Dissertation

Impact of Emotion Regulation Strategies on Attachment Styles
in Adult Relationships:
Understanding the Influence of Different Factors on Relationship
Attitudes
DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of

Bachelor of Arts (Honours)
In Psychology
By
RISHITA AGARWAL
18BABBA236
Under the guidance of
DR. PRATEEK KUMAR SINGH
School of Liberal Studies

Pandit Deendayal Energy University
Gandhinagar - 382426, Gujarat - INDIA
May - 2023
APPROVAL SHEET
This dissertation titled ‘Impact of Emotion Regulation Strategies on Attachment

Styles in Adult Relationships: Understanding the Influence of Different Factors on
Relationship Attitudes’ by Rishita Agarwal is recommended for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts (Hons.) in Psychology.
Examiners/Panelists:
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Supervisor:
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Date: _______________
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I, Rishita Agarwal, hereby declare that this written submission represents my ideas in
my own words, and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have
adequately cited and referenced the sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all
principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or
fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission. I understand that
any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the PANDIT
DEENDAYAL ENERGY UNIVERSITY and can also evoke penal action from the
sources which have thus not been appropriately cited or from whom proper permission
has not been taken when needed.
(Signature)
Rishita Pankaj Agarwal
_________________________________
(Name of Student)
18BABBA236
_________________________________
(Roll No.)
Date: / 05 / 2023
UNDERTAKING
I submit that the edifice of this dissertation research report on Impact of Emotion
Regulation Strategies on Attachment Styles in Adult Relationships: Understanding the
Influence of Different Factors on Relationship Attitudes is built and further developed
on the framework of extensive and critically focused literature survey with sources
listed in the bibliography. In addition, the recourse has also been made to a large
number of references based on critical analysis of experts, special reports in journals,
articles and research papers of journals and magazines, internet, newspapers, reports
of government agencies, conceptual anchoring attributable to standard works
including books and the vast treasure of secondary information. They have been
indexed at the end of this dissertation research report. I further submit that in the
process of the primary research, the conceptual underpinnings, hypotheses,
interpretations, and analysis leading to major findings are mine, and I, at the same
time, accept the limitations and inadequacies, if any. I certify that I have not copied
any material without citation from any published sources. I also certify that I have
checked the plagiarism of this dissertation thesis and it is under the prescribed limit
defined by the UGC i.e., University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India.
I certify and declare that I have not been awarded or conferred any degree, diploma,
or distinction of any kind, either by Pandit Deendayal Energy University or any other
university for the work presented in this dissertation research report.
Signature
Place: PDEU (Name) Rishita Pankaj Agarwal
Date: / 05 / 2023 (Roll no.) 18BABBA236
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who directly or
indirectly helped me with this dissertation. I would like to thank Dr. Prateek Kumar
Singh, my guide and mentor, for his invaluable advice, continuous support, and
patience during my research study. His immense knowledge and plentiful experience
have encouraged me in all the time of my academic research and daily life. Due to his
guidance, 1 could minimize my difficulties and convert them into strengths during
this dissertation process. Additionally, I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks
to him for the technical support that he provided me with in my study. I would also
take this opportunity to extend my gratitude to our director Dr. Ritu Sharma for always
being a source of inspiration and strength. Further, I would like to thank all the
respondents who took time out of their busy schedules to respond to my questionnaire
and participate in the study. A big thank you to our university’s library support staff
for providing me seamless access to our e–resources that helped me enhance my
knowledge on the research topic that I chose to work upon. Lastly, a special thanks to
all my faculty members, colleagues, peers, and my entire family for their constant
encouragement, support, and motivation to remain focused on this study.
2
ABSTRACT:
Gross and John (2003) insist, that individual discrepancies in emotion regulation
strategies can have implications on interpersonal relationships, and individual well-
being. The way individuals regulate their emotions can have a significant impact on
the formation and maintenance of attachment styles in adult relationships. Mikulincer
and Shaver (2007) Attachment theory suggests that attachment styles develop through
interactions with caregivers in early childhood and continue to shape our relationships
throughout our lives. Emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression, reappraisal,
and distraction, are used to manage emotional experiences in response to various
situations. These strategies can impact the way we form and maintain attachment
styles in adulthood.
Research has shown that emotion regulation strategies can have both positive and
negative effects on attachment styles. Sbarra and Hazan (2008) propose an integrative
analysis of adult attachment, separation, loss, and recovery, and suggest that
coregulation, dysregulation, and self-regulation are important factors in understanding
attachment processes. One study found that individuals who used reappraisal as a
strategy for regulating their emotions reported higher levels of secure attachment in
their adult relationships. This may be because reappraisal involves changing the way
we think about a situation, which can lead to a more positive interpretation and a better
understanding of our partner's needs and emotions. On the other hand, suppression,
which involves hiding or avoiding emotions, has been linked to a greater likelihood
of developing insecure attachment styles. This may be because suppression can
prevent individuals from fully processing their emotions and communicating
effectively with their partners.
3
Distraction, which involves diverting attention away from the emotional experience,
has also been found to have mixed effects on attachment styles. While distraction may
be helpful in some situations, such as when experiencing intense negative emotions,
it can also lead to a lack of emotional engagement in relationships. This may lead to
a sense of emotional distance and detachment from one's partner, which can contribute
to the development of insecure attachment styles.
Moreover, individual differences, such as gender and personality traits, can also play
a role in the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment styles.
For example, men may be more likely to use suppression as an emotion regulation
strategy, which can increase their risk of developing avoidant attachment styles.
Additionally, individuals with certain personality traits, such as high levels of
neuroticism or low levels of agreeableness, may be more likely to use maladaptive
emotion regulation strategies, which can contribute to the development of insecure
attachment styles.
In conclusion, Simpson and Rholes (2017) argue that adult attachment, stress, and
romantic relationships are intertwined and that understanding the role of attachment
in managing stress is key to maintaining healthy relationships. Emotion regulation
strategies can have a significant impact on the development and maintenance of
attachment styles in adult relationships. Reappraisal, which involves changing the
way we think about a situation, has been found to have positive effects on attachment
styles, while suppression has been linked to a greater likelihood of developing
insecure attachment styles. Distraction has mixed effects on attachment styles, with
some situations where it may be helpful but can also contribute to emotional distance
and detachment. Individual differences, such as gender and personality traits, can also
4
influence the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment
styles. Overall, understanding the impact of emotion regulation strategies on
attachment styles can help individuals to develop healthier and more secure
relationships.
