Ceramic Seriation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland, Nigeria

Author(s): Aribidesi A. Usman

Source: The African Archaeological Review, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Sep., 2003), pp. 149-169
Published by: Springer
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African Archaeological Review, Vol. 20, No. 3, September 2003 (? 2003)

Ceramic Sedation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo

Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland, Nigeria
Aribidesi A. Usman1

This study is an attempt to provide a chronological seriation of pottery from Ig

bomina in northcentral Yorubaland. The ceramic sequence is developed using
multivariate statistical analysis. From the K-means cluster analysis, ceramic col
lections that are contemporaneous were next the col
roughly grouped together;
lections were seriated with multidimensional scaling to reveal whether theyform
a pattern that may be chronologically significant. Evaluation of the results of the
pottery analysis from the Igbomina sites was based on the chronological division
of Old Oyo pottery as well as on radiocarbon dating of associated material from
excavated sites in the region. Pottery types from Old Oyo became known in Igbom
ina probably as early as the thirteenth century AD, and continued to occur in some
areas until the late eighteenth century. The presence of Oyo pottery in Igbomina
has important implications for the understanding of Oyo's relations with the north
ern Yoruba group and thefrontier position of Igbomina during the Old Oyo Empire.

Cette ?tude cherche ? fournir une s?riation chronologique de la c?ramique

provenant de Igbomina situ? dans la partie centrale du nord de Yorubaland. La
de a ?t? ?labor?e en utilisant une
analyse statistique multi
s?quene c?ramique
dimensionnelle. Les collections de plus ou moins contemporaines ont
c?ramique
?t? group?es en se servant de la moyenne du facteur K de la classification as
cendante elles ont ensuite ?t? ordonn?es au moyen d'une
hi?rarchique, analyse
des proximit?s pour voir si elles formaient un sch?ma chronologique significatif.
L'?valuation des r?sultats de l'analyse c?ramique des sites Iglomina est fond?e
sur les divisions chronologiques de la c?ramique Oyo ancienne ainsi que sur des
dates radiocarbones obtenues sur du mat?riel en association provenant de sites

fouill?s dans la r?gion. Les types de c?ramique de l'Oyo ancien sont probable
ment arriv?s ? Igbomina d?s le I3?me si?cle et ont continu? ? appara?tre dans
certains endroits jusqu'? lafin du I8?me si?cle. La pr?sence de la c?ramique Oyo
? Igbomina comporte des pour nos connaissances sur
implications importantes

department of African American Studies, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona.

149
0263-0338/03/0900-0149/0 ? 2003 PlenumPublishingCorporation

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 150 Usman

les relations des Oyo avec les groupes Yoruba du nord et sur la position de la
fronti?re de Igbomina pendant l'empire Oyo ancien.
KEY WORDS: Yorubaland; Igbomina; Old Oyo; Pottery; Seriation; Chronology.

INTRODUCTION

The Igbominaland is today divided into Irepodun, Ifelodun, and Isin local
government areas of Kwara State, Nigeria. This is the area known in the precolonial
period as northcentral Yorubaland. It stretches from the southern part of llor?n
in the northwest to parts of Ekiti in the southeast. Before the British colonial
administration altered the north-south border in 1918, the area extended as far
as the southeast banks of the Niger River up to Jebba, and to Ilia in Osun State.
Geographically, the area is in the savanna belt of Nigeria and is characterized by
flat plains, tall grasses, scattered trees, and chains of hills (Fig. 1). The topography
in the northeast Igbomina ismore rugged and hilly than the western Igbomina. The
hills, known as the Ire Range, divide the northeastern from the western Igbomina.
The Igbominaland is inhabited by a group of people who speak a related
Yoruba language called Igboona. The area is divided into about nine sociopolitical

Fig. 1. Postcolonial Yoruba States, Nigeria, showing the area of Igbomina.

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Ceramic Sedation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 151

units or village-groups, such as Esa, Here, Esisa, Isin, Erese, Eku-mesan

Iyangba,
Oro, Esie, and Ipo (Dada, 1985; Usman, 2001). The Igbomina people claimed
to have arrived in the area at different times in history and from various places.
Oral traditional accounts trace descent either from Ife, Old Oyo, or elsewhere in
Yorubaland. Such extant traditions place the occupation of the area roughly to
a time before the final fall of Old Oyo kingdom and the Yoruba civil wars that
followed in the early and mid-ninenteenth century. The Igbomina, and certainly
most of northern Yorubaland, is also regarded as the dispersal point formost groups
of people now living to the south of Nigeria (Obayemi, 1976; Oyelaran, 1998;
Usman, 2001). The pre- and wars in the area have created
ninenteenth-century

large-scale population displacement (Ajayi and Akintoye, 1980; Usman, 2001).

