AGENDA
SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 1
A STUDY ON THE
MEDIA AND PUBLIC
AGENDA IN
MALAYSIA
MUHAMMAD SHAWAL ABDUL
RASHID
COMM 6000: Advanced
Communication Theory
Prof. Dato’ Sri. Dr. Syed Arabi bin
Syed Abdullah Idid
International Islamic University
Malaysia
2014
ABSTRACT
It is said that the media can set what
the public perceived as important. This
study has used a quantitative survey in
order to understand the effect of
agenda setting theory in the Malaysian
context. Studying a total of 1500
eligible voters from various ethnic
groups in Malaysia (Malay, Chinese,
and Indian), 17 important issues were
identified. Overall, the study found
media agenda had a significant
correlation with the public agenda,
indicating that the media can influence
what the audience perceived as
important. This study also suggested
that race had no influence on the
media’s coverage of concerned issues.
Keywords: Agenda setting, public
agenda setting, media agenda setting,
Malaysian media, Malaysian ethnicity
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The media has been a huge part
of the modern generation since
Johannes Guttenberg introduced us to
his creation of the printing press in the
1400s. Since then, the printing method
begun, creating what we know today as
mass communication.
Today, the media has evolved
into a very important estate of our age.
They’re all around us: television,
newspapers, magazines, radio, the
internet, and many more. News are
produced and published every seconds,
fast and without delay.
With that advancement of
technology, one would wonder if
media could actually control us.
In 1970s, Maxwell McCombs
and Donald Shaw introduced the world
to the Agenda Setting Theory with
their breakthrough research, named the
Chapel Hill Study.
This study suggested that the
media sets the public agenda by telling
you what to think about, although not
exactly what to think.
“In choosing and displaying
news, editors, newsroom staff, and
broadcasters play an important part in
shaping political reality. Readers learn
not only about a given issue by also
how much importance to attach to that
issue from the amount of information
in a news story and its position. In
reflecting what candidates are saying
during a campaign, the mass media
may well determine the important
issues – that is, the media may set the
“agenda” of the campaign,”
(McCombs, 2003).
In the following pages, the
researcher will try to re-test the classic
theory with the modern audience,
using the mass media users during the
recent bi-election in Kajang, Selangor.
Study of the previous
literatures will be made in order to
justify their research, including on the
Agenda Setting Theory itself, whether
it may be classic or new. Following
that, methodology of the research will
be explained briefly, subsequently
followed by a chapter on findings and
discussion of the completed research.
1.1 Research Objectives
Research objective is the basic
tools that underline a researcher’s plan
and strategic activities. According to
the Business Dictionary, research
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 2
objective can be defined as a specific
result that the researcher aims to
achieve within their study.
Below is the list of objectives the
researcher is looking for in this study:
1. To find out what is the most
important issues concerned by
Malaysian citizen.
2. To see whether the news
covered by the media correlates
with Malaysian citizen’s
concerned issues.
3. To know whether the issues
concerned by the Malay citizen
are similar or not with the other
races.
1.2 Problem Statements
In order to understand the case
study, problem statement is needed for
a concise description that will to be
addressed by the researcher in the later
part of this paper (Ellis & Levy, 2008).
For this paper, the researcher has
listed three problems that need to be
addressed in the following chapters.
Below are some of the problems
present:
1. Issues concerned by Malaysian
citizen are not the same as
reported by the media.
2. Issues concerned by Non-
Malays less covered by the
media.
3. Issues concerned by Malays are
similar as the other races.
1.3 Research Questions
In a book by Wimmer and
Dominick (2006, p. 155), they stated
that a well-defined research questions
could lead to the development of
detailed and accurate categories for the
research, which in the end helps to
produce valuable data and findings.
Below are the research questions
developed by the researcher for this
study:
1. What is the most important
