects by the chemical action of light and
other forms of radiant energy on photosensitive surfaces.

The word photography is derived from two Greek words photos (light) and graphos (chart or
drawing or writing). Literally, photography means, “to draw with light”

PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

The mechanical and chemical result of photography is known as PHOTOGRAPH. In making a

photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials (film and papers). Light radiated or
reflected by the subject must reach the film while all other lights are excluded. The exclusion of all
other light is achieved by placing the film inside a light tight box (camera).

The effect of light on the film is not visible in the formation of images of objects. To make it
visible, the exposed film must be process chemically called development, using a chemical known as
developer.

The visual effect of light on the film after development depends on the quantity or quality of
light that reached the emulsion. Too great in the amount of light will produce an opaque of a very
black shade after development. Too little light will produce a transparent or white shade after
development.

The quality of light reaching the film is dependent upon the following factors:

a. Lighting conditions

b. Lens opening

c. Shutter speed

d. Film speed

e. Photographic filter

NOTE: All objects reflect a certain amount of light. However, a light-colored object reflects more light
than a dark-colored object. A dark-colored object absorbs more light than a light-colored object.

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

Is defined as art or science that deals with the study of principles of photography, preparations of
photographic evidence and its application to police work.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Is the process of photographing or recording the crime scene or any objects for court presentation.

IMPORTANCE/USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK

• It serves as evidence.

• It preserves all evidences.

• It refreshes the mind of the investigator.

• It records the illegal activities and identities of criminals.

• It provides a second look and often reveals detail that is not apparent during the physical
examination.

• It is useful in personal identification as well as in the identification of missing person,

identification of wanted person, and identification of stolen and lost properties.

• It records all things that an investigator may fail to notice.

• It makes the accused admit his crime.

• It assists the court in understanding the case.

• It helps reconstruct the crime scene.

• It helps the expert witness in illustrating their findings.

• Photographs are used to supplement, explain, and replace the descriptive testimony of
witnesses.

• It serves as lecture materials and illustrations during police personnel training.

• It is also used to reproduce and copy documents.

• Photographs are used in crime prevention and control programs as well as in fire prevention
programs.

• Photography is a valuable tool for recording the crime scene and explaining evidence to others

In general, there are four (4) primary ways of using photography in law enforcement work, namely:

• As a means of identification.

• As a method of discovering, recording, and preserving evidence.

• As a way to present in the court room, an impression of the pertinent elements of a crime.

• As a training and public relations medium for police programs.

FUNDAMENTAL REQUISITES PHOTOGRAPH TO BE JUDICIALLY RECOGNIZED

1. Faithful representation or accurate representation of the original object or subject.

2. The photograph must be free from distortion and must not misrepresent the scene or object

Chapter 2

LIGHT

• It is a form of energy which makes it possible to see.

• The radiant energy that makes things visible.

Speed of light – 299,793 kilometers per second or 186,000 miles per second
KINDS OF RADIANT ENERGY

• Infra-red rays

• Ultra-violet rays

• X-rays

• Visible lights (or simply light) (for normal photography)

• Cosmic rays

• Gamma rays

• Radio waves

Note: Visible light is only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Visible – Electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the normal, unaided human eye and has
wavelengths between 3,900 and 7,700 angstroms (Riverside Webster’s II Dictionary, revised edition;
page 398)

Angstrom – a unit of length equal to one (1) hundred-millionth (10-8) of a centimeter.

Electromagnetic spectrum – The whole range of radiant energy that includes infrared rays, ultra-
violet rays, x-rays, radio waves, gamma rays, cosmic rays, microwaves and visible light. The term for
the entire spectrum of energy, that includes visible light.

1. VISIBLE RAYS

• These are radiations having a wavelength between 400-700 miliimicrons or nanometer. The
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affects the human sense of sight.

2. INFRARED RAYS

• These are radiations having a wavelength between 700-1,000 millimicrons or nanometer.

• It also referred to as heat rays or heat wave.

• It is called infrared because they adjoin the red spectrum of visible lights.

• Infrared rays are also artificially produced by infrared lamp.

• It can be made only in total darkness.

TWO MAINS SOURCES OF LIGHT

1. NATURAL LIGHT
• It refers to the daylight coming from the sun, which is in general utilized for outdoor
photography.

• Natural lights are lights, which come to existence without the intervention of man.