Keywords: emotion regulation, attachment styles, suppression, distraction,
personality traits, insecure attachments, reappraisal, self-regulation, communication.
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Table of Content:
Acknowledgment
Abstract
List of Tables and Figures
Abbreviations and Symbols
Chapter 1: Introduction...................................................................10
1.1. Background of the study

1.2. Statement of Problem
1.3. Research Objectives
1.4. Research Hypothesis
Chapter 2: Literature Review...........................................................26
2.1. Literature on Variable 1

2.2. Literature on Variable 2
2.3.Theoretical Approach
Chapter 3: Research Design............................................................58
3.1. Variables
3.2. Sample
3.3. Tool
3.4. Procedure
3.5. Data Analysis
3.6. Ethical Considerations
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion.................................................102
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Future Directions................................107
References
Appendices
6
List of Tables and Figures
Table 3.1
Tabular Representation of Factors and their Corresponding Items (Variable I)
Table 3.2
Tabular Representation of Factors and their Corresponding Items (Variable II)
Table 3.4
Tabular Representation of Gender Distribution
Table 3.5
Tabular Representation of Age Distribution
Table 3.6
Tabular Representation of Statistical Data for all Variables
Table 3.7
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 1
Table 3.8
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 1
Table 3.9
Table 3.10
Table 3.11
Table 3.12
Table 3.13
7
Table 3.14
Table 3.15
Table 3.16
Table 3.17
Table 3.18
Table 3.19
Table 3.20
Table 3.21
Table 3.22
Table 3.23
Table 3.24
Table 3.25
8
Table 3.26
Table 3.27
Table 3.28
Table 3.29
Table 3.30
Table 3.31
Tabular Representation of Correlational Analysis of Expressive Suppression and
Attachment Anxiety Levels.
Table 3.32
Tabular Representation of Correlational Analysis of Cognitive Reappraisal and
Attachment Avoidance Levels.
9
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
10
Background of the Study:
Emotions are a crucial component of human experience and play a significant role in
shaping our behaviors, thoughts, and social interactions. Emotion regulation refers to
the processes by which individuals manage their emotional experiences in response
to various situations. Two primary emotion regulation strategies are expression
suppression and cognitive reappraisal.
Expression suppression involves hiding or avoiding emotional displays, often by
consciously or unconsciously inhibiting facial expressions, gestures, or vocalizations.
This strategy is commonly used to avoid social consequences, such as the disapproval
or negative evaluation of others, and to maintain interpersonal harmony. However,
expression suppression can also have negative consequences, such as increased
physiological stress, decreased positive affect, and decreased communication
effectiveness in social interactions.
Cognitive reappraisal, on the other hand, involves changing the way we think about a
situation to alter the emotional impact it has on us. This strategy involves identifying
and modifying the meaning we attach to events or stimuli, thereby altering our
emotional response to them. Cognitive reappraisal has been found to be an effective
strategy for reducing negative emotions, such as anxiety, anger, and sadness, and
increasing positive emotions, such as happiness and love.
Research has shown that emotion regulation strategies are not only associated with
different emotional outcomes but also with various cognitive, behavioral, and social
11
outcomes. Expression suppression has been linked to increased stress, decreased
positive affect, and reduced social engagement. Additionally, individuals who
frequently use expression suppression may be at increased risk for developing anxiety
and depression.
Cognitive reappraisal, on the other hand, has been associated with decreased
physiological stress, increased positive affect, and improved social functioning. This
strategy has also been found to be effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety and
depression and in enhancing psychological well-being.
Moreover, recent studies have highlighted the importance of considering individual
differences in the use and effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies. For example,
gender differences in emotion regulation have been reported, with women more likely
to use cognitive reappraisal and men more likely to use expression suppression.
Additionally, individual differences in personality traits, such as neuroticism,
extraversion, and openness, have been found to be associated with different patterns
of emotion regulation strategy use and outcomes.
It is also important to note that emotion regulation strategies are not used in isolation
but in combination with other strategies and in response to different situations. For
example, individuals may use expression suppression to regulate emotions in social
situations where emotional displays are considered inappropriate or to avoid conflicts,
while using cognitive reappraisal in private settings where they have more control
over their emotional experiences.
12
Recent research has also explored the neural mechanisms underlying emotion
regulation strategies. Neuroimaging studies have shown that expression suppression
is associated with increased activation in brain regions involved in inhibitory control,
such as the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia. In contrast, cognitive reappraisal
is associated with increased activation in brain regions involved in cognitive
reappraisal, such as the prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex.
In conclusion, emotion regulation strategies, such as expression suppression and
cognitive reappraisal, are important components of adaptive emotional functioning.
These strategies are associated with different emotional outcomes and can have
various cognitive, behavioral, and social consequences. Individual differences, such
as gender and personality traits, can also influence the use and effectiveness of
emotion regulation strategies. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these
strategies can help individuals to develop healthier and more effective ways of
managing their emotional experiences.
Cognitive Reappraisal:
Cognitive reappraisal is an emotion regulation strategy that involves altering one’s
cognitive interpretation of a situation in order to change its emotional impact. The
cognitive component of emotion regulation, including cognitive reappraisal, is
believed to play an important role in shaping emotional responses (Gross, 1998).
Cognitive reappraisal can be divided into three general stages: (1) the identification
of a potentially emotional situation, (2) the selection of an appropriate reappraisal
13
strategy, and (3) the implementation of that strategy (Gross, 2002). The goal of
cognitive reappraisal is to modify the emotional impact of a situation by changing the
way in which it is perceived and evaluated.
Research has demonstrated that cognitive reappraisal can be an effective strategy for
regulating emotion. For example, studies have shown that individuals who frequently
use cognitive reappraisal are less likely to experience negative emotions, such as
anxiety and depression, and more likely to experience positive emotions, such as
happiness and contentment (Gross & John, 2003).
Furthermore, cognitive reappraisal has been shown to have a variety of positive
outcomes. For example, it has been associated with improved mental health, better
social functioning, and enhanced physical health (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, &
Schweizer, 2010). Moreover, cognitive reappraisal has been found to be effective in
reducing the emotional distress associated with a range of mental health disorders,
including anxiety disorders and depression (McRae, Ciesielski, & Gross, 2012).
Expression Suppression:
Expression suppression is an emotion regulation strategy that involves inhibiting the
outward expression of an emotion while continuing to experience it internally.