Hence, the cultural antecedents of the Yoruba and other groups to the south are
likely to be located in the region.
was an arena of intense sociocultural and economic
Igbomina exchanges
over the centuries. According toAfolayan (1991), the location of Igbomina in the
northern marches of the Yorubaland and on the frontiers of Old Oyo and Nupe
kingdoms made it over the years an area of plural cultural interaction and a focus
of power politics and diplomacy. Oyo's geographical location next to Nupe and
Borgu appears to have exposed it to a great deal of political pressure. It seems
more likely that the formation of alliances by Old Oyo with Igbomina-Yoruba in
the area of the Nupe were stimulated by the need to unite to face the external
pressures. The area has also been described as part of the northern territory of Old
Oyo (Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977). By the sixteenth century, Old Oyo had incorpo
rated a number of the settlements and established in the area a defensive outpost
against Nupe raids (Dada, 1985; Elphinstone, 1921 ;Law, 1977). Although the Old
Oyo factor did not appear to be unlimited, the area was greatly influenced by the
geographical, cultural, and linguistic affinities it shared with the empire (Usman,
2000).
The Nupe's raiding of the Igbomina beginning as early as the sixteenth century
is well remembered in the tradition of the Igbomina people. Nupe militarism was
intensified in themid-eighteenth century when the constitutional crisis inOld Oyo
began to preoccupy the aristocracy and reduced Old Oyo's control in the northern
territory (Law, 1977 Usman,
; 2001 ).The intrusion by theNupe has indeed proved to
be central to the history of the Igbomina. For example, individuals claiming Bariba,
Tapa (Nupe), or other ancestries who have settled in Yoruba-speaking areas and
whose identity (oriki) and avoidances (??wo) have been defined as "Yoruba" are
constantly mentioned in the oral traditions. In fact, the intense interaction with the
Nupe made some Igbomina settlements like Rore, Ora, Oke-Ode more similar to
the Nupe.
Facing this study, and in any archaeological study of sociocultural process,
is the issue of chronological control. Contemporaneity between two or more sites
cannot always be assumed, and temporal differences have to be demonstrated
to avoid misrepresenting prehistoric social relationships and interactions. In an

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152 Usman

area like Igbomina still in need of chronology, an effort must be made to re

duce the span of temporal and cultural periods represented in archaeological
assemblages. Although artifact types have been used successfully in quantita
tive analysis (Cowgill, 1972; Stark, 1985), it has been argued that attribute fre
quencies provide better data for seriation (LeBlanc, 1975; Washburn and Maison,
1985).
My main concern in this study is to establish a chronological seriation of
pottery from Igbomina, tied to an absolute timescale derived from radiometric dates
obtained from excavated charcoal samples. The Igbomina ceramic sequence is
developed with multivariate statistical technique such as K-means cluster analysis
and multidimensional scaling. The goals of this analysis are to define: (1) traits
that are differentially prevalent during the different chronological periods, (2)
sites chronology, and (3) the implication of the result of ceramic seriation on
regional settlement interaction. The data presented in this paper were obtained
from excavation and surface collection of sites from Ipo in the western Igbomina,
and Here in the northeastern Igbomina (Fig. 2).

Lafiagi (NUPE)
V-GpShi

-Tarred road
_Untarred road
Towns/Villages
sites
Investigated
1.GIP-1(Gbagede)
2. GIP-22(lyara)
3. GIP-5b/5a(Okegi)
4. GIP-7(Ago)
5. GIP3 (Obaloyan II)
6.GIP-6 (Egudupo)
7.GIP-8(Apere)
8. GIP-4(Pee)
9.GIP-21(Apateki)
10.GLR-14(Cave)
N
11.GRL-13(Ofaroll)
12.GLR-12(Ofarol)
HPO 13.GLR-15(Oke-Oyan)
14.GLR-16(Mission) A

,0Owu

Qlsanlu-lsin
^Oke-Onigbin
^3. To Kabba
and Lokojaj

Omu-Arant?k

Fig. 2. Map of igbomina showing the investigated sites in Ipo and Here.

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Ceramic Seriation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 153

YORUBA POTTERY TYPOLOGY

Some archaeologists who have worked on materials from major Yoruba sites
have attempted to create Yoruba pottery typologies. Popular among these works
is the one carried out by Willet (1960) at Old Oyo, which established two types
of "Yoruba ware"?"Diogun" and "Mejiro." Robert Soper's excavations at Old

Oyo from 1973 to 1979 further divided "diogun" and "mejiro" wares into early
and late ceramic types based on decoration (Okpoko, 1987; Soper, 1975). Accord
ing to these studies, the diogun pottery type is considered to be earlier (dating
to AD 1100 ? 110), and is characterized by brush or broom-marking incisions,
rocked-comb impressions, impressed arcs (scallops), knotted roulette, and frond
roulette. The mejiro pottery type (dating to AD 1300 ? 80) is a late ceramic,
characterized by carved roulette, snail shell markings, and maize cob roulette,
the 'appearance' of maize cob roulette at such early period has recently been
questioned (Soper, 1983). Straight thin incisions, twisted string roulettes, and
comb stamping are common to both diogun and mejiro wares (Agbaje-Williams,
1983).
Equally important is the work by Agbaje-Williams ( 1983) at Old Oyo where it
was suggested that pottery decoration types like brush-marked incision, snail shell
impressions, and twisted string roulette were not restricted stratigraphically. The
diogun and mejiro pottery were previously considered different, as represented
by a break in the archaeological record at Old Oyo (Soper, 1975; Willet, 1960).
However, the latest excavations by Agbaje-Williams (1983) indicate the contrary
(i.e., continuity of occupation).
The chronological attribute of Old Oyo pottery types was very useful in
seriating Igbomina ceramics. First, sociopolitical relationships between Old Oyo
and Igbomina are widely emphasized in ethnohistorical data (Elphinstone, 1921;
Law, 1977; Obayemi, 1976). Second, oral traditions of most of the Igbomina
communities claim migrations from the direction of Oyo and Ife, if not from Oyo
and Ife themselves. Based on the chronological division of pottery from Old Oyo,
a number of Igbomina pottery decorative variables are considered to be time
sensitive (Fig. 3). These are: (1) snail shell markings and brush-marked incisions
which are early decorative types, but are also said to be present in all the cultural
levels at Old Oyo; (2) scallops (impressed arc), rocked comb, and carved wood
roulette are also early decorative types which are likely to be more restricted
chronologically; and (3) maize cob roulette decoration is a late decorative type,
and therefore expected to be more restricted chronologically (Usman, 2001).