High Contrast (Contrasty) – A term used to describe a high-contrast image on a negative or printing
paper. One with strong blacks, brilliant whites, and only a few mid-tones.

Low Contrast (Flat) – A term used to describe a low-contrast image on a negative or printing paper.
One with weak, grey, grayish blacks and many mid-tones.

KELVIN – A unit of measurement used to describe the color temperature of light sources.

Classification of Daylight According to Its Intensity

1) Bright light – A lighting condition wherein objects in open space cast a deep or uniform
shadow.

• In bright light, the subject will produce strong shadow, because the source of light is not
covered by clouds.

• The object in open space under bright light appears glossy and the color is saturated.

• In black-and-white photography, the object or subject looks contrasty.

2) Hazy light – A lighting condition wherein the objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.

• In hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by the clouds and shadow appears bluish because of the
decrease of light falling on the subjects in open space.

• The shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more details are visible under this lighting
condition than in bright sunlight.

• When the sunlight is obscured by light clouds, the intensity of the direct light falling on subject
in open space is decreased. In effect, the light coming from the sky becomes stronger that the
shadows appear more bluish than in bright sunlight.

3) Dull light – A lighting condition wherein the objects in open space cast no Shadow.

• In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadows are formed, due to the
uniform illumination of lights all around the subjects in open space.
2. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

• It refers to those lights, which are man-made.

• It refers to the man-made sources of light which is used or utilized for indoor photography to
augment the adverse lighting condition.

• Artificial light includes all non-natural sources, such as continuous light from incandescent and
fluorescent light bulbs, electronic flashes, and studio strobes.

A. Short Duration

1. Flash bulb (chemical flash lamp) - Flash bulbs are good for only one flash and then thrown
away, so a photographer has to carry many of them.

2. Flash cube – powered by batteries in the camera. Can take 4 pictures. Light from flash cubes
lasts about 1/30 of a second.

3. Flash bar – powered by batteries in the camera.

4. X-Cube – it does not require batteries. It fires mechanically like a cap pistol.

5. Electronic flash – A short intense burst of light produced by an electronic flash for use in
illuminating a situation. Unlike old-fashioned flash bulbs, it could be used only once, electronic flashes
are powered by batteries and can be used indefinitely.

• Type of flash that discharges an electric current through a gas-filled tube to produce a short
burst of bright light. Batteries usually provide power, although studio flash requires plug-in power.

• It is produced by an instantaneous electric discharge between two electrodes in a gas-filled

bulb.

Types of Electronic Flash

A. STROBE LIGHT – A low-output flashlight that is capable of delivering many thousands of

flashes per second.

B. SLAVE UNIT OR SLAVE FLASH – A flash unit used to supplement light from a main flash.

• It fires every time it senses a flash going off.

C. RING LIGHT – A flash unit used for close-up photography that encircles a camera lens.

D. ACCESSORY FLASH UNIT – This unit attaches to the accessory shoe (also called a hot shoe) on
top of the camera or to a flash bracket that attaches to the camera.

• More powerful than built-in flash units.

Three (3) Types of Accessory Flash Units:

a. Manual- These flash units require you to figure out the correct exposure for your shooting
conditions. Because the duration and intensity of the flash from a manual unit does not change, you
have to adjust lens aperture to control the amount of light that reaches the film. Aperture settings are
determined by dividing the flash’s guide number (which indicates the flash’s light output) by the
distance to the subject. The resulting number is the correct aperture. Most manual flashes have
calculator dials or scales for making these calculations.

b. Automatic: These flash used automatic sensors to control light output and duration based on
the distance from the camera to the subject. When you set the aperture you want to use, the flash
will automatically calculate how much light is needed to illuminate a specific distance range, such as 3
to 15 feet., the flash unit will have an electric eye that reads the amount of light bouncing back from
the subject. When the correct amount of light has been reached, the flash is turned off. Most
automatic flashes have several different range and aperture settings and can be set manually as well.

c. Dedicated flash unit- They’re made to work with your camera’s specific electronic (hence The
name), and they’ll do all the thinking for you, automatically Setting the correct shutter speed and
aperture and controlling the expose by regulating flash duration (that is, its intensity). A Type of
flashgun designed to be used with a specific camera or range of cameras.

Once attached to the camera, the flashgun effectively becomes an extension of that camera’s
circuitry, controlling shutter speed, receiving film speed information, and using the exposure meter.