issue concerned by Malaysian?
2. Does the news covered by the
Malaysian media correlates
with the issues concerned by
Malaysian?
3. Is the issue concerned by
Malay respondents similar with
the issue concerned by other
races?
1.4 Research Significances
In an entry in Merriam-
Webster, the word significance meant
“the quality of being important” or
“the quality of having notable worth or
influence”. In that note, research
significance is needed in order to
distinguish this study than the other
studies that has been done on this
topic.
The following list contains the
significances of this research:
1. To find out Malaysian citizen’s
most concerned issue.
2. To understand more about the
Agenda-Setting Theory’s
function.
3. To see whether there’s
difference between Malays and
the Non-Malays.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Shuttleworth
(2009), a literature review is a critical
and in depth evaluation of previous
researches. By summarizing the
reading's topic in a particular area, it
will help the researcher to establish
why they are pursuing this particular
research program.
Hence, in this chapter, the
writer will be discussing about the
literatures that has been written on this
subject matter. Some of the topics that
will be included are Agenda-Setting
Theory and its formation, Priming, as
well as the Public Agenda Setting.
The researcher also intends to
discuss a few case studies has been
done on the Agenda Setting Theory,
including classic and new cases.
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 3
It is hoped that this collection
of analysis will convey the readers
about the researcher’s motive of
exploring this topic.
2.1 Agenda-Setting Theory
The theory of Agenda Setting
originated in Walter Lippman’s 1922
book, Public Opinion. In it, he
establishes the principal connection
between the events that are happening
around us to the images in our minds
(Lippman, 1922).
Then, in 1963, Bernard Cohen
has quoted that the media “may not be
successful much of the time in telling
people what to think, but it is
stunningly successful in telling its
readers what to think about,” (Cohen,
1963, p. 13).
He also stated “the world will
look different to different people
depending on the map that is drawn for
them by writers, editors and publishers
of the paper they read,” (Cohen, 1963).
Cohen’s statements lead to the
formalized theory by two researchers:
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw.
In 1968, during the presidential
election between Democratic choice,
Lyndon B. Johnson and his Republic
challenger, Richard Nixon, both
McCombs and Shaw explored
Lippman’s idea by testing the media’s
agenda and comparing it to the issues
concerned by the undecided voters.
The test resulted in a finding that stated
the voters’ agenda is highly correlated
to the agenda in the news media
(McCombs & Shaw, 1972).
The two most basic
assumptions of this theory are (Agenda
Setting Theory, 2012):
1. The press and the media do not
reflect reality, but they filter
and shape it.
2. Media concentration of a few
issues leads the public to
perceive those issues as more
important than the others.
In order to understand the Agenda
Setting Theory, one must know that
this theory occurs through a cognitive
process named “accessibility” in which
it implies that the more frequently the
news media covers an issue, the more
that issue becomes accessible in the
audience’s memory (Iyengar & Kinder,
1987).
In an easier statement: when the
respondents are asked what they feel
are the most important problems their
country faces, they reply with issues
that the media focus on the most.
According to Everett Rogers
and J. W. Dearing, there are three basic
types of the agenda setting theory:
public, media and policy agenda
setting (1988). The public agenda
setting focuses on the audience’s
agenda while media agenda setting
focuses on the influence of the mass
media on the audience. The last type,
policy agenda setting, deals with how
media and public agendas might
influence the policy makers of the
nation.
Supporting Rogers & Dearing
is Littlejohn, who sees the agenda
setting theory as a simple linear
process where it involves media
agenda, followed by the public agenda,
and resulted with the policy agenda
(2002).
Another term that relates to the
agenda setting theory is priming.
Priming is a process in which
the media attend to some issues and
not others, thus, altering the standards
placed in the audience’s mind.
Discovered by Iyengar, Peters and
Kinder in 1982, they stated that by