DATA SET

total of 15 sites were investigated in Igbomina between 1994 and 1995

A
(Fig. 2). Both survey and test excavations were conducted at the sites. In places

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154 Usman

a. carved wood roulette b. groove

IIHMNH
c. snail-shell d. maize cob roulette
markings

e. string roulette/incision (ComplO) f. wavy/zigzag incision (Comp33)

Fig. 3. Some pottery decorative types from Igbomina.

such as Here where survey could not be undertaken due to limited money and
time, the selection of excavation areas was very subjective, based mainly on visual
assessment from walkover of the sites. Two of the 15 sites investigated (GIP-1
and GIP-22) are surrounded by walls or ramparts, which probably marked the
limit of the sites (Usman, 2000, 2001). For other sites without an enclosing wall,
surface relics (complemented by nonsystematic ground scraping to a depth of
about 10 cm or more where no surface remains were visible) and baobab trees
served as limits of site. Surface artifacts were collected within 10 x 10 m units
that covered approximately 10% of each site, with collection units having high

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Ceramic Seriation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 155

densities of artifacts or good ground visibility. Test excavations of 1 x 2 m units

were placed on parts of each site containing mounds and middens. In each site,
at least two grid squares were tested and units containing abundant artifacts were
extended beyond the original 1 x 2 m unit.
Ceramics constitute the most common material recovered, and these came

from different excavated levels at each of the sites and have radiocarbon dates from
associated charcoal samples (Table I). Hence the dates may be used as chronolog
ical controls in the interpretation of the results from the analysis of the excavated
data. The density of pottery and decorative types appear to vary from site to site
(Table II). Quantitative data were recorded on two dimensions of design variation
on potsherds: (1) decorative techniques and motifs (e.g., twisted string roulette,
wavy incision); and (2) placement of decoration (the location of decoration, espe
cially those in the interior of sherd, such as interior painted red or white [NPTED]
and interior or lip decorated rims [RIDINT]).

Table I. Excavated Igbomina Sites-Dated Units/Levels

Sites Exc. Levels Exc. Units Conv. RCA (bp) Calib. Age (AD) Laboratory

Gbagede lb 20-30 cm S80W20 320 ? 60 Beta-88414

1450-1670
1780-1795
1945-1950

Obaloyanll 160-170 cm N40W50 290 ? 60 Beta-88415

1460-1680
1755-1805
1940-1950

Olupefon 45-60 cm N40W30 510 ?80 Beta-88413

1300-1515
1585-1625

Okegi 70-80 cm N10W10 40 ? 60 Beta-88416

1680-1745
1805-1935

Apere 20-30 cm N10E10 40 ? 60 Beta-88417

1680-1745
1805-1935

Apateki 20-30 cm N10 350 ? 60 1435-1665 Beta-88411

Ofarol 60-70 cm N10E10 220 ? 70 Beta-88412

1505-1595
1620-1950

1645-1685?
174O-18100
1930-1950?

Note. All dates are calibrated to the 2 sigma (98%) probability except as noted.
a
1 sigma, 68% probability.

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 Sites

Groove
2.80
7.14
2.14
4.0
8.66
4.80
19.3
20.7
58.6
26.5
4.64
10.6
12.5
11.6
Attributes
GIP-la
GIP-lb
GIP-3
GIP-5a
GIP-5b
GIP-8b
GIP-8a
GIP-7
GIP-21a
GIP-21b
GLR-12
GLR-13
GLR-14
GLR-15
II.
Table
Percentages
Major
Decorative
Pottery
From
Types
Investigated
the
of
Sites
in
Igbomina

Incision
0.32
9.17
0.83
1.06
2.2
?2.55
6.4
6.3
4.25
4.65
5.27
COMP13
0.64
?0.76
?0.08
0.31
1.59
0.14
?1.05
?

COMPl(snsh/grv)
18.2
?????

0.12
3.57
Rocked-combing
1.26
??5.8
??? Total
(counts)
308
1440
892
127
283
316
1210
188
86
121
2855
320
95
471
decorated
Rim
3.68
interior
0.45
0.63
12.7
0.08
???

Wavy
lines
1.94
6.16
7.5
1.77
2.40
2.21
4.73
?36
17.3
?
Twisted
string
roulette
42.7
66.0
60.7
1.90
37.8
33.3
66.9
49.4
22.1
9.1
33.1
21.2
60
35.7
Maize
cob
roulette
0.64
4.49
5.5
0.71
3.14
25.3
5.51
13.9
0.10
?61.9
?45 Dot-punctation
0.83
1.3
1.46
0.94
0.08
1.77
1.16
3.15
?? COMP2
(twistr/grv)
1.13
2.27
0.41
10.9
?5.06
3.94
6.4
?3.31
3.25
3.75
9.47
2.34
Circle
stylus
0.64
?0.27
7.04
3.2
2.37
1.16
?_____
Scallops
3.70
2.59
0.27
???1.16
0.83
?1.05
Snail
shell
marking
0.64
?4.80
14.9
51.2
0.31
______
_

Carved
wood
roulette
1.94
0.90
1.46
5.65
5.78
_________ Brush/broom
34.5
7.14
4.55
10.6
7.08
30.3
35.5
??markings
? Triangle
punctation
2.59
0.23
______
?3.48
1.66
2.10
? Scallop-jointed
0.27
0.34
_?
_____ (dopunc/grv)
COMP5
0.64
0.27
0.56
2.21
0.21
_______
?

Zig-zag
combed
stamp
0.46
?6.31
?