E. BUILT-IN FLASH UNIT – A flash unit built into the camera.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited operating ranges, usually between 3 to 12 feet. Meaning anything farther the flash’s
maximum range will be under exposed. Objects that are too close will be over- exposed.

2. Light is projected directly into subjects, making them look flat and harshly lit.

F. OFF –CAMERA FLASH – A flash unit not mounted on a camera.

Red-eye

• The effect caused when flash illuminates the retina.

• It is a fault caused by light reflected from a subject’s eye when exposed by flash.

Red-eye Reduction Flash Mode

• It emits a pre-exposure light burst to “stop-down” the subject eye so less light can be reflected
back from the retinas.
Flash Synchronization Speed

• It is a shutter speed you can use when working with flash unit to obtain evenly lit results.

35mm SLR camera parts and its functions

1. Shutter speed – Is the time the shutter is open. The faster the speed, the shorter the time the
shutter is open, and the shorter the time the image sensor is exposed to light. The shorter the time
the image sensor is exposed to light, the darker the resulting photograph.

2. Filmspeed ISO dial- ISO refers to the sensitivity—the signal gain—of the camera's sensor. The
ISO setting is one of three elements used to control exposure; the other two are f/stop and shutter
speed.

3. Shutter release button-- Is a push-button found on many cameras, used to record

photographs. ... In modern or digital photography, this notion is less meaningful, so the term "shutter
button" is more used.

4. Film advance lever --- Is a mechanism for moving film from one spool to another incrementally
one frame at a time. Advance may be a manual process, and may be called winding, advance, wind-on
and various other terms, and may use, for exahfnakdnfadf r/ihadastroke, lever, slider or thumbwheel.

5. Frame counter -- An indicator, in roll film cameras, that shows the number of frames that have
moved through the camera (number of exposures taken).

6. Neck strap eyelet-- A small hole used as an attachment point for a strap or string. A camera
accessory which allows the camera to be carried securely.

7. Hand grip--- The right part of camera body where your right hand can grip.

8. Lens release button -- Press this button to unlock the lens mount and detach the lens by
rotating it. You don't need to press it when mounting a lens. Drive mode button — This lets you
control the camera's drive mode, allowing you to take a single shot, shoot continuously, or use a
countdown timer.

9. Hot shoe contact--- Is a mounting point on the top of a camera to attach a flash unit and other
compatible accessories. It takes the form of an angled metal bracket surrounding a metal contact
point which completes an electrical connection between camera and accessory for standard, brand-
independent flash synchronization.

10. Film rewind crank-- Is flipped out of the knob. Using the lever, the knob is spun, usually
clockwise, and the film is rewound. It is often necessary to press a film rewind release button to
unlock the winding sprockets and allow rewinding. The second purpose of a film rewind knob is to
ensure proper loading.

11. Film rewind knob—A knob rewinds the film back into the film cassette. Term. Camera Body.
Definition. - The casing of the camera which holds the encloses the camera pats.

12. Film speed window -- Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light,
determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO
system. ... A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relationship between exposure and
output image lightness in digital cameras.

13. Aperture ring --- A camera parts that lets you adjust the size of the aperture. ... The Aperture
Ring is usually the first ring on the body of your lens and it is convenient to have one as you can relate
the settings with the other rings on your lens easily.
14. Distance scale --- Markings indicating the distance from the lens where objects will appear in
focus. This is commonly done with a window, indicating distance from infinity down to a foot or less.
Close distances are sometimes labeled macro.

15. Focusing ring --- This is a ring on the lens body, which moves the lens elements inside the
lens. By adjusting the position of the glass elements, the image produced by the lens can be brought
into clear focus.

16. Depth-of- field preview lever--- It helps you determine what photos will look like before the
image has been taken. When the button is pressed, the lens will stop down to the aperture that you
have set. Then, you will be able to see a preview of what the final image will look like through the
viewfinder.

17. Multiple exposure lever --- Making two or more exposures on the same frame is an exciting
technique. After making the first exposure, do not turn the film advance lever but return it to its
retracted position close to the camera body. Switch the multiple exposure lever underneath the film
advance lever to the left.

18. Exposure measurement button -- This button allows to select the type of exposure metering
together with the main command dial at the back: matrix: The camera evaluates brightness at many
different points to get a balanced exposure, suitable for as many parts of the picture as possible.