setting the agenda for an election
campaign, the media also determine
the criteria of how presidential
candidates will be evaluated (Severin
& Tankard, 2001, p. 226).
In a study done during the
Persian Gulf crisis in 1990 to 1991,
Iyengar and Simon (1993) found the
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 4
increased coverage of the crisis
influence the public’s evaluation of
President Bush. The result stated that
Bush’s foreign policy performance was
strongly evaluated than his
performance on economy, indicating a
change in the public opinion due to the
priming effect (Severin & Tankard,
2001, p. 227).
Basically, priming theory
suggests that media images stimulate
related thoughts in the minds of its
audience.
2.2 The Present Study
In a much recent study done by
Syed Arabi Idid and Chang Peng Kee,
the researchers noted that agenda
setting theory happens depending on
the news media they attached to. The
research, which based on the three
main ethnic groups in Malaysia, stated
that ethnic newspapers could be setting
the agenda for the various ethnic
groups during election (2008).
Their results indicated that the
Chinese media agenda have a
significant rank-order correlation with
the Chinese public agenda, suggesting
that the newspapers do influence the
Chinese on what to think about. The
same result happens to the Malay
media agenda with the Malay public
agenda (Idid & Chang, 2008).
Another research was also done
on internet mediated agenda setting.
The study, which focuses on ten cases
that have great ripple effect in Korea
for five years (2000 – 2005), noted that
the internet agenda setting is different
than the traditional agenda setting
we’ve learned in the previous
subchapter (Kim & Lee, 2006).
The study mentioned above
suggests the reverse agenda setting,
which once discussed by McCombs in
his 2004 book, stating that the public
concerned issues could set the media
agenda.
According to Kim & Lee,
agenda building in the internet follows
this three steps (2006):
1. Internet-mediated agenda-
rippling
Happens when an anonymous
netizen posted an issue in the
internet, it may be in his
personal home page, bulletin
board, or blogs. These channels
can create ripple effect due to
its easy-sharing nature.
2. Agenda diffusion in the internet
Once the anonymous post
picked up by online news or
web sites, spreading the post to
more online users, creating
conversation by the online
publics.
3. Internet-mediated reversed
agenda setting
The final stage happens when
the traditional media reports on
the issue, and this leads to more
discussion by the public, either
offline or online.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
According to Merriam-Webster
Dictionary, the word methodology can
be defined as “a body of methods,
rules and postulates employed by a
discipline: a particular procedure or set
of procedures.”
The Business Dictionary
further explains the term methodology
as a system of which specific
procedures (or methods) used to
interpret or solve different problems
within the scope of a particular
discipline. A methodology is also
stated as practices instead of a formula.
The following subtopics will be
discussing about the methodology that
will be used by the researcher in order
to understand the topic.
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 5
3.1 Quantitative Design
For this paper, this researcher is
intending on using quantitative as the
research methodology.
According to Aliaga and
Gunderson, using statistical approach,
quantitative research analyzed
numerical data from samples in order
to understand a certain phenomena
(2002). Numerical data helps
researcher to determine what caused a
certain event to happen.
A nationwide survey will be
made, focusing on respondents who
are eligible to vote in Malaysia, which
means they’re Malaysian and age 21
years old and above, regardless of their
gender.
Through this quantitative
research design, the researcher will be
able to find the answers for the
problems and questions stated in the
first chapter.
3.2 Hypotheses
In a post in the Free Dictionary,
the word hypothesis is explained as a
speculative explanation for a scientific
problem that can be tested in an
investigation. In a simple statement:
hypothesis is a preposition of an event,
a reasoning made prior to the research
in order to understand a phenomenon.
Below are the hypotheses made
for this study:
1. The public’s concerned issues
are the same as the media’s
concerned issue.
2. The media covers issues
concerned by the Malays more
than the non-Malays.