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Ceramic Seriation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 157

SERIATIONOF SITES

This analysis addressed the chronological affiliations of individual collections

(or sites) on the basis of their decorative pottery traits. "Collection" is used here
to represent either surface pottery or excavated pottery As a result,
assemblages.
the collections are represented as if they were sites; and where more than one
collection comes from a site, they both bear the code number of the site and
different letter such as "A," and "B." size was a problem in
designation, Sample
this study because small pottery samples tend to present large percentages of a few
decorative variables than larger samples. This effect can skew the distribution of
most variables. Therefore, only assemblages with 100 or more analyzed pottery
were used in this analysis. Five pottery assemblages or collections failed to meet
this requirement: the assemblages from GIP-3b, GIP-5c, GIP-7b, GIP-22, and
GLR-14. The arbitrary nature of the surface collection of GIP-22 was a major
concern; as such procedure might have excluded important diagnostic traits useful
in quantitative analysis. Although theGLR-14 assemblage was less than the amount
required, the data was retained for the analysis because itwas the only assemblage
from that site.
For the quantitative techniques used here (i.e., K-means cluster analysis and
seriation based on nonmetric multidimensional scaling), percentages, rather than
counts, are used to account for the problem of different sample sizes. With percent
ages (%) all variables will have similar weights in the analysis, and none will tend
to dominate. An initial problem faced in the analysis was how to handle over 100
variables; a number that frustrated efforts to interpret any results in archaeologi
cally meaningful terms. Sixty of these variables alone were composite (combined)
designs. To minimize this problem, I dropped variables that were present in two
or fewer variables present at less than three sites, and those variables
assemblages,
that were not time-sensitive.

Using the above, all but four of the 60 composite design variables were
eliminated. A data set composed of the remaining 20 variables was used in the
multivariate there were 14 cases (excavation and surface
analysis. Altogether,
collection units) (Table III). A total of 7917 potsherds provided data on all di
mensions of variations. In the decorated potsherds, percentages were obtained
by dividing the frequency of potsherds in an assemblage exhibiting a particular
variable (e.g., twisted string roulette) by the total number of potsherds in that
assemblage.

K-MEANS CLUSTER ANALYSIS

K-means cluster analysis is a nonhierarchical clustering technique used for

grouping ceramic types (Kintigh and Ammerman, 1982). Its advantage over other
clustering methods is that as a nonhierarchical technique, itminimizes intracluster

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158 Usman

Table III. Description of the Final 20 Variables and 14 Cases in Quantitative Analysis

Variable Description Cases/collections Sites local name

TWISTR Twisted string roulette GIP-la Gbagede la

MZCMaize cob roulette GIP-lb Gbagede lb
CVWCarved wood roulette GIP-3 Obaloyan II
SNSH Snail shell impression GIP-5a Olupefon
FININC Horizontal fine incision GIP-5b Okegi
GRV Groove GIP-7 Ago
DOPUNC Dot punctation GIP-8a Apere la
RIDINT Interior/lip decorated rim GIP-8b Apere lb
BRUSH Brush/broom markings GIP-21a Apateki la
WVYL
Wavy incision GIP-21b Apateki lb
CIRCST Circle stylus GLR-12 Ofarol
SCALLOP Scallops (impressed arc) GLR-13 Ofaro II
TGPUNC Triangle punctation GLR-14 Aja-ile
SCALJT Scallops-jointed GLR-15 Oke-Oyan (old)
ROKCOB Rocked combing
ZGCSTP Zigzag combed stamp
COMP1 Snail shell and groove
COMP2 Twisted string roulette and groove
COMP5 Dot punctation and groove
COMP13 Horizontal and diagonal incision

variation while maximizing intercluster variation. Cluster analysis does not pro
duce an solution. To reduce errors of selecting one
unequivocal possible only
solution as the best result, a series of runs with different sets and numbers of vari
ables and cases were and the whole range of results was considered
performed,
for dating the sites.
Three sets of variables were used in the K-means cluster analysis (Table IV)
and each set varied in the number of variables and cases. The first set included
20 variables and 14 cases. The second set (set 2) consisted of 16 variables and
12 cases in which GIP-8a and GLR-14 were excluded, and decorative variables
like "COMP13," "FININC," "JTSCAL," and "RIDINT" also were eliminated.
The third set with 10 cases and 15 variables was done to remove the outliers as
suggested from the MDS results of sets 1 and 2. All sets of variables were run
to determine the four-, five-, and seven-cluster solutions. The cluster solution at

which the greatest difference between the average Sum of the Squared Distances
(or SEE) for the random data and original data occurs is considered the "best"
solution (Kintigh and Ammerman, 1982). In most cases, the five-cluster solu
tions tended to present results. The seven-cluster solutions to some extent
good
were also The three-cluster solution was too and tended
acceptable. simplistic
to group a large number of cases in one cluster, while the eight-cluster solution
created clusters with few cases, which often did not seem to be chronologically
different.

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Ceramic Seriation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 159

Table IV. Three Sets of Pottery Decorative Variables

Used in Quantitative Analysis

Variable Set 1 Set 2 Set 3

Twisted string roulette X X

Maize cob roulette X X X
Carved wood roulette X X X
Snail shell marking X X X
Incision X X
Groove X X X
Dot-punctation X X X
Rim decorated interior X
Brush/broom markings X X X
Wavy lines X X X
Circle stylus X X X
Scallops X X X
Triangle punctationX X X
Rocked combing X X X
Zig-zag combed stamp X X X
Scallop-jointed X
Composite 1 XX
Composite 2 XX
Composite 5 XX X
Composite 13 X X