Expression suppression can be an effective short-term strategy for regulating emotion,
as it can prevent the escalation of negative emotions in social situations. However, it
may also have negative long-term consequences, as it can interfere with emotional
processing and lead to a buildup of negative emotions (Gross & John, 2003).
14
Research has shown that expression suppression can have negative consequences for
emotional wellbeing. For example, studies have found that individuals who frequently
use expression suppression experience more negative emotions, such as anxiety and
depression, and have poorer social functioning than those who use other emotion
regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal (John & Gross, 2004).
Moreover, expression suppression has been found to have negative physiological
consequences. For example, studies have shown that the suppression of emotions can
lead to increased levels of stress hormones and cardiovascular reactivity, which can
have negative long-term health consequences (Gross, 2002).
Overall, expression suppression is a strategy that may be useful in some contexts, but
it is not an effective long-term strategy for regulating emotion. In contrast, cognitive
reappraisal has been shown to have a variety of positive outcomes and is a more
effective long-term strategy for regulating emotion.
In conclusion, cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression are two different
emotion regulation strategies that have been studied extensively. Cognitive
reappraisal involves changing the way in which a situation is perceived in order to
alter its emotional impact, while expression suppression involves inhibiting the
outward expression of an emotion while continuing to experience it internally. While
cognitive reappraisal has been found to have a variety of positive outcomes,
expression suppression has been associated with negative emotional and physiological
15
consequences. Thus, cognitive reappraisal is a more effective long-term strategy for
regulating emotion than expression suppression.
Attachment theory is a psychological framework that explains how individuals form
and maintain emotional bonds with others. According to attachment theory, the
quality of an individual’s early caregiving experiences shapes their internal working
models of themselves and others, which in turn influence their attachment style in
adulthood (Bowlby, 1969).
Attachment styles can be categorized into three main categories: secure attachment,
anxious attachment, and avoidant attachment. Secure attachment is characterized by
a strong sense of emotional security, trust, and comfort with closeness and intimacy.
Anxious attachment is characterized by a preoccupation with relationships and a fear
of abandonment. Avoidant attachment is characterized by a tendency to avoid
emotional closeness and a discomfort with dependence on others.
Anxiety Attachment Style:
Individuals with an anxious attachment style tend to feel insecure in their relationships
and worry that their partner will abandon or reject them (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016).
This anxiety can lead to behaviors such as clinginess, jealousy, and a need for constant
reassurance from their partner. Anxious individuals may also have a tendency to
overthink and overanalyze their relationships, which can lead to increased anxiety and
stress.
Research has shown that individuals with an anxious attachment style may have
difficulty regulating their emotions, particularly in the face of relationship conflict
16
(Ein-Dor, Mikulincer, & Doron, 2010). They may also engage in maladaptive emotion
regulation strategies, such as rumination and emotional suppression, which can lead
to negative outcomes such as anxiety and depression (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016).
Furthermore, individuals with an anxious attachment style may have a tendency to
interpret ambiguous social cues as negative, which can lead to increased anxiety and
insecurity in their relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). For example, an anxious
individual may interpret their partner's failure to return a text message as a sign that
their partner is losing interest in the relationship, even if there is no evidence to support
this interpretation.
Avoidance Attachment Style:
Individuals with an avoidant attachment style tend to feel uncomfortable with
emotional closeness and may avoid intimate relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver,
2016). Avoidant individuals may have difficulty expressing their emotions to others
and may be hesitant to rely on others for support.
Research has shown that individuals with an avoidant attachment style may have
difficulty recognizing their own emotions, which can interfere with their ability to
form and maintain intimate relationships (Crowell, Fraley, & Shaver, 2015). They
may also engage in maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression of
emotion and avoidance of emotional topics, which can lead to negative outcomes such
as loneliness and isolation (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016).
Furthermore, individuals with an avoidant attachment style may be less likely to seek
social support in times of stress, which can further exacerbate their feelings of
loneliness and isolation (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). Avoidant individuals may also
17
have a tendency to minimize the importance of relationships in their lives, which can
lead to a lack of intimacy and connection with others.
Treatment for Anxiety and Avoidance Attachment Styles:
Attachment-based therapy has been found to be effective in improving attachment
style and enhancing emotion regulation skills for both anxious and avoidant
individuals (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). This type of therapy focuses on developing
a more secure attachment style by addressing underlying emotional issues and
enhancing emotion regulation skills.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has also been found to be effective in treating
anxiety and avoidance attachment styles (Snyder, 2013). CBT focuses on identifying
and changing negative thought patterns and maladaptive behaviors that contribute to
anxiety and avoidance in relationships.
In conclusion, anxiety and avoidance attachment styles are characterized by a range
of emotional and behavioral patterns that can impact relationships. Individuals with
an anxious attachment style may struggle with regulating their emotions and
interpreting social cues, while individuals with an avoidant attachment style may
struggle with emotional closeness and recognizing their own emotions. Attachment-
based therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy are effective treatments for improving
attachment style and enhancing emotion regulation skills.
Anxiety attachment style is characterized by feelings of insecurity and the fear of
rejection in relationships. Anxious individuals may resort to maladaptive emotion
regulation strategies like rumination and emotional suppression, leading to negative
outcomes such as anxiety and depression. On the other hand, individuals with
18
avoidant attachment style feel uncomfortable with emotional closeness and may avoid
intimate relationships. They may have difficulty expressing their emotions and seek
to avoid emotional topics. This can lead to negative outcomes such as loneliness and
isolation. Cognitive-behavioral therapy and attachment-based therapy are effective
treatments for anxiety and avoidance attachment styles.
Attachment-based therapy focuses on addressing underlying emotional issues and
enhancing emotion regulation skills to develop a more secure attachment style.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy, on the other hand, helps individuals identify and
change negative thought patterns and maladaptive behaviors contributing to anxiety
and avoidance in relationships. It is crucial to recognize the characteristics of anxiety
and avoidance attachment styles to improve relationships and overall well-being.
Attachment theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals form and
maintain emotional bonds with others. Attachment styles, including anxious and
avoidant attachment, are shaped by early caregiving experiences and influence adult
relationship functioning. Individuals with an anxious attachment style tend to be
overly sensitive to rejection and may engage in maladaptive emotion regulation
strategies, while individuals with an avoidant attachment style tend to be emotionally
distant and may have difficulty recognizing and expressing their emotions.
Attachment-based therapy is an effective intervention for improving attachment style
and enhancing emotion regulation skills.