19. Viewfinder eyepiece-- An easy-to-use viewing and focusing aid which allows near and
farsighted photographers to view the finder image accurately without wearing eyeglasses. ... Optional
Nikon eyepiece diopters allow you to optimize your SLR viewfinder's sharpness in conjunction with
your individual eyesight.

20. Rewind fork-- The prong inside the camera back that pokes inside the film cassette to rewind
the film

21. Film cartridge chamber--- A cartridge chamber at the rear part of camera into which a film
cartridge is to be loaded.

22. Battery chamber lid --- Is a battery chamber cover.

23. Tripod socket – It is used to screw the tripod socket

24. Film guide rails -- Each of the flat metal rails on both sides of the focal plane shutter; the taut
film travels along them.

25. Film sprockets --- The functional in photography is to hook onto your camera's winder when
you load the film – The little teeth of a film camera hook into these holes and transport the film to the
next frame.

26. Camera back --- A part of SLR which covers the back part of 35mm SLR camera body.

27. Film pressure plate-- The pressure plate holds the film in place in between the inner rails and
presses it down so that it is relatively flat.

28. Film rewind button -- A rewind release button disengages the gears on the take-up spool and
the winding sprockets. Once depressed, the film can be rewound into the cassette using the film
rewind knob. A second purpose for the rewind release button is if a photographer wishes to rewind
their film before completing the roll.

29. Film take-up spool--- It pulls the film along so unexposed film can be placed behind the
shutter.
30. Film cartridge confirmation window – A part of 35mm SLR camera usually located at the rear
part where you can see if the camera is loaded with film.

CHAPTER 4 CAMERA LENS

CAMERA LENS

• It is the medium or system which converges or diverge rays of light passing through it to form
an image/s.

• A piece of transparent glass or plastic designed to focus light rays into an image.

• The primary function of lens is to focus the light rays coming from the subject.

• It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of a picture.

Focal Point

• It refers to the point of convergence.

• It is the point where the light rays converge when the lens is focused at infinity.

• A point of light on the optical axis where all rays of light emanating from a given subject
converge and come into sharp focus.

Focal Length

• It is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film when the lens is set
to be focused at infinity position.

• The distance between the center of the lens and the point at which light rays passes through it
in focus.

• It is the optical distance at infinity, to the focal point.

• Focal length is the determining factor of how wide the area of coverage of a lens as well as the
size of the image that is produce.

• The focal length of a lens determines the size or magnification of the image on the film, that
is, the area of the subject included in the photograph.

Focal Plane

• A plane at which light from the lens is brought into focus.

Infinity

• Any distance beyond the point where a lens no longer needs to be focused to produce a sharp
image.

CLASSIFICATION OF CAMERA LENSES ACCORDING TO ITS SHAPE

1. Positive Lens is a convex lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker on the middle
than the edge and formed a real image on the opposite side of the lens.

• A lens that converge light, that is why it is also called as a converging lens.

• It requires proper focusing.

• It forms inverted image.

• It is used in camera lens.

2. Negative Lens is a concave lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is thinner on the
middle than the edge and formed a virtual image on the same side of the lens.

• It done not require focusing at all.

• It forms virtual image.

• It is used in viewfinder.

• Negative lens is also known as diverging lens.

Focal Length

• It is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film when lens is set to
focus at infinity position.

• It refers to the magnification power of the lens and is measured in millimeters.

CLASSIFICATION OF CAMERA LENSES ACCORDING TO ITS FOCAL LENGHT

1. Standard or Normal Lens

• A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal of its negative material.

• The normal lens produces “normal”-looking images.

• A 35mm camera produces 24 x 36mm images on the film.

• The diagonal measurement of the 24 x 36mm frame is 43mm.

• 50mm is the closest focal length to the figure.

• 50mm is considered normal lens.

• Called normal or standard vision.

• It has an angle of view of 46 degrees similar to the angle of view of human eye.

• It neither distorts perspective nor magnifies or diminishes or reduces the size of the subject.

Perspective – It refers to the apparent relationships among elements of a photograph.

Angle of view – A measurement of how much a lens sees and indirectly related to focal length. It is
measured by degrees.
2. Wide Angle Lens

• A lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.

• It covers a wider field than normal lens.

• It is used to take photographs or pictures of limited space or narrow.

• It is useful in a photographing a crime scene with a very narrow space.

• 24mm, 28mm, and 35mm are considered wide-angle lens.

• Useful for broad panoramic scenes or landscapes or when space is tight or you cannot move
far back from your subject.