4.0 FINDINGS
The word findings can be defined as information discovered as the result of an
inquiry or investigation (Merriam-Webster).
In this chapter, the researcher will be discussing about the information
gathered from the survey mentioned in the previous chapter.

4.1 Data Findings

Below are the data gathered from the survey done by the researcher on this
topic. A total of 1500 respondents have been surveyed for this study, with 49% of the
respondents are female, and a majority of 51% are male.
The table below shows the most concern issues by the Malaysian respondents
in the survey held. 37% of Malaysians think crime is the most concerned issues,
followed by socials (18%), economy (11%) and rounding up the top five issues are
politics and environmental issues with 7%.
Table 1: Malaysian’s most concern issues by rank
No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 37%
2 Socials 18%
3 Economy 11%
4 Politics 7%
Environment and Natural Disaster 7%
6 Unity 4%
7 National Security 3%
8 Immigrant 2%
9 Leadership 2%
10 Others 9%
Total 100%
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 6

Table 2 below shows the most concern issues by the Malay respondents. The
most concerned issue by them is crime with 33%. Social issues came second with
17% while economic issues at 13%. 8% of the Malay respondents think political
issues are important, while another 7% picks environmental issues.
Table 2: Malay’s most concern issues by rank
No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 33%
2 Socials 17%
3 Economy 13%
4 Politics 8%
5 Environment and Natural Disaster 7%
6 National Security 4%
7 Leadership 4%
8 Immigrant 4%
9 Health Problems 2%
10 Unity 2%
11 Others 6%
Total 100%

Table 3 below shows the most concerned issues by the Chinese respondents of
the survey. Like the previous table, crime falls at the first place with 39%, while
socials came at second with 19%. 10% of the Chinese respondents think economic
issues are important, while 7% chose environmental issues and 6% with unity.
Table 3: Chinese’s most concern issues by rank
No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 39%
2 Socials 19%
3 Economy 10%
4 Environment and Natural Disaster 7%
5 Unity 6%
6 Politics 4%
7 National Security 2%
8 Development Problems 2%
9 Others 11%
Total 100%

Table 4 below shows the most concerned issues by the Indian respondents of
this survey. 43% of them think crime is the most important issues faced by the
country, while 21% chose social issues. 9% of the respondents chose economic issues
and political issues, while the other 7% has chosen environmental issues as the main
national concern.
Table 4: Indian’s most concern issues by rank
No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 43%
2 Socials 21%
3 Economy 9%
Politics 9%
5 Environmental and Natural Disaster 7%
6 Unity 3%
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 7

7 Religion 3%
National Security 3%
9 Education 2%
10 Others 0%
Total 100%

The table below shows most concerned issues covered by the Malaysian
media. 36% of the respondents chose crime as the most concerned issue covered by
the media, while another 12% chose social issues and another 9% chose political
issues. Another 8% thinks the media covered environmental issues while another 5%
are economical and traffic problems.

Table 5: Media’s most concern issues by rank

No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 36%
2 Socials 12%
3 Politics 9%
4 Environment and Natural Disaster 8%
5 Economy 5%
Traffic Problem 5%
7 Development Problems 4%
8 Immigrant 3%
9 Unity 3%
10 National Security 2%
11 Others 13%
Total 100%

Table 6 below shows the most concerned issues covered by the Malaysian
media according to the Malay respondents. A majority of 33% has chosen crime as
the most concerned issues covered by the media, while another 11% has chosen
socials and political issues. Environmental issues falls at the fourth place with 8%,
while developmental problems and economical issues got the same 6% results.

Table 6: Malay’s most concern issues in the media by rank

No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 33%
2 Socials 11%
Politics 11%
4 Environment and Natural Disaster 8%
5 Development Problems 6%
Economy 6%
7 Traffic Problem 5%
8 National Security 3%
Immigrant 3%
10 Leadership 2%
Health Problems 2%
12 Others 10%
Total 100%
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 8

As for the Chinese respondents, they think the most concerned issue covered
by the media is crime (36%), while socials issues fall at second place with 13%,
followed by environmental issues with 8%. Table 7 below also shows political issues
as one of the most concerned issues covered by the local media with 4% and
immigration issues with 5%.