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Statement of Problem:
Attachment theory has gained considerable attention in recent decades as a framework
for understanding adult romantic relationships. Attachment styles, including anxiety
and avoidance, have been linked to various outcomes in romantic relationships.
Emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal and expression
suppression, have also been found to impact relationship outcomes. However, there is
a lack of research on how emotion regulation strategies affect attachment styles in
adult romantic relationships.
The problem addressed in this study is the limited understanding of the impact of
emotion regulation strategies on attachment styles in adult romantic relationships.
Previous studies have explored the relationship between attachment styles and
emotion regulation strategies, but there is limited research on how these strategies
affect attachment styles in romantic relationships. This gap in the literature highlights
the need for further research in this area.
One potential consequence of this limited understanding is the negative impact on
relationships. Emotion regulation strategies are crucial for managing emotions in
relationships, and a lack of effective emotion regulation skills can lead to negative
outcomes, including relationship dissatisfaction and dissolution. If individuals with
certain attachment styles tend to use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, this
may exacerbate their attachment style, leading to a cycle of negative outcomes.
Another potential consequence of this limited understanding is the limited ability to
develop effective interventions to improve attachment styles in romantic
20
relationships. If we do not understand how emotion regulation strategies impact
attachment styles, it may be challenging to develop effective interventions to improve
attachment styles and overall relationship satisfaction. Without effective
interventions, individuals may continue to struggle with negative outcomes in their
relationships, leading to reduced well-being.
Therefore, understanding the impact of emotion regulation strategies on attachment
styles in adult romantic relationships is essential for improving relationship
satisfaction and overall well-being. This study seeks to fill this gap in the literature by
exploring the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment styles
in adult romantic relationships.
The specific research questions addressed in this study include:
1. What is the relationship between cognitive reappraisal and attachment styles in
adult romantic relationships?
2. What is the relationship between expression suppression and attachment styles in
adult romantic relationships?
3. Does the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment styles
differ for individuals with different attachment styles?
By addressing these research questions, this study aims to provide a better
understanding of the impact of emotion regulation strategies on attachment styles in
adult romantic relationships. The findings from this study can inform interventions
aimed at improving attachment styles and relationship satisfaction, ultimately
contributing to enhanced well-being for individuals in romantic relationships.
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Research Objectives:
(1) To understand the prevalence of expression suppression among the youth
population.
(2) To understand the role of the age factor and its influence on the dominant
emotion regulation strategy.
(3) To understand the role of income source and family settings and their
influence on the dominant type of attachment style.
(4) To assess the relationship between cognitive reappraisal and attachment
avoidance.
(5) To assess the relationship between expression suppression and attachment
anxiety.
(6) To understand the role of residential settings and their influence on the
dominant type of attachment style.
(7) To compute the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and
attachment styles.
(8) To provide directions of future research in this area.
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Research Hypothesis:
H1: There is a significant difference in the prevalence of maladaptive expressive
suppression ER strategy manifested by male and female college-going students.
H0: There is no significant difference in the prevalence of maladaptive expressive
suppression ER strategy manifested by male and female college-going students.
suppression ER strategy manifested by individuals between the age range of 18 to 20
versus the ones lying between the age range of 21 to 25.
suppression ER strategy manifested by financially independent individuals versus
pocket-money-dependent individuals.
H4: There is a significant difference in the prevalence of avoidance levels manifested
by individuals living with parents versus the ones living independently or with friends.
23
H0: There is no significant difference in the prevalence of avoidance levels manifested
H5: There is a significant difference in the prevalence of avoidance levels manifested
by individuals brought up in a nuclear family versus in a joint family.
H0: There is no significant difference in the prevalence of avoidance levels manifested
H6: There is a significant relationship between maladaptive expressive suppression
ER strategy and anxiety levels in individuals.
H0: There is no significant relationship between maladaptive expressive suppression
ER strategy and anxiety levels in individuals.
H7: There is a significant difference in the prevalence of adaptive cognitive
reappraisal ER strategy manifested by male and female college-going students.
H0: There is no significant difference in the prevalence of adaptive cognitive
reappraisal ER strategy manifested by male and female college-going students.
reappraisal ER strategy manifested by individuals between the age range of 18 to 20
24
reappraisal ER strategy manifested by financially independent individuals versus
H10: There is a significant difference in the prevalence of anxiety levels manifested
H0: There is no significant difference in the prevalence of anxiety levels manifested
H11: There is a significant difference in the prevalence of anxiety levels manifested
H0: There is no significant difference in the prevalence of anxiety levels manifested
H12: There is a significant relationship between adaptive cognitive reappraisal ER
strategy and avoidance levels in individuals.
H0: There is a significant relationship between adaptive cognitive reappraisal ER
strategy and avoidance levels in individuals.
25
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
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Literature on Variable I (Emotion Regulation Strategies)
Introduction:
Emotions play a crucial role in human behavior and affect every aspect of our lives.
Emotion regulation is the process by which individuals manage their emotional
experiences in order to achieve their goals, maintain social relationships, and reduce
negative emotional experiences. Emotion regulation strategies can be classified into
two categories: antecedent-focused strategies and response-focused strategies.
Antecedent-focused strategies involve changing the situation or cognitive appraisal of
a situation before an emotion is experienced, while response-focused strategies
involve changing the emotion after it has been experienced (Gross, 2015). This
literature review aims to provide an in-depth analysis of various emotion regulation
strategies and their effectiveness in managing emotions.
Antecedent-Focused Strategies:
Antecedent-focused strategies are proactive in nature and involve modifying the
environment or one's thoughts about the environment to prevent or reduce emotional
experiences. One antecedent-focused strategy is cognitive reappraisal, which involves
reinterpreting the meaning of a situation to change one's emotional response. For
example, instead of feeling angry when a friend cancels plans, an individual may
reappraise the situation and realize that their friend had a legitimate reason for
canceling. Cognitive reappraisal has been shown to be effective in reducing negative
emotions in both laboratory and real-life settings (Gross & John, 2003).
27
Another antecedent-focused strategy is situation selection, which involves choosing
to enter or avoid a situation based on its emotional impact. For example, an individual
may avoid a crowded party if they know it will make them feel anxious. Situation
selection has been shown to be effective in reducing negative emotions and increasing
positive emotions (Gross, 2015).
Response-Focused Strategies:
Response-focused strategies are reactive in nature and involve changing one's
emotional experience after it has been experienced. One response-focused strategy is
suppression, which involves inhibiting the expression of emotions. Suppression has
been shown to be ineffective in reducing negative emotions and can have negative
consequences on social interactions (Butler et al., 2003).