Results

By comparing the breakdown of the five K-means cluster solutions (Tables V

and VI) with "established" ceramic assemblages of Yorubaland, approximate date
ranges can be assigned to each cluster. The artifact composition of each defined
cluster is known by inspecting the means and standard deviations of the relative
densities of all pottery classes, calculated for the points (cases) included in each
cluster. A pottery decorative type was considered statistically significant in a cluster
if itsmean relative density was greater than its standard deviation. Thus, with the
group of decorative types, particular attention is paid to those whose mean relative
densities are greater than 10%.
A complete description of the three sets of variables used in the K-means
cluster analysis has been provided elsewhere (Usman, 2001). The discussion here
will follow set 1 of 20 variables and 14 cases described in Table V. Inspection of
the composition of these clusters along with their chronological attributes, indicate
some patterns. Thus, one might suggest that the clusters, especially 2, 3, and
4 present relevant chronological information. Cluster 1 is mixed assemblages:
early, middle, and late period ceramic types as suggested at Old Oyo and Ife (e.g.,
Agbaje-Williams, 1983; Soper, 1975;Willet, 1960,1967), and consisted of pottery
types like twisted string roulette (TWISTR), brush-marked incision (BRUSH),
snail shell (SNSH), scallops, and rocked comb (ROKCOB) decorations of early
ceramic, and maize cob roulette (MZC) of much later period. The sites associated

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160 Usman

Table V. Results of Five-Cluster Solution (K-Means) of Attribute Set 1 as Listed in Table IV, 14 Cases
20
_and Variables_
Cluster levels

No. of Cases GIP-la, GIP-3, GIP-5b GIP-7, GIP-lb, GLR-12

GIP-5a, GIP-8a, GLR-13, GIP-21a,
GIP-8b, GLR-14 GLR-15 GIP-21b
Variables
Twisted string roulette 59.9/6.08 1.9/0.0 29.6/6.1 23.5/12.6 33.1/0.0
Maize cob roulette 5.07/4.9 3.1/0.0 43.7/15.3 1.3/1.9 0.1/0.0
Carved wood roulette 0.67/0.83 5.7/0.0 0.10/0.14 0.27/0.4 0.0/0.0
Snail shell marking 1.07/1.84 51.1/0.0 0.10/0.14 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0
Incision4.25/2.54 0.8/0.0 5.1/2.6 0.0/0.0 4.6/0.0
Groove10.5/5.8 4.8/0.0 13.9/3.4 10.9/10.3 58.6/0.0
Dot-punctation 1.6/1.04 0.08/0.0 0.3/0.4 0.8/0.6 0.07/0.0
Rim-interior decoration 0.7/1.4 0.0/0.0 0.20/0.28 0.13/0.19 0.07/0.0
Wavy-lines 2.80/2.87 2.4/0.0 0.7/1.0 21.9/10.0 0.0/0.0
Brush/broom marking 3.1/3.2 4.5/0.0 1.1/1.5 32.2/1.7 0.0/0.0
Circle stylus 0.8/1.2 7.0/0.0 0.0/0.0 1.4/1.3 0.0/0.0
Scallops 0.8/1.01 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0 1.8/1.1 0.0/0.0
Triangle punctation 1.08/1.2 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0 1.7/1.3 0.0/0.0
Rocked combing 0.7/1.4 0.0/0.0 0.4/0.5 1.9/2.6 0.0/0.0
Zigzag comb-stamp 1.7/3.0 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0 0.13/0.19 0.0/0.0
Scallop-jointed 0.11/0.14 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0 0.10/0.14 0.0/0.0
Composite 1 -0.0/0.0 18.2/0.0 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0
Composite 2 3.8/2.2 0.0/0.0 3.6/1.0 1.4/1.3 3.2/0.0
Composite 5 0.1/0.2 0.0/0.0 0.7/0.9 0.17/0.2 0.0/0.0
Composite 13 0.9/0.6 0.08/0.0 0.10/0.14 0.0/0.0 0.14/0.0

Note. Mean/std. deviation.

with this cluster (GIP-la, GIP-3, GIP-5a, GIP-8a, GIP-8b, and GLR-14) range
from the thirteenth century to the end of occupation of some of these sites in the
late eighteenth century.
Cluster 2 is identified as belonging to amiddle(ceramic) Oyo period. Cluster
composition is determined by a high incidence of snail shell and circle stylus,
and very low frequency of twisted string roulette. GIP-5b is associated with this
cluster, and also grouped separately as a cluster by other K-means solution in the
analysis.
Cluster 3 is defined as late ceramic period of the seventeenth century. In this
cluster, maize cob roulette occurred at a higher percentage than twisted string
roulette. It will be recalled that maize is a relatively recent introduction from
the New World in the sixteenth century (e.g., Willet, 1962). Its use as a pottery
decorative motif took place probably not before the seventeenth century. Three
sites (GIP-7, GLR-13, GLR-15) grouped together in the cluster may date to the
late ceramic period (late seventeenth or early eighteenth century).
Cluster 4 belong to the early ceramic period, as determined by high incidence
of brush-marked incision and wavy lines, the presence of scallops, circle stylus,

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Ceramic Seriation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 161

Table VI. Results of the Five-Cluster (K-Means) Solution of Attribute Set 3 as Listed in Table IV,
Cases 15
_10 Variables_
Cluster levels

No. of Cases GIP-lb, GLR-13, GIP-3, GIP-7, GIP-5a

GIP-21a GLR-15 GIP-21b, GIP-8b
GIP-la
Variables
FININC 0.0/0.0 4.9/1.7 2.3/2.6 13.1/0.4 2.1/0.0
MZC 3.5/3.5 74.3/4.1 5.7/6.7 32.4/5.09 1.4/0.0
CVW 0.7/0.7 0.0/0.0 3.2/2.3 0.2/0.2 11.3/0.0
SNSH -0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0 5.0/5.8 0.2/0.2 29.7/0.0
GRV 5.1/0.8 16.5/3.0 19.9/7.0 34.8/6.2 4.9/0.0
DOPUNC 1.8/0.4 0.0/0.0 2.6/1.8 0.7/0.7 3.5/0.0
WVYL 34.0/12.1 0.0/0.0 14.9/6.6 1.6/1.6 3.5/0.0
BRUSH 46.3/7.5 0.0/0.0 26.0/8.2 2.5/2.5 21.2/0.0
CIRCST 0.7/0.7 0.0/0.0 2.0/1.1 3.1/3.1 0.0/0.0
SCALLOP 3.6/2.1 0.0/0.0 3.0/3.1 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0
TGPUNC 2.3/2.1 0.0/0.0 4.3/3.5 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0
ROKCOB 0.08/0.08 0.0/0.0 5.5/4.1 0.9/0.9 0.0/0.0
ZGCSTP 0.3/0.3 0.0/0.0 0.7/0.8 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0
SCALJT 0.2/0.2 0.0/0.0 0.5/0.4 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0
COMP2 0.8/0.8 4.2/0.5 3.7/2.2 1.0/2.5 21.9/0.0