Table 7: Chinese’s most concern issues in the media by rank

No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 36%
2 Socials 13%
3 Environment and Natural Disaster 8%
4 Politics 7%
5 Immigrant 5%
6 Traffic Problem 4%
Economy 4%
Unity 4%
9 Development Problems 3%
10 Religion 2%
11 Others 14%
Total 100%

Finally, table 8 below shows what the Indian respondent think as the most
concerned issues covered by the Malaysian media. A huge majority of them chose
crime as the most concerned issue reported in media (51%), while 8% of them chose
political issues and traffic problems as the following concerned issues reported by the
media. Rounding up the top 5 issues are environmental issues (6%) and social issues
(5%).
Table 8: Indian’s most concern issues in the media by rank
No. Issue Percentage
1 Crime 51%
2 Politics 8%
Traffic Problem 8%
4 Environment and Natural Disaster 6%
5 Socials 5%
6 Health 2%
Development Problems 2%
Unity 2%
Government Administration 2%
10 Others 14%
Total 100%
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 9

5.0 DISCUSSION setting theory is “media concentration
In the following discussion, the of a few issues leads the public to
researcher will list down what has been perceive those issues as more
gathered from the survey session. important than the others” (Agenda
Based on the collected results, the Setting Theory, 2012).
researcher will explain it based on the Based on the statement above,
hypotheses listed in third chapter of it can safely be said that the media
this study. does plays a role in determining what
is perceived as important by the public.
Hypothesis 1: The public’s The fact that the top five issues
concerned issues are the same as the concerned by the public are the same
media’s concerned issues. as what the news media concerned
with, this is saying that the media does
In order to answer the above determine what the Malaysian public
hypothesis, the researcher has decided assumed as important.
to list down the top five issues
concerned by both Malaysian (public Hypothesis 2: The media covers
agenda) and it’s media (media agenda). issues concerned by the Malays more
than the non-Malays’.
No. Media Agenda Public Agenda
1 Crime Crime To answer the above
2 Socials Socials hypothesis, the researcher has decided
3 Politics Economy to list down the top five issues
4 Environment Politics concerned by both Malaysian (public
and Natural agenda) by races and it’s media (media
Disaster agenda).
5 Economy Environment
and Natural N Med Public Agendas
Disaster o ia Mal Chin Indi All
. Age ay ese an Race
As it can be seen, it is proved ndas s
that crime and socials are the top two 1 Crim Crim Crim Crim Crim
most concerned issues by both media e e e e e
and the public. Whereas the other three 2 Soci Soci Soci Soci Soci
concerned issues rounding up both als als als als als
agendas’ top five are consisting of 3 Polit Econ Econ Econ Econ
political, economic, as well as issues ics omy omy omy omy
surrounding environment and natural 4 Envi Polit Envi Polit Polit
disaster. ronm ics ronm ics ics
Regardless of the rank order of ent ent
these issues, it can be seen that the five and and
most concerned issues by both media Natu Natu
and public are the same, thus proving ral ral
the first hypothesis that the public’s Disa Disa
concerned issues are the same as the ster ster
media’s concerned issues. 5 Econ Envi Unit Envi Envi
So, what does this proved? omy ronm y ronm ronm
As stated in the literature and ent ent ent
review, one of the two basic Traff and and and
assumptions raised by the agenda ic Natu Natu Natu
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 10
Prob ral ral ral
lems Disa Disa Disa
ster ster ster
As you can see in the above
table, it shows the media’s top five
concerned issues opposite to the the
issues concerned by the Malaysian
respondents, in total and by races.
The first two of the most
concerned issues, crime and socials,
are the same as the rest of the public
agenda. All three major races in
Malaysia have chosen crime and social
issues as the most concerned national
issues.
But, things changed by the
third issue as the media focuses on
political issues, while the nationals
deemed economy as the third most
important issue in the country.
Economy falls as the fifth most
concerned issues in the media agenda,
tied with traffic problems.
But despite that, political issues
are still the fourth most concerned in
the public agenda, appearing in both
Malay and Indian’s agendas, while not
appearing in Chinese’s top five issues.
So, what is this saying about
the Malaysian media? Are they
determined by the Malays’ agendas
only?
Through correlation, it can be
said that the Malaysian media do
covers issues concerned in all public
agendas, not only on issues by the
Malay only. Thus, from that result, it is
assured the second hypothesis is
rejected by the researcher.
6.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study was
carried out with the main reason to
understand the nature of agenda setting
theory and to find out how strong is the
Malaysian media coverage.
The setting of this study was
during the bi-election in Kajang,
Selangor, which took place in March
2014. A survey was conducted on 1500
respondents who are legal Malaysian
voters from the major races (Malay,
Chinese and Indian) and they were
asked about the issues they’re
concerned with, personally or by the
media.
When comparison was made
with the issues ranked by the public
and the media, the results showed that
that issues concerned by both parties
are the same, indicating what issues the
media covered could influence what
the public perceived as important.
Another comparison was made
in order to see whether the issues
covered by the Malaysian media are a
reflection of the Malays’ concerned
issues, not the non-Malays’. The result
indicated that the Malaysian media
covered issues concerned by the public
instead of a specific race. There is no
indication that states the media only
covers the issues concerned by the
main race of Malaysia, which is the
Malay.
Generally, this study found that
the Malaysian mass media do have a
powerful effect in telling the audience
what to think about.
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MALAYSIA 11