• Also known as short focal length or short focus lens.

3. Telephoto Lens

• A lens with focal length of approximately equal or more but not more than twice the diagonal
of its negative material.

• A lens with longer focal length with small area of coverage.

• In this lens, the subject will appear closer to the lens and the resulting image/s of the subject
or object in the negative will be large.

• It is used to capture distant subject or object.

• It is useful in stake out surveillance photography where the photographer or police

photographer cannot get close to the subject.

• 80mm to 1200mm are considered telephoto lens or long focal length or long-focus lens.

• 24mm, 28mm, and 35mm are considered wide-angle lens.

• Useful for broad panoramic scenes or landscapes or when space is tight or you cannot move
far back from your subject.

• Also known as short focal length or short focus lens.

4. Super Wide or Ultra Wide Angle Lens

• A lens with a shorter focal length but has larger area of coverage or angle of view than a wide
angle lens.

• It is not advisable in photographing a crime scene of limited space because it will distort the
objects of the scene itself.

• 21mm down are considered super wide angle lens.

5. Zoom Lens

• A lens with variable focal length.

• This gives you an option to capture near and far objects or subject without changing the lens
of your camera and aperture.
• Example of zoom lens: 28-80mm, 28-105mm, 70-210mm and 28-200mm

• Allows you to fine-tune subject framing by adjusting the focal lens.

6. Macro Lens

• A camera lens that is capable of taking photograph of extreme close-up shots without the
need of close-up attachments.

• The available focal length is ranging from 50mm to 200mm

• Because of the high magnification involved, it is best to use macro lenses on tripod, or with
electronic flash.

• In the absence of macro lens, use REVERSED FIXED MOUNTED LENS METHOD.

Reversed Fixed Mounted Lens Method – A method used to take extreme close-up shots of minute
objects, by detaching the normal lens in the camera, then attaching the lens in inverted position and
moving the camera itself nearer of farther from the subject for focusing.

LENS ABERRATIONS

LENS ABERRATION– The failure of the reflected or refracted light to give a point image of a point
source, due either to the geometry of spherical surfaces of mirror or lenses.

• It produces blurring or distortion image due to the abnormal shape of lens.

• Meaning, lens defect or error.

Kinds of Lens Aberrations:

1. Chromatic Aberration

• It is an inability of the lens to focus all colors in the same plane.

• A lens defect, which has trouble bringing all the different wavelengths of visible light into
focus at the same point on the film.

• This is the most difficult lens aberrations to correct.

Achromatic or Apochromatic Lens – A lens corrected for chromatic aberration. It brings all
wavelengths of light into focus at the same place or at a single point – the film plane. They do this by
means of multiple elements made of different dispersion materials.

2. Spherical Aberration – A lens defect, wherein the photographic rays passing through the edges
refracts more sharply than those passing through the central part of the lens, thus, they come to focus
at the edges than those of the central rays.
Aspherical Lens – A lens corrected for spherical aberration. A spherical lens elements have non-
spherical shapes designed to bring all the light rays to focus at the film plane for sharper images.

3. Astigmatism – The inability of the lens to focus in both horizontal and vertical plane at the
same time. The inability of the lens to focus in both lines running in different direction likes for
example, a cross.

Anastigmatic Lens – A lens corrected for astigmatism.

4. Distortion - outer parts of the image produced by the lens will be magnified either less or
more than the outer image.

Distortion comes into two (2) basic forms:

a. Pincushion Distortion – In pincushion distortion, there are straight lines near the edges of the
frame bow toward the center of the frame. The curving is inward.

b. Barrel Distortion – In barrel distortion, straight lines near the edges of the frame bow outward
from the center. The curving is outward.

5. Coma – This is known as lateral aberration. It is concerned with rays entering the lens
obliquely. A lens defect that produces a blurred comet-like image.

6. Curvature of Field – The image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus on curved surface
than on a flat surface. The image of a flat subject does not appear flat because of the sharpness of the
center and the edge is out of focus. Therefore, direct focusing of the center will make edges blurred.

7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification – The inability of the lens to produce images sizes of
object with different colors.