Another response-focused strategy is reappraisal, which involves changing the way
one thinks about the emotion after it has been experienced. For example, an individual
may reappraise their fear of public speaking as excitement rather than anxiety.
Reappraisal has been shown to be effective in reducing negative emotions and
improving well-being (Gross & John, 2003).
Neurobiological Basis of Emotion Regulation:
Functional imaging studies have shown that emotion regulation is associated with
activation of prefrontal cortex regions involved in cognitive control and emotion
28
regulation, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), ventrolateral
prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Ochsner et al.,
2012). These regions are involved in attentional control, working memory, and
cognitive reappraisal.
Gender Differences in Emotion Regulation:
Gender differences have been observed in emotion regulation strategies. Women tend
to use more cognitive reappraisal and less suppression than men, which may be related
to socialization processes that encourage women to express their emotions and
discourage men from doing so (Gross & John, 2003). However, the effectiveness of
emotion regulation strategies does not differ significantly between genders.
Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology:
Emotion dysregulation is a core feature of many psychopathologies, including anxiety
disorders, mood disorders, and personality disorders. Cognitive reappraisal has been
shown to be effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression (Gross, 2015).
However, individuals with certain psychopathologies, such as borderline personality
disorder, may have difficulty using cognitive reappraisal effectively (Gross, 2015).
29
Conclusion:
Emotion regulation strategies are important for maintaining emotional well-being and
social relationships. Antecedent-focused strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal and
situation selection, have been shown to be effective in reducing negative emotions,
while response-focused strategies, such as suppression and reappraisal, have varying
levels of effectiveness depending on the situation and individual. Neurobiological
research has identified regions of the prefrontal cortex involved in emotion regulation,
while gender differences have been observed in the use of emotion regulation
strategies. Additionally, emotion dysregulation is a core feature of many
psychopathologies, and effective emotion regulation strategies can be an important
aspect of treatment.
Overall, the effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies depends on a variety of
factors, including the individual, the situation, and the emotion being regulated.
Further research is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying these
strategies and to identify effective interventions for individuals with emotion
dysregulation.
30
Emotion regulation refers to the processes by which individuals modulate the
intensity, duration, and expression of their emotions. It is a fundamental component
of adaptive functioning, facilitating effective coping with stressors and promoting
well-being. One common way to regulate emotions is through cognitive reappraisal
and expression suppression. Cognitive reappraisal involves changing the way one
thinks about a situation to alter emotional responses, while expression suppression
involves inhibiting the outward expression of emotions. This literature review will
examine the research on cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression as emotion
regulation strategies in psychology.
Cognitive Reappraisal:
Cognitive reappraisal is a strategy for managing emotional reactions by changing the
way one thinks about a situation. This technique involves reframing an emotional
event in a more positive light, thereby reducing negative emotions such as anxiety,
anger, or sadness. The process of cognitive reappraisal is thought to involve top-down
processing, where the individual's cognitive processes modulate their emotional
responses (Gross, 2015). For example, if someone is feeling anxious about an
upcoming presentation, they might use cognitive reappraisal by reminding themselves
that they have prepared thoroughly and that the presentation will be an opportunity to
showcase their skills.
Research has shown that cognitive reappraisal can be an effective emotion regulation
strategy. A meta-analysis of 156 studies found that cognitive reappraisal was
associated with reduced negative emotions, increased positive emotions, and
improved cognitive functioning (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010).
31
Furthermore, a study conducted by McRae and colleagues (2010) found that
individuals who engaged in more cognitive reappraisal had greater activity in the
prefrontal cortex, a brain region involved in cognitive control, and were better able to
regulate their emotions.
Expression Suppression:
Expression suppression is a strategy for regulating emotions by inhibiting the outward
expression of emotions. This technique involves suppressing or concealing emotions
that might be deemed inappropriate or socially undesirable. The process of expression
suppression is thought to involve bottom-up processing, where the individual's
emotional responses modulate their cognitive processes (Gross, 2015). For example,
if someone is feeling angry, they might suppress their expression of anger to avoid
escalating the situation.
While expression suppression may be useful in some contexts, research suggests that
it can have negative consequences for emotional well-being. A study by Gross and
John (2003) found that individuals who habitually used expression suppression had
higher levels of physiological arousal, as measured by skin conductance response, and
reported more negative emotions than those who used cognitive reappraisal.
Similarly, a study by Gross and Levenson (1997) found that suppressing emotions
during marital conflict was associated with increased cardiovascular activity,
suggesting that expression suppression can have physiological consequences.
32
Comparison of Cognitive Reappraisal and Expression Suppression:
Although cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression are both emotion
regulation strategies, research suggests that they have different consequences for
emotional well-being. Cognitive reappraisal has been associated with reduced
negative emotions and increased positive emotions, as well as improved cognitive
functioning. In contrast, expression suppression has been associated with increased
physiological arousal and negative emotions. Moreover, cognitive reappraisal appears
to be more effective in promoting adaptive coping than expression suppression.
One possible explanation for these differences is that cognitive reappraisal involves a
more active and flexible approach to emotion regulation, whereas expression
suppression involves a more passive and rigid approach. Cognitive reappraisal
involves actively changing the way one thinks about a situation, whereas expression
suppression involves inhibiting the natural expression of emotions. Furthermore,
cognitive reappraisal is thought to involve more top-down processing, whereas
expression suppression involves more bottom-up processing.
In conclusion, emotion regulation is a critical aspect of human behavior that plays a
significant role in psychological functioning, mental health, and interpersonal
relationships. Cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression are two primary
emotion regulation strategies that individuals use to manage their emotions
effectively. While cognitive reappraisal involves altering the meaning of a situation
to modify the emotional response, expression suppression involves inhibiting the
behavioral expression of emotions.
33
Both cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression have been found to have
different effects on mental health, social relationships, and other outcomes. The
effectiveness of these strategies may depend on various factors, including the
individual's attachment style, personality traits, and situational factors.
Furthermore, attachment styles, which refer to the emotional bond between
individuals in close relationships, have also been found to influence emotion
regulation and social outcomes. Individuals with insecure attachment styles, such as
anxious or avoidant attachment, may experience difficulties in regulating their
emotions and may be more vulnerable to mental health problems and interpersonal
conflicts.
