Study Notes: Semiconductor Materials

Definition:
Semiconductor materials are a class of materials with electrical
conductivity between that of conductors (e.g., metals) and insulators (e.g.,
nonmetals). They exhibit intermediate properties, making them crucial
components in electronic devices, as they can control and amplify electric
signals.

Examples of Semiconductor Materials:

Silicon (Si): Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material. It is

abundant, easy to process, and exhibits good electrical properties. Silicon
forms the basis for most integrated circuits and microprocessors.

Germanium (Ge): Germanium was one of the earliest semiconductor

materials used in electronics. Though less common than silicon, it still
has applications in some niche devices, such as infrared detectors.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): Gallium arsenide has higher electron

mobility than silicon, making it suitable for high-speed and high-
frequency applications. It is commonly used in high-power electronic
devices and some specialized integrated circuits.

Gallium Nitride (GaN): Gallium nitride is a wide-band gap

semiconductor with excellent properties for power electronics and high-
frequency applications. It is used in power amplifiers, LEDs, and other
high-power devices.

Indium Phosphide (InP): Indium phosphide is a semiconductor with

superior electron mobility, commonly used in optoelectronic devices such
as high-speed photodetectors and laser diodes.

Silicon Carbide (SiC): Silicon carbide is a wide-bandgap semiconductor

that can withstand high temperatures and voltages. It finds application in
power electronics, high-temperature electronics, and some radio
frequency (RF) devices.

Organic Semiconductors: These are carbon-based semiconductor

materials, which are relatively new but gaining popularity in applications
such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic solar cells.
 Basic Properties of Semiconductor Materials
1. Electrical Conductivity:
Semiconductors have intermediate electrical conductivity between
conductors (e.g., metals) and insulators (e.g., nonmetals). Their
conductivity can be controlled and modified by external factors like
temperature, light, and doping.

2. Band Gap:
Semiconductors have a band gap, an energy range between the valence
and conduction bands. The band gap determines whether a material
behaves as a conductor or an insulator. When electrons absorb enough
energy (e.g., through heat or light), they can move from the valence band
to the conduction band, becoming charge carriers and enabling
conduction.

3. Doping:
Doping is the intentional introduction of impurities into the
semiconductor crystal lattice. It modifies the electrical properties of the
material, creating regions with excess electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type).
Doping is crucial for forming diodes, transistors, and other semiconductor
devices.

4. Charge Carriers:
Charge carriers in semiconductors are electrons in the conduction band
(negative charge) and holes in the valence band (positive charge). The
movement of charge carriers is responsible for electrical conduction and
forms the basis of electronic devices.

5. Electron Mobility:
Electron mobility refers to the ease with which electrons move through
the semiconductor material in the presence of an electric field. High
electron mobility is desirable for faster and more efficient electronic
devices.

6. Thermal Conductivity:
Semiconductors typically have lower thermal conductivity than metals,
making them less efficient at conducting heat. However, some wide-band
gap semiconductors have relatively good thermal conductivity, making
them suitable for high-temperature applications.
7. Optoelectronic Properties:
Some semiconductors exhibit optoelectronic properties, meaning they can
interact with light. They can absorb, emit, or modulate light, making them
essential in devices like LEDs, lasers, and photodetectors.

8. Sensitivity to External Factors:

The electrical properties of semiconductors are sensitive to external
factors such as temperature, light, and radiation. These factors can be
harnessed for various applications, such as temperature sensors and solar
cells.

9. Temperature Dependence:
The conductivity of semiconductors increases with temperature. Higher
temperatures supply enough energy to more charge carriers, enhancing
conduction.

10. Crystal Structure:

The crystalline structure of semiconductors determines their electrical
properties. Common crystal structures include diamond, zinc-blende, and
wurtzite.

Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators according to

Band Gap Theory

The band gap theory, also known as the energy band theory or electronic
band theory, is a fundamental concept in condensed matter physics and
solid-state electronics. It explains the behavior of electrons in solids,
particularly in crystalline materials like semiconductors, insulators, and
conductors. The theory focuses on the arrangement of energy levels for
electrons within the material's atomic structure.