Types of Lenses According to their Degree of Correction

a) Achromatic or Apochromatic – A lens corrected for chromatic aberration. A corrected lens that
does not produce colored fringes in the image.

b) Aspherical lens – Lens corrected for spherical aberration.

c) Astigmatism lens –A lens corrected for astigmatism.

d) Process lens – A lens corrected for astigmatism but with higher correction to color. A super
corrected lens for astigmatism.

e) Rapid Rectilinear lens - A lens corrected for distortion. It is a combination of two achromatic
lens with almost the same focal length.
Exposure

• It is defined as the product of time and intensity of illumination acting upon the photographic
material. (Intensity x Time = EXPOSURE)

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:

Correct Exposure or Normal Exposure

• It refers to the right amount of light in order to produce good quality image on the film.

• Generally, a proper exposure is one that results in a picture that looks like the scene you
photographed with details in both dark and light areas. Films produce the best photographs when
exposed properly.

Overexposure – It refers to allowing the film to receive too much light, giving rise to a pale print.

Underexposure – It refers to allowing the film to receive too little light, giving rise to a dark print.

Three (3) Factors that Affect Exposures

1. Lens Aperture is defined as that, which controls the amount or intensity of light passing
through a camera lens before reaching the film.

Aperture – The hole through which the light enters a camera. A diaphragm controls the size of the
aperture.

Diaphragm – A device that controls the amount of light that passes through a camera’s aperture to
strike the film. It works by controlling the size of the aperture opening.

Diaphragm is calibrated in f-stops or f-numbers.

• The light gathering power of lens is expressed by f-numbers.

• By increasing and decreasing numerically the f-numbers, you can control the following:

i. The amount of light

ii. The depth of field

iii. The degree of sharpness due to lens defects.

F-number is a series of numbers used to describe the size of lens opening or aperture.

“The higher or bigger the f-number, the smaller the lens opening, meaning, less light enters through
the camera lens”.
“The smaller the f-number, the bigger the lens opening, meaning, more light enters through the
camera lens”.

“The larger the opening, the greater the amount of light that reaches the film”.

2. Shutter Speed

• It refers to the time the shutter will open and close at a given time.

• The shutter speed dial is calibrated in speed of fractions of a second, or multiple of seconds.
The smaller number represents longer exposure time and the bigger numbers represent shorter
exposure time.

Shutter speed numbers:

B,1,2,4,5,15,30,60,125,500,1000,2000,3000,4000

Letter “B” stands for bulb setting

The number 1 stands for a whole second and the others are fraction of a second.

Bulb Setting

• The shutter speed setting at which the shutter release is triggered and closes when the shutter
release button is depressed.

• The shutter speed of 1/125 and above is capable of stopping the movement of the subject.

• The shutter speed of 1/60,1/125 and above is recommended speed to be used when
handholding a camera with a 50mm focal length but if the lens used is 300mm, you should use a
shutter speed higher than 300mm which is either 500 of a second or higher.

3. Film Speed

• The factor that determines the exposure necessary to produce a satisfactory image.

• The following aperture and shutter speed combinations, allow the same amount of light, and
thus will produce the same exposure.

1/1000 at f-4 f-16 at 1/30

1/500 at f-5.6 f-11 at 1/60

1/250 at f-8 f-8 at 1/125

1/125 at f-11 f-5.6 at 1/250

1/60 at f-16 f-4 at 1/500 1/30 at f-22

CAMERA EXPOSURE MODES

1. Aperture Priority – A type of semi-automatic exposure system whereby the photographer sets
the aperture and the camera selects the corresponding shutter speed to ensure correct exposure. Use
this mode of exposure if you need to have control over the depth of field.

Shutter priority – A type of semi-automatic exposure system, whereby the photographer sets the
shutter and the camera selects the corresponding lens aperture to ensure correct exposure of the
scene. Use this mode if you need to have control over the subject’s action or to freeze the subject’s
action.

2. Program Mode – An automatic exposure mode whereby the camera controls both the shutter
speed and aperture.

3. Manual Mode – An exposure set manually by the photographer. An exposure mode whereby
the photographer completely controls both the shutter speed and the aperture. In this exposure
mode, the built-in light metering system can be used to assist the photographer’s judgment over both
shutter speed and aperture.

DETERMINING THE CORRECT EXPOSURE

1. By using an exposure meter

EXPOSURE METER – A handheld or built-in devise that reads the intensity of light falling on or
reflected by a subject and, taking the film speed into account, recommends a shutter speed and
aperture to achieve correct exposure. Also known as light meter.

Two (2) Types of Exposure Meter

a. Built-in light or exposure meter

b. Hand-held light or exposure meter

Two (2) types of hand-held exposure meter:

a. Incident light meter – An exposure meter that reads the light falling on an object.

b. Reflected light meter – An exposure meter that reads the light reflected by the subject.