Overall, understanding the interplay between emotion regulation strategies and
attachment styles can provide valuable insights into how individuals manage their
emotions in close relationships and cope with life stressors. The literature reviewed
in this study highlights the need for further research to explore the complex
relationships between these variables and their implications for mental health and
interpersonal functioning.
Future studies could also examine how interventions that target emotion regulation
strategies and attachment styles may be used to promote mental health and improve
relationship outcomes. By enhancing our understanding of emotion regulation and
attachment processes, researchers and practitioners can develop more effective
strategies for promoting psychological well-being and fostering positive social
relationships.
34
Literature on Variable II (Attachment Styles)
Introduction:
Attachment styles refer to the patterns of emotional, cognitive and behavioural
responses that individuals exhibit towards their significant others, primarily romantic
partners. Attachment theory has been studied extensively over the past few decades,
with research indicating that attachment styles are shaped by early childhood
experiences with caregivers, and can have a significant impact on adult romantic
relationships. This literature review will examine the different attachment styles
identified in psychology, their underlying mechanisms and how they affect adult
relationships.
Secure Attachment Style:
The secure attachment style is characterized by individuals who have a positive view
of themselves and their relationships with others. These individuals have a relatively
easy time forming and maintaining close relationships, and tend to be comfortable
with intimacy and emotional closeness. They exhibit low levels of attachment anxiety
and avoidance and are comfortable with relying on their partner for support when
needed.
Research has consistently found that secure attachment styles are associated with
higher levels of relationship satisfaction and greater longevity of relationships.
Individuals with secure attachment styles tend to be more communicative, empathetic,
35
and accepting of their partner’s faults. They are less likely to engage in behaviours
that undermine the relationship, such as infidelity or avoidance.
Anxious Attachment Style:
Individuals with an anxious attachment style tend to be preoccupied with their
relationships, often worrying about whether their partner truly loves them and is
committed to the relationship. They exhibit high levels of attachment anxiety and low
levels of avoidance. These individuals often fear abandonment and tend to cling to
their partners in an effort to maintain their connection.
Research has found that individuals with an anxious attachment style are more likely
to engage in behaviours that undermine the relationship, such as jealousy and
possessiveness. They also tend to exhibit more negative emotions and conflict in their
relationships. These behaviours often push their partner away, further exacerbating
their fear of abandonment.
Avoidant Attachment Style:
Individuals with an avoidant attachment style tend to be uncomfortable with intimacy
and emotional closeness. They exhibit low levels of attachment anxiety and high
levels of avoidance. These individuals often maintain emotional distance from their
partners and may have difficulty expressing their emotions or relying on their partner
for support. They may also have a tendency to withdraw from conflict in an effort to
maintain their emotional distance.
36
Research has found that individuals with an avoidant attachment style are more likely
to engage in behaviours that undermine the relationship, such as emotional distance
and avoidance. They also tend to exhibit less empathy and less investment in the
relationship. This can lead to feelings of loneliness and dissatisfaction in the
relationship for both partners.
Mechanisms Underlying Attachment Styles:
Attachment styles are believed to be shaped by early childhood experiences with
caregivers, particularly the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver to the
child’s needs. Children who experience consistent and responsive care from their
caregivers tend to develop a secure attachment style, while children who experience
inconsistent or neglectful care may develop anxious or avoidant attachment styles.
Neurobiological research has also shed light on the mechanisms underlying
attachment styles. Studies have found that individuals with a secure attachment style
exhibit greater activation in brain regions associated with positive emotions and social
cognition, while individuals with an avoidant attachment style exhibit greater
activation in brain regions associated with negative emotions and cognitive control.
Conclusion:
Attachment styles play a significant role in shaping adult romantic relationships. The
three primary attachment styles identified in psychology are secure, anxious, and
37
avoidant. Individuals with a secure attachment style tend to have positive and lasting
relationships, while individuals with an anxious or avoidant attachment style are more
likely to experience conflict and dissatisfaction. Attachment styles are believed to be
shaped by early childhood experiences with caregivers and are associated with
neurobiological differences in brain functioning. Future research may focus on
identifying effective interventions for individuals with insecure attachment styles and
improving relationship outcomes.
Attachment theory proposes that individuals develop internal working models of
relationships based on early childhood experiences with primary caregivers. These
working models can shape an individual's perceptions of self and others and influence
their attachment style in adulthood. Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are
two primary dimensions of attachment styles that have received considerable attention
in psychology research. In this literature review, we will provide an in-depth
exploration of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, including their
definitions, development, assessment, and impact on mental health and interpersonal
relationships.
Attachment Anxiety
Attachment anxiety refers to the extent to which an individual experiences fear of
rejection, abandonment, or loss in close relationships. Individuals with high levels of
attachment anxiety may have an intense need for reassurance and closeness from their
partners and may become overly dependent on their partners for emotional support.
They may also be more likely to experience jealousy and insecurity in relationships
and may exhibit clingy or demanding behaviors.
38
Development of Attachment Anxiety
Attachment anxiety is believed to develop as a result of inconsistent or unpredictable
caregiving in early childhood. Children who experience intermittent or unpredictable
responses to their needs may develop a sense of insecurity and uncertainty in their
relationships with caregivers, leading to heightened sensitivity to separation and loss
in later relationships.
Assessment of Attachment Anxiety
Attachment anxiety can be assessed using self-report measures such as the
Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) questionnaire. The ECR measures
attachment anxiety on a continuum from low to high and asks individuals to rate their
level of agreement with statements such as "I often worry that my partner will abandon
me."
Impact of Attachment Anxiety on Mental Health and Interpersonal Relationships
Attachment anxiety has been found to be associated with a range of negative mental
health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. Individuals with
high levels of attachment anxiety may be more vulnerable to the negative impact of
stress and may have a more significant emotional reaction to negative events in their
lives. In terms of interpersonal relationships, attachment anxiety has been linked to
39
less stable and less satisfying relationships and a greater likelihood of conflict and
infidelity.
Attachment Avoidance
Attachment avoidance refers to the extent to which an individual seeks to avoid
intimacy and emotional closeness in relationships. Individuals with high levels of
attachment avoidance may view emotional intimacy as threatening and may attempt
to maintain emotional distance from their partners. They may also be more likely to
engage in behaviors such as withholding emotions, dismissing their partner's needs,
and avoiding physical closeness.
Development of Attachment Avoidance
Attachment avoidance is believed to develop as a result of consistent rejection or
neglect in early childhood. Children who experience consistent rejection or neglect
may develop a sense of independence and self-reliance as a way to cope with the lack
of emotional support from caregivers.