Note. Mean/std. deviation.

and low occurrence of maize cob roulette. GIP-lb, GIP-21a, and GIP-21b are
associated with this cluster. The sites may correspond to early occupation in the
ceramic age in the Ipo area. However, it appears that GIP-lb was "continuously"
occupied up to the beginning of the late ceramic period, while GIP-21a and 21b
may have been abandoned before this period.
Finally, cluster 5 is not highly chronologically diagnostic, since groove
decorated pottery, which dominated the cluster, has been found to occur in all
ceramic periods. GLR-12, which is associated with this cluster, corresponds well
with dominance of groove decoration in the pottery assemblage.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) has been applied successfully as a seri

ation technique inmany different contexts (Cowgill, 1972; Curet, 1992; Kruskal
andWish, 1978; Smith and Doershuk, 1991; Stark, 1985; Washburn and Matson,
1985). The significance of MDS analysis is that it helped to further examine the
differences or similarities between the sites based on their ceramic composition,
despite the assumed similarities or differences thatmay be suggested by the cluster
solutions. The Euclidean distance coefficient converted to dissimilarity was used
as input in the MDS analysis (Cowgill, 1972; Kintigh, 1992). Using this analy
sis, I compared the same variables in different collections, not different variables

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 162 Usman

gip-5b*

gip-3
gip-la
glr-14*
gip-8a

MIXED
>glr-12

-2
.2 -1 0

Fig. 4. Multidimensional scaling seriation of 14 cases with 20 variables.

within the same collection. To maintain consistency with the cluster analysis, all

runs were with data. three sets of runs were

performed percentages Altogether,

performed, and the results are presented in Figs. 4 and 5.

Results

In interpreting the final MDS plots, several considerations must be kept in

mind. The positioning of any collection should not be taken as an indication of its
exact position in time in relation to other collections. There is no single best MDS
solution, as the plots can vary slightly according to the nature and set of collec
tions, sample size, the abundance of certain attributes in a collection, the extent
of mixing of components in the collection, the decision made about combining or
eliminating variables and cases, and the termination of the algorithm once statis
tical improvement declines. The assignment of collections to a particular period
has to be based on the relative abundance of certain decorative attributes and not
on the presence or absence of the attribute.
Although some dispersal is shown by some collections especially GIP-5a and
GIP-5b, in most cases the plots seem to present a near "horse-shoe" shape, as ex

pected for chronological studies of archaeological material (Cowgill,

1972; Drennan, 1976). The MDS analysis of 14 cases/20 variables and

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Ceramic Sedation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 163

-2

j* gip-8b-*> glr-13
glr-15"

gip-7 LATE
gip-21a
st&
>* . gip-1a?

*^V**

gip-5eLt
EARLY

_L
-2-10 1

Fig. 5. Multidimensional scaling seriation of 10 cases with 15 variables.

10 cases/15 variables as illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5 present close to the expected

"patterns," which may have some chronological relevance. In Fig. 4 of 14 cases/20
variables, the top right of the plot contain collections (GIP-21a, GIP-21b, GIP-lb,
and GIP-5a) that one would describe as essentially early/middle ceramic period.
The collections are characterized by time-sensitive decorative types like snail shell,
carved wood roulette, scallops, brush marked incision, and circle stylus decoration
as suggested at Old Oyo and Ife (e.g., Agbaje-Williams, 1983;Willet, 1960,1967).
Below these collections, are collections that form a "cluster" (GIP-3, GIP-la, GIP
8a, GIP-8b, and GLR-14) that have been recognized as mixed assemblages (early,
middle, and late ceramic). They are made up of those decorative types mentioned
above including maize cob roulette. Finally, spreading out in the middle of the
plot from right to left in a semihorizontal form are collections (GIP-7, GLR-15,
GLR-13) belonging to the late ceramic period. This is based on the high incidence
of maize cob roulette decoration (late ceramic type) in these collections.
The two "outliers" in the plot (Fig. 4), GIP-5b and GLR-12, may suggest
factor(s) other than chronology. GIP-5b is very different from the other collection
in its ceramic composition. The collection alone has nearly 70% snail shell related
pottery while no other collection had more than 15% snail shell marked. Similarly,
GLR-12 has nearly 59% groove decorated pottery, and the only collection close

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 164 Usman

to this has about 27%. The dispersion of these collections in the plot is probably
because they are very different from the other entities in their composition of
certain variable. In the next MDS analysis, I eliminated the two collections.
In theMDS analysis of 10 cases/15 variables (Fig. 5), the pattern seems much
clearer, although itwas still impossible to obtain a "perfect" arc. Here, GIP-5a is
widely separated on the plot from others, which suggests important differences in
pottery decorative types with other collections. This collection contains "moderate"
amounts of "early" pottery types like brush mark, snail shell marking, and carved
wood roulette. Also, GIP-5a has the oldest radiocarbon date of all the collections.
However, more studies are necessary to determine the causes of this deviation as
well as those described in the analysis of 14 cases/20 variables. Next is a "cluster"
of GIP-la, GIP-lb, GIP-3, GIP-21a, and GIP-21b, with "mixed" pottery decorative
types (early to late periods), and these sites are either contemporaneous or widely
overlap. Finally, collections of the late ceramic period formed a separate "cluster"
in the plot. These are represented by GIP-7, GIP-8b, GLR-13, and GLR-15 with
a high frequency of late maize cob roulette decorated potsherds and absence of
early decorative types. These collections may be more recent than the rest, since
the use of maize cob as a decorative motif in Igbomina probably did not become
popular until the beginning of the eighteenth century.