2. By taking into consideration the exposure factors like:

a. Emulsion speed

b. Lighting condition

c. Kind of subject

Example: When using a film with an ISO rating of 100 for normal subject, set the shutter speed at
1/125 of a second, and adjusts the lens aperture in accordance with the following lighting conditions:

a. Bright sunlight f-16

b. Hazy light f-8 or f-11

c. Dull light f-5.6 or f-4

3. Estimating light using sunny f-16 rule

• The exposure required for a bright sunny day is the reciprocal to the film speed at f-16. So,
with a 100 ISO film, it would be 1/125 at f-16 (1-125 second is the nearest shutter speed to 1/100).

4. By using the Bracketing Method

Bracketing Method is a method of taking a series of photographs of the same scene with each frame
at a different exposure setting.

• It is useful when you want to select slightly darker or lighter prints than the exposure system
would normally produce, or when it is different to judge the best exposure.

• In any case where you are not sure about your exposure or when it is difficult to judge the
best exposure, use “Bracketing Method”

• Also known as “Trial and Error Technique”

• To bracket exposures, you can vary either the lens aperture or the shutter speed, depending
on the effect you want and the type of subject.

• If Depth of Field is important, work out the aperture required and then alter the shutter speed
only in order to change the exposure each time.

1/30 at f-5.6 1/30 at f-11 1/30 at f-22 1/125 at f-5.6

Exposure errors affect the following:

• Detail

• Tone reproduction

• Contrast
DEPTH OF FIELD

• It is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus
when the lens is set or focused at particular distance.

Depth of Focus

• It refers to the distance that a camera back can racked back and forth while preserving
satisfactory image detail in focal plane for a given object point

THREE (3) FACTORS USED IN CONTROLLING THE DEPTH OF FIELD

1. Lens Aperture – The smaller the aperture, the greater the depth of field.

2. Distance to Subject (Focal Distance) – The farther the camera-to-subject distance, the greater
the depth of field.

3. Focal Length – The shorter the focal length of the lens, the greater the depth of field.

Hyperfocal Distance

• It is the nearest distance at which a lens is focus with a given particular diaphragm opening
which will give the maximum depth of field. It is a point of focus at which you can use and obtain
maximum depth of field at a particular given aperture.

CHAPTER 7: SURFACE SENSITIVE TO LIGHT

SENSITIZED MATERIALS

• It refers to film and photographic paper, which are composed of an emulsion containing light-
sensitive dyes (in color films and paper) silver halides crystals (in a black-and-white film and paper)
suspended in a gelatin and coated in a transparent or reflective support.

FILM AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

FILM

• A sheet of celluloid coated with an emulsion of silver halides suspended in gelatin which
imprints an invisible image when exposed to light.

Parts of Film

1. Emulsion
 A light-sensitive layer on film and photographic paper consisting of silver halide grains (in a black-
and- white film and paper) and light sensitive dyes (in color film and paper) suspended in gelatin.

Anti-halation backing – A coating usually gelatin at the back of a film, containing a dye or
pigment for the purpose of absorbing light rays thus preventing the light from reflecting back from the
film base through emulsion.

A. ACCORDING TO FILM SPEED Film Speed

• A Scale used to indicate the sensitivity of film to light. All films have different speed sensitivity
to light, they are recognized as follows:

1) Slow Film (ISO 25-100)

• Less sensitive to light but deliver sharper, more finely grained images, more saturated colors
and more contrast.

• Used for outside photography

• Used for shooting non-moving objects and brightly lit outdoor shots

• Used for sunny day/bright light condition

• Best for enlargement

• It cannot freeze action

• Tripod is needed

• The ideal film for taking pictures in daylight conditions on bright sunny days, perfect for
portraits, landscapes, and enlargement.

2) Medium-Speed Film (ISO 200-400) – These are used for moderate action.

• Ideal for general purpose in a wide range of lighting conditions.

• Can be used both in outdoor and indoor photography.

• Can be used day and night.

3) Fast Film (800-3200) – A film that is very sensitive to light.

• It produces coarser, more visible grain structure than a slow film.

• The saturation of the colors on a fast color film will be lower than a slow color film.

• Used in lower light levels.

• Used for faster action.