In a solid, such as a crystal lattice, the electrons are not restricted to

individual atoms but are shared among many neighboring atoms. When
these atoms come together, their electron energy levels form bands,
which are continuous ranges of allowed energy states.

The band gap theory introduces two main energy bands:

Valence Band: This band represents the highest energy levels that are
fully occupied by electrons at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin or -
273.15°C). These electrons are tightly bound to their respective atoms
and contribute little to electrical conductivity.
Conduction Band: This band lies just above the valence band and
contains energy levels that are currently empty at absolute zero
temperature. Electrons in the conduction band are relatively free to move
throughout the material, contributing to its electrical conductivity.

Band Gap: The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction
band is called the band gap. This gap represents an energy range in which
no electrons are present at absolute zero temperature. It is responsible for
determining the electrical and optical properties of a material.

Conductors: Conductors have very small or nearly zero band gaps,

allowing a large number of electrons to move freely between the valence
and conduction bands. This leads to high electrical conductivity.
Examples include metals like copper and silver, which are used in
electrical wires and other applications requiring efficient conduction.

Semiconductors: Semiconductors have small to moderate band gaps.

They possess some free charge carriers (electrons and holes) that can
conduct electricity, but their conductivity is lower compared to
conductors. By doping, the conductivity of semiconductors can be
modified, making them essential in electronic devices like transistors,
integrated circuits (ICs), and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

Insulators: Insulators have large band gaps, which prevent electrons

from easily moving to the conduction band. As a result, they have very
low electrical conductivity. Insulators are used as electrical and thermal
insulating materials in various applications. Examples include rubber and
glass.

Property Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Band Gap Almost Zero Small to Moderate Large
Electrical Conductivity Very High Intermediate Very Low
Charge Carriers Abundant Free Some Free (e.g., electrons and holes) Few or None
Examples Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag) Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) Rubber, Glass
Doping Not applicable Possible through doping Not applicable
Typical Use Electrical Wires Transistors, ICs, LEDs Insulation Material
Thermal Conductivity High Moderate Low
Optoelectronic Not applicable Used in devices like LEDs, lasers, Not applicable
Properties photodetectors
 Types of Semiconductors
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor:

Definition: An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor material

without intentional doping, consisting of only the semiconductor element
(e.g., silicon or germanium) in its natural form.

Properties:
At absolute zero temperature, an intrinsic semiconductor behaves as an
insulator since all valence electrons are in the valence band.
At higher temperatures, some electrons gain enough thermal energy to
transition to the conduction band, creating charge carriers (both electrons
and holes).
The number of charge carriers is balanced, and their concentrations
depend on temperature and the material's intrinsic properties.
Applications: Intrinsic semiconductors are not used for practical
electronic devices due to their uncontrollable and limited conductivity.

2. Extrinsic Semiconductor:

Definition: An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor material

intentionally doped with impurities to modify its electrical properties.

Doping: Impurities, called dopants, are introduced into the

semiconductor crystal lattice during fabrication. There are two types of
dopants:

N-type Doping: Dopants that introduce extra electrons into the crystal
lattice, creating excess negative charge carriers (electrons). Common
dopants for n-type semiconductors include phosphorus and arsenic.
P-type Doping: Dopants that create "holes" (positive charge carriers) by
accepting valence electrons from the crystal lattice. Boron and gallium
are common dopants for p-type semiconductors.

Properties:
Extrinsic semiconductors have enhanced electrical conductivity compared
to intrinsic semiconductors due to the intentional introduction of charge
carriers.
The type and concentration of dopants determine the semiconductor's
electrical behavior and its applications.
Applications:
Extrinsic semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronic devices,
such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.
N-type and p-type regions are used to create diodes, and their
combination forms transistors, enabling signal amplification and
switching in electronic circuits.