C-14 Dating

Although MDS generates the seriation, the combined results of cluster analy
sis with established radiocarbon dates permits the assignment of "absolute" dates
to theMDS results. The results from the K-means cluster analysis andMDS proce
dure showed patterns that seem to correspond with radiocarbon chronology. Two
examples are provided below.
In data set 1 ( 14 cases/20 variables) GIP-3 was assigned by the cluster analysis
(five-cluster solution) to cluster 1with mixed assemblages of early, middle, and
late ceramics (e.g., scallops, rocked comb, snail shell, carved wood, brush marked,
circle stylus, and maize cob roulette). The charcoal sample obtained from a level
containing the above pottery types was calibrated as AD 1460-1680 and AD 1755
1805 (Table I). There is high probability that the occupation of the site would fall
between the fifteenth and late eighteenth centuries. These dates emphasized the
mixed ceramic assemblage (early and late ceramics) and seem to corroborate
oral tradition on the "continuity" of occupation of the site until around the early
eighteenth century.
Also, a charcoal sample obtained from GIP-5a at a level containing snail
shell decorated pottery was calibrated as AD 1300-1515 and AD 1585-1625, a
period which coincides early in time with GIP-3, but much older than GIP-8.
The cluster analysis assigned GIP-5a to cluster 1with GIP-3 and GIP-8b, while
the position of GIP-5a on MDS plots to these sites is slightly farther away. This

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Ceramic Sedation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 165

may point to important differences in the pottery assemblages between the sites
thatmay be chronologically significant. Further to that, the assignation of GIP-5a
to a separate K-means cluster and its behavior on the MDS plot (Fig. 5) make
this collection more distinctive, and may correlate with of the site as
"early age"
suggested by radiocarbon dating. The incidence of snail shell pottery, albeit in
limited proportions in the lowest level of the excavation (GIP-5a), provides the
earliest evidence of snail shell pottery in Igbominaland.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Although K-means cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling had proved

helpful in the study of archaeological assemblages (Curet, 1992; Kintigh and
Ammerman, 1982; Siegel and Roe, 1986), they also have some inherent limitations.
One such limitation is that they do produce more than one solution. Normally the
researcher has to run the analysis several times with solutions of different number
of clusters, and select the most "logical" result according to the purposes of the
study. The difficulty here is of selecting which attributes to delete, while retaining
enough variability between the collections from different periods.
So far there are few radiocarbon dates available for Igbomina. Limited funds
prevented dating of more charcoal samples excavated from my last field research.
The few radiocarbon dates used in this study limit the range of variation in the
C14 dates and the "acceptability" of these dates as they relate to Igbomina site
chronologies. A larger set of dated charcoal samples from similar excavated levels
will be needed to increase the range of "confidence" and "acceptance" of the
dates. Associated with this was the problem of distinguishing between the early,
middle, and late Igbomina ceramic decorative types, given that these might have
had considerable chronological overlap.
Generally, the results of the pottery seriation of the Igbomina sites seem to
follow a sequence that has been suggested by analyses of the Yoruba ceramics
(Agbaje-Williams, 1983, 1991; Soper, 1975, 1983; Willet, 1960, 1962). For ex
ample, brush-marked incision, rocked-comb impressions, scallops (or impressed
arc), and knotted roulette decorative techniques which belonged to the "Diogun"
period first appeared at Old Oyo, probably about AD 1100 ? 110. The "Mejiro"
period, which was later and dated from AD 1300 ? 800, has pottery decorative
type like snail shell and carved wood roulette. Maize cob, also a "Mejiro" pottery
type, appeared at the late end of the period. Twisted string roulette, groove, and fine
incision are common to both periods (Diogun andMejiro). However, the so-called
and wares are still controversial because appears to
"diogun" "mejiro" continuity

prevail at Old Oyo. Following Agbaje-Williams' (1983), snail shell and brush
marked incised decorations were present during both the periods. In Igbomina,
only three of the "diogun" pottery types (scallops, brush marked, punctation, and
rocked-comb) have been found, and appeared at amuch later date than they did at

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166 Usman

Table VII. Synthesis of Igbomina Ceramic Typology and Sites Chronology

Chronology (AD) Cultural Period Decorative Types0 Sites Areas

1800-1837 Late Oyo Maize cob roulette GLR-13 Here

GLR-15 Here
GIP-8? Ipo
1600-1750 Middle Oyo Snail shell stamps GIP-1 Ipo
Circle stylus GIP-3 Ipo
Carved wood roulette GIP-5b Ipo
Maize cob roulette GIP-8 Ipo
GLR-12 Ilere
1450-1600 Early Oyo II Carved wood roulette GIP-1 Ipo
Brush mark incision GIP-3 Ipo
Snail shell stamps GIP-21 Ipo
Scallops (impressed arc) GLR-12 Ilere
Rocked combing
Circle stylus
1300-1450 Early Oyo I Snail shell stamps GIP-5a Ipo
Carved wood roulette

aTwisted string roulette, incision, and groove decorations were present in all the periods.