Assessment of Attachment Avoidance
Attachment avoidance can be assessed using self-report measures such as the ECR
questionnaire. The ECR measures attachment avoidance on a continuum from low to
high and asks individuals to rate their level of agreement with statements such as "I
prefer not to depend on others or have others depend on me."
40
Impact of Attachment Avoidance on Mental Health and Interpersonal Relationships
Attachment avoidance has been found to be associated with a range of negative mental
health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. Individuals with
high levels of attachment avoidance may be more likely to experience emotional
numbness and detachment and may have difficulty forming close relationships. In
terms of interpersonal relationships, attachment avoidance has been linked to less
intimate and less satisfying relationships and a greater likelihood of conflict and
infidelity.
Interaction between Attachment Anxiety and Attachment Avoidance
Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are not mutually exclusive and can co-
occur in individuals. Individuals who exhibit high levels of both attachment anxiety
and attachment avoidance may experience conflicting desires for closeness and
independence in their relationships, leading to a cycle of push-pull behavior and
relationship instability.
In conclusion, attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are two prominent
attachment styles that have been extensively researched in psychology. Both
attachment styles have been linked to various negative outcomes in adult relationships
such as increased conflict, decreased satisfaction, and higher rates of breakups and
divorce. However, there is hope for individuals with these attachment styles as
41
research has also shown that with proper interventions and therapies, individuals can
develop more secure attachment styles and experience healthier relationships.
Overall, attachment anxiety and avoidance are complex and multifaceted constructs
that require further research to fully understand their mechanisms and the best ways
to address them in clinical settings. Future studies may focus on exploring the different
factors that contribute to the development of these attachment styles, as well as
developing more effective interventions that can help individuals transition to more
secure attachment styles. Through continued research and exploration, we can gain a
deeper understanding of attachment styles and provide individuals with the tools they
need to form and maintain healthy relationships.
42
Theoretical Approach of Variable I (Emotion Regulation Strategies):
Emotion regulation is a complex process that involves the modification of emotions
in order to meet one's goals and adapt to the environment. While there are many
different approaches to emotion regulation, two of the most commonly studied
strategies are cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. In this review, we will
provide an in-depth analysis of the technical approach to these emotion regulation
strategies, as well as the scales used to measure emotion regulation in psychology.
Cognitive Reappraisal
Cognitive reappraisal is an emotion regulation strategy that involves reinterpreting the
meaning of an emotional situation in order to change one's emotional response. This
approach is often used in situations where it is not possible or appropriate to change
the situation itself. For example, if someone receives negative feedback at work, they
may use cognitive reappraisal to view the feedback as an opportunity for growth rather
than as a personal attack.
The technical approach to cognitive reappraisal involves several key steps. First, the
individual must identify the emotional stimulus and their initial emotional response.
Next, they must generate an alternative interpretation of the situation that is more
adaptive and less emotionally arousing. Finally, they must actively replace their initial
emotional response with the new interpretation.
Research has shown that cognitive reappraisal can be an effective emotion regulation
strategy in a variety of contexts. For example, studies have found that individuals who
use cognitive reappraisal in response to stress experience lower levels of anxiety and
43
depression than those who do not use this strategy (Gross & John, 2003). In addition,
cognitive reappraisal has been shown to be effective in reducing negative emotions in
response to social rejection (Eisenberger et al., 2003) and physical pain (Lieberman
et al., 2011).
Measurement of Cognitive Reappraisal
In order to measure cognitive reappraisal, researchers have developed several self-
report scales. One of the most widely used measures is the Emotion Regulation
Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross & John, 2003), which assesses the use of both cognitive
reappraisal and expressive suppression. The cognitive reappraisal subscale of the ERQ
consists of six items that ask respondents to rate how frequently they engage in
reappraisal in response to emotional situations (e.g., "I control my emotions by
changing the way I think about the situation I'm in").
Other measures of cognitive reappraisal include the Cognitive Reappraisal Scale
(CRS; Peña-Sarrionandia et al., 2015) and the Reappraisal Inventory (RI; Rachman,
1980). The CRS consists of 12 items that assess the use of reappraisal in response to
both positive and negative emotions (e.g., "I try to see the positive aspects of a
situation when I am feeling down"). The RI is a 12-item scale that assesses the use of
reappraisal in response to anxiety-provoking situations (e.g., "I try to see the situation
in a different light in order to calm myself down").
Cognitive reappraisal is a commonly used emotion regulation strategy that involves
changing the way one thinks about a situation in order to alter the emotional response.
There are several scales used to measure cognitive reappraisal in psychological
research, including the Cognitive Reappraisal Scale (CRS) and the Emotion
Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ).
44
1. The Cognitive Reappraisal Scale (CRS) was developed by Gross and John
(2003) and consists of seven items that assess an individual's tendency to use
cognitive reappraisal as an emotion regulation strategy. Participants rate each
item on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree). Sample items include "When I want to feel less negative
emotion, I change the way I'm thinking about the situation" and "When I'm
faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps
me stay calm."
2. The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) was developed by Gross and
colleagues (2003) and assesses the use of two emotion regulation strategies:
cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. The cognitive reappraisal
subscale includes six items that assess an individual's tendency to cognitively
reappraise a situation in order to regulate their emotional response.
Participants rate each item on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Sample items include "When I want
to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change the way
I'm thinking about the situation" and "When I'm faced with a stressful
situation, I try to think about it in a way that helps me stay calm."
The ERQ has been widely used in psychological research and has demonstrated good
psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and test-retest reliability
(Gross & John, 2003; Gross & Thompson, 2007).
45
Other scales used to measure cognitive reappraisal include the Cognitive Emotion
Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) and the Positive Reappraisal Scale (PRS). The
CERQ was developed by Garnefski and Kraaij (2006) and assesses nine different
cognitive emotion regulation strategies, including cognitive reappraisal. The PRS was
developed by Stanton and colleagues (2000) and assesses an individual's tendency to
use positive reappraisal specifically in response to a stressful event.
Overall, these scales provide valuable measures of an individual's tendency to use
cognitive reappraisal as an emotion regulation strategy, allowing researchers to better
understand the impact of this strategy on mental health and well-being.
Expressive Suppression
Expressive suppression is an emotion regulation strategy that involves the inhibition
of emotional expressions to avoid displaying or communicating one's emotions to
others. This approach is often used in situations where it is not socially acceptable to
express one's emotions or where the expression of emotions may have negative
consequences. For example, someone may use expressive suppression to hide their
disappointment when they receive bad news in a public setting.