7.0 REFERENCES Dictionary http://www.merriam-
Aliaga & Gunderson. (2002). webster.com/dictionary/methodology
Introduction to quantitative research. “Methodology” Retrieved December 1,
Retrieved December 5, 2014, from 2014 from The Business Dictionary
Sage Publications http://www.businessdictionary.com/def
http://www.sagepub.com/upm- inition/methodology.html
data/9733_036046Ch1.pdf Rogers, E. & Dearing, J. (1988).
Agenda setting theory. (2012). Agenda-setting research: Where has it
Retrieved November 19, 2014, from been, where is it going?. In J.
http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenov Anderson (Ed.), Communication
erzicht/Theory%20clusters/Maxx%20 yearbook, 11 (Pp. 555 – 594) Iowa:
Media/genda-setting_Theory.doc/ Routledge.
Cohen, B. (1963). The press and Severin, G. J. & Tankard, J. W. (2001).
foreign policy. New York: Harcourt. Agenda setting in communication
“Finding” Retrieved December 10, theories. New York: Longman.
2014 from Merriam-Webster Syed Arabi Idid & Chang Peng Kee.
Dictionary http://www.merriam- (2012). The media and public agenda
webster.com/dictionary/finding among the Malay and Chinese
“Hypothesis” Retrieved December 6, communities during the 2008
2014 from The Free Dictionary Malaysian general election Asian
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/hyp social science, 8(5) doi:
othesis 10.5539/ass.v8n5p107
Iyengar, S. & Kinder, D. (1986). News Shuttleworth, M. (Sep 16, 2009).
that matters: Television and American “What is a Literature Review?”.
opinion (2010th Ed.) Chicago: Retrieved December 12, 2014 from
University of Chicago Press. Explorable
Kim, S. T. & Lee. (2006). New https://explorable.com/what-is-a-
functions of internet mediated agenda- literature-review
setting: Agenda-rippling and reversed
agenda-setting. Korean journal of
journalism & communication studies
50(3) (Pp. 175 – 205). Korea.
Lippman, W. (1922). Public opinion.
New York: Harcourt.
Littlejohn, S. W. (2002). Theories of
human communication (7th ed).
Belmont: Wadsworth.
McCombs, M. (2003). The agenda-
setting role of the mass media in the
shaping of public opinion. Retrieved
November 11, 2014, from
http://www.infoamerica.org/document
os_pdf/mccombs01.pdf
McCombs, M. & Shaw, D. (1972). The
agenda setting function of mass media.
Public opinion quarterly, 36(2) doi:
10.1086/26799
“Methodology” Retrieved December 1,
2014 from Merriam-Webster