Old Oyo. For example, at GIP-lb and GIP-21 a, the decorated pottery types were
already known by the early fifteenth century, a process that may have continued
throughout the occupation of the sites.
Based on the ceramic seriation of Igbomina sites and the radiocarbon dat
ing, one can suggest here the Igbomina ceramic typology and sites chronologies
(Table VII). The use of a snail shell decorative motif in Igbomina seems to co
incide early in time with Oyo and the continuity of the tradition throughout the
Oyo period. At GIP-5a, snail shell decorated pottery was dated from about 1300
AD suggesting the use of the decorative motif in Igbomina around that time. The
continuity of a snail shell pottery tradition in Igbomina has been suggested at
GIP-5b and GIP-3 where the decorative motif was found throughout the excavated
levels. At GIP-5b snail shell decorated potsherds has provided dates of AD 1680
1745, and AD 1805-1935 (Usman, 2001). Oral tradition has suggested that the
inhabitants of GIP-5a moved to GIP-5b and probably continued with the pottery
decorative technique (Usman, 2001). Brush mark incision, scallops, rocked comb,
and circle stylus, also of Old Oyo, and Ife, especially circle stylus, appeared much
later, probably in the mid-fifteenth century, and continued to about 1800 at some
sites in Igbomina, such as GIP-lb and GIP-5b. Maize cob roulette appeared much
later in Igbomina (as at Oyo and Ife), probably by the late seventeenth or early
eighteenth century, according to evidence at GIP-lb, GIP-3, and GIP-8 (Usman,
2001).
In terms of the chronology of the investigated sites, GIP-5a is an early Igbom
ina site occupied probably in the thirteenth century. GIP-lb, GIP-3, and GIP-21
were occupied from around the late fourteenth century or early fifteenth century.
Two sites, GIP-lb and GIP-3 were continuously occupied until around the 1800
AD. Also, GIP-5b with predominantly snail shell pottery is dated probably from

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Ceramic Seriation, Sites Chronology, and Old Oyo Factor in Northcentral Yorubaland 167

the sixteenth century, while GIP-8 may be a late seventeenth century site. The Ilere
site, GLR-12, with mostly groove pottery motif is a possibly sixteenth century, or
earlier. Two other Ilere sites, GLR-13 and GLR-15, and the Ipo site, GIP-7, have
no radiocarbon dates at present. However, from the results of cluster and
analysis
MDS, as well as the high incidence of maize cob roulette, and European artifacts
such as glaze wares, glass, and coin in the assemblages, these sites may be late

occupation dating probably to the eighteenth century.

The use of pottery design distribution and levels of similarity to measure
interaction is not new in archaeology (Deetz, 1965; Engelbrecht, 1974; Eyo, 1974;
Hill, 1970; Ogundiran, 2000; Whallon, 1968). The main assumption underlying
these studies is that design distribution patterns directly reflect the nature and
intensity of social interaction. Although the use of ceramic stylistic similarity as a
measure of interaction intensity has been questioned (Plog, 1976,1980), it appears
that if pottery design were related to interaction, then itwould be expected that the
degree of design similarity should vary directly with the "physical" and "social"
distance between societies.
The result of the Igbomina ceramic seriation has an important implication for
regional interaction in the area. Carved wood roulettes found above the level con
taining snail shell impression at GIP-5a, for example, was an important decoration
trait of Oyo as well as Ife, and date to the "classical" period of Ife art and culture
around the twelfth to fourteenth century AD (Garlake, 1977; Willet, 1967). The
prevalence of Oyo decorated ceramic types such as snail shell in Igbominaland
from the fifteenth century indicates the important role played by Oyo elements
in the Igbomina society. Shared pottery design types cannot be merely "epiphe
nomenal," but designs can be purposefully manipulated to define and maintain
social relations (Hodder, 1982; Wobst, 1977). The increasing evidence of snail
shell decorative motif in Igbomina during the seventeenth century relate to the
effect of the Old Oyo expansion in terms of settlement changes (aggregation),
and of from areas into the land.
large-scale migrations people Oyo conquered
Design techniques and the probable imitation of Old Oyo styles may be a con
sequence of marriages contracted with distant groups to reinforce alliances or
trade. It also appears that the integration of the Igbomina by the Old Oyo involved
shared stylistic elements, especially ceramics, which are highly evident during this
period.
It is important to stress here that Old Oyo pottery types were not unrestricted
in Igbomina. The pottery types (e.g., snailshell, scallops) are more evident in the
western Igbomina represented by the Ipo village group. This is in contrast to the
situation in the northeastern Igbomina of Ilere. Several factors could be responsible
for this. The rugged terrain in the northern part of Igbomina probably hampered
interaction between groups. Itmight also imply that the social group occupying
the northeastern Igbomina were different from those in the western Igbomina, or
that both areas interacted with different exchange partners. Above all, the relatively
sharp "restriction" of Oyo pottery decorative styles to the western part of Igbomina

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 168 Usman

suggested in this study may correspond more or less with the boundaries of Old
Oyo's cultural provinces.
Finally, the fall of Old Oyo and the accompanied Yoruba civil wars have
altered the earlier demographic situations of the vast populations of Yorubaland.
In Igbomina as suggested by the ceramic analysis, sites began to be occupied at
least by the thirteenth century AD. If the thermoluminiscence dates from terracotta
pieces found with stone figures at Esie (Stevens, 1978) is reliable, the occupation
may be much earlier?the eleventh century. The presence of Oyo and Ife pottery
traits in Igbomina in the thirteenth century implied amuch early contact with Ife
Oyo elements prior to the emergence of Old Oyo Empire and the incorporation of
Igbomina by Old Oyo.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study is part of the Igbomina project funded by theWenner-Gren Foun

dation and Ballantine Family Foundation dissertation grants (1994/95), and au
thorized by the Nigerian National Commission for Museums and Monuments.

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