Note: In night surveillance photography, the film speed recommended is from 800 to 1600 ISO. In
general, slow films are less sensitive to light but deliver sharper, more finely grained images. Fast films
are more sensitive to light, but the images will have more grain.

Grain – The particles of silver compounds that form an image on photographic film and paper.

Graininess

• The term used to describe the visual appearance of the clumps of light-sensitive material
making up the film emulsion sometimes seen on prints.

• This normally occurs only on very large prints (or projected transparencies). Fast higher- ISO
film shows grain more readily than does slow lower ISO film.

• The grainy appearance of photographic enlargement is more prominent on higher speed film.

Note:

The higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the film is and the less exposure it requires.

DIFFERENT FILM SPEED RATING SYSTEM:

1) ISO – An abbreviation for International Standards Organization. An internationally agreed

system of rating the speed or sensitivity of film to light, replacing the ASA system. This is a
combination of ASA and DIN rating system. A combination of logarithm and arithmetical value.

2) DIN – The abbreviation for Deutsche Industrie Norm, the European Film Rating System
superseded the ISO System. This is expressed in logarithmic value system or logarithm numbers.

3) ASA – The abbreviation for American Standard Association. This is expressed arithmetical
value system.

TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO THE IMAGE IT PRODUCED

1) Color negative film – A color film that produces a negative image for prints. Also called color
print film.

2) Color reversal film – A color film that produces direct-positive transparencies or slides. Also
called color positive film

B. TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY

1) Panchromatic Film – A type of film that is sensitive to all colors wavelength of the visible
spectrum.

Note: B&W Panchromatic Films are sensitive to every color in the spectrum. They are more sensitive
to certain colors, because of this, filters are use to lighten or darken object of a particular color.

2) Orthochromatic Film – A Film that is sensitive to all colors of the visible spectrum, with
exception of red.

3) Blue Sensitive Film – A Film that is sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue color only. Suitable for
ultraviolet photography.

4) Infrared Film – This is a special type of film that is sensitized with colored dyes to make it
record only invisible infrared or heat waves.

• It is also sensitive to blue light so special filters have to be put over the lens.

• Film that has the longest or widest range of spectral sensitivity in the electromagnetic
spectrum.

5) X-Ray Film – A type of film, which is sensitive to x-ray radiation of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

Three (3) Types of Emulsion Used on Photographic Paper:

1) Silver Chloride Papers – It is used primarily for contact printing.

Contact Printing – A method of making prints wherein the size of the positive print is the same as the
size of the negative used.

2) Silver Bromide Papers – It is used for projection printing or enlarging printing, wherein the
image of the negatives is projected or enlarged.

Projection Printing – A print made in an enlarger or a method of making prints by projecting the image
of the negative on a suitable easel for holding the sensitive paper.

3) Silver Chlorobromide Papers – These are coated with an emulsion that combines silver
chloride and silver bromide.
Its sensitivity to light is either slow or fast.

a. Slow-Speed Chlorobromide Paper is used for contact printing.

b. Fast-Speed Chlorobromide Paper is used for projection printing.

c. Medium-Speed Chlorobromide Paper is suitable for contact printing or enlarging.

Note: These emulsions are much slower than those used on film.

ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

A. Weight or Thickness

a. Single-Weight (SW) Paper is used for all ordinary photographic purposes.

b. Lightweight (LW) or Medium Weight is intended for purposes that frequently involve folding.

c. Double-Weight (DW) is thicker than the average heavy post card.

Base or Base Type

1. Resin Coated (RC) Paper

• Printing paper with a plastic coating under the emulsion.

• RC papers are coated on both sides with a very thin layer of clear plastic.

• RC papers have an acetate coating, applied to the back of the base to prevent the absorption
of processing solutions, which causes the expansion and contraction (shrinkage) of the paper.

• Expose more quickly than fiber-based papers.

• Take less time to process, wash and dry.

• In addition, they do not curl as much as fiber-based papers during drying.

• It is not a good conductor of heat.

• Water resistant.

2. Fiber-Based Paper – are used for exhibition purposes and fine art collections because the fiber
surface is more appealing that the RC surface.

3. Surface/Texture

Surfaces of photographic paper have different textures and produce photographs for so many
different purposes.
F – Glossy Paper (smooth)

• Glossy surfaces give maximum detail and brilliance.

• Smooth papers are recommended for small prints that require good definition.

• The smooth photographic paper is necessary for law enforcement photography, so that the
details of the image will appear and appreciated by the viewers.