The technical approach to expressive suppression involves several key steps. First, the
individual must become aware of their emotional response and the urge to express it.
Next, they must actively inhibit the expression of the emotion, often by using physical
or cognitive strategies such as holding their breath or distracting themselves. Finally,
they must maintain the inhibition of emotion until the situation or context changes and
it becomes socially acceptable or safe to express the emotion. This process can be
difficult and may result in negative consequences if not managed effectively.
46
To measure expressive suppression as an emotion regulation strategy, researchers
have developed various scales and instruments that assess an individual's tendency to
inhibit the expression of emotions. One commonly used scale is the Emotion
Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) developed by Gross and John in 2003. The ERQ
measures two dimensions of emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal and expressive
suppression, using a series of self-report items. The expressive suppression subscale
consists of six items that assess the frequency with which an individual inhibits the
expression of their emotions in social situations, such as "When I am feeling negative
emotions, I make sure not to express them" and "I control my emotions by not
expressing them". Participants rate their agreement with each item on a 7-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with higher scores
indicating a greater tendency to use expressive suppression as an emotion regulation
strategy.
Another scale commonly used to measure expressive suppression is the Courtauld
Emotional Control Scale (CECS) developed by Martin and colleagues in 1983. The
CECS is a self-report questionnaire consisting of 21 items that assess an individual's
tendency to control their emotional expression in various situations, such as "I keep a
lid on my feelings" and "I rarely show my emotions to others". Participants rate their
agreement with each item on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all like me)
to 3 (very much like me), with higher scores indicating a greater tendency to use
expressive suppression.
In addition to these self-report scales, researchers have also used physiological
measures to assess expressive suppression. For example, electrodermal activity
(EDA) has been used to measure the skin conductance response (SCR) during
emotional experiences. The SCR reflects the activity of the sympathetic nervous
47
system and increases when an individual experiences emotional arousal. However,
when an individual engages in expressive suppression, the SCR may be reduced or
delayed, indicating inhibition of emotional expression.
In conclusion, expressive suppression is a common emotion regulation strategy used
by individuals to control the expression of their emotions in social situations. While
it may be effective in some contexts, it can have negative consequences if not
managed effectively. Researchers have developed various scales and measures to
assess an individual's tendency to use expressive suppression as an emotion regulation
strategy, including the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire and the Courtauld
Emotional Control Scale. Additionally, physiological measures such as electrodermal
activity can be used to assess the inhibition of emotional expression during expressive
suppression.
Expressive suppression, on the other hand, involves inhibiting the outward expression
of emotions, which can have both positive and negative effects. On the one hand,
expressive suppression may be useful in situations where the expression of emotions
is inappropriate or may lead to negative consequences, such as in a work environment
or in a conflict situation. However, overuse of expressive suppression can lead to
negative outcomes, such as increased physiological arousal and decreased relationship
satisfaction.
Several measurement scales have been developed to assess different aspects of
emotion regulation, including the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), which
assesses cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, and the Difficulties in
Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), which assesses deficits in emotion regulation. The
ERQ measures the frequency of use of cognitive reappraisal and expressive
48
suppression, while the DERS measures difficulties in emotional awareness,
understanding emotions, and regulating emotions in different contexts. The use of
these measurement scales has contributed to a better understanding of the role of
emotion regulation strategies in the development and maintenance of psychological
well-being.
Expressive suppression is one of the two main strategies used in emotion regulation,
alongside cognitive reappraisal. It involves inhibiting the outward expression of
emotions in order to manage one's emotional responses. To assess the use of
expressive suppression as an emotion regulation strategy, various scales have been
developed in psychology research. Here are some examples:
1. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ): The ERQ is a self-report measure
developed by Gross and John in 2003 to assess individual differences in the
habitual use of two different emotion regulation strategies: cognitive
reappraisal and expressive suppression. The expressive suppression subscale
of the ERQ contains four items, which ask individuals to rate how often they
try to control the way they express their emotions (e.g., "I keep my emotions
to myself").
2. Courtauld Emotional Control Scale (CECS): The CECS is a self-report
measure developed by Martin and colleagues in 1996 to assess the tendency
to use expressive suppression as a strategy for coping with stress. The scale
contains 21 items, which ask individuals to rate how frequently they use
different emotion regulation strategies (e.g., "I hold back my emotions").
49
3. Emotion Regulation Skills Questionnaire (ERSQ): The ERSQ is a self-report
measure developed by Berking and colleagues in 2008 to assess emotion
regulation skills. The scale contains nine subscales, one of which assesses the
use of expressive suppression as a strategy for emotion regulation. The
expressive suppression subscale contains five items, which ask individuals to
rate how often they suppress their emotional expressions in different situations
(e.g., "When I feel angry, I avoid showing it to others").
4. Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS): The TAS is a self-report measure
developed by Bagby and colleagues in 1994 to assess the construct of
alexithymia, which refers to difficulty in identifying and expressing emotions.
The scale contains 20 items, which assess different aspects of emotional
functioning, including difficulty in identifying and describing emotions. One
subscale of the TAS, called "externally oriented thinking," assesses the
tendency to suppress emotional expression in social situations (e.g., "When
I'm upset, I try not to let anyone see it").
These scales provide researchers and clinicians with a tool to assess the extent to
which individuals use expressive suppression as an emotion regulation strategy in
different contexts. The use of these scales can help identify individuals who may be
at risk for negative outcomes associated with the overuse of expressive suppression,
such as decreased relationship satisfaction and increased physiological arousal.
Additionally, the use of these scales can inform the development of interventions
aimed at helping individuals develop adaptive emotion regulation strategies.
50
In conclusion, emotion regulation is a crucial aspect of psychological well-being and
is relevant to a wide range of psychological disorders. The two most widely studied
emotion regulation strategies are cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression,
which have different effects on emotions and physiological arousal. Cognitive
reappraisal involves changing the way one thinks about a situation to alter its
emotional impact, while expressive suppression involves inhibiting the outward
expression of emotions. The use of these strategies can impact attachment styles,
which can in turn affect the quality of adult relationships. Research has shown that
individuals with an anxious attachment style tend to use less effective emotion
regulation strategies, such as expressive suppression, and are more likely to
experience negative emotions in response to relationship stressors. On the other hand,
individuals with an avoidant attachment style tend to use more cognitive reappraisal
strategies, which can lead to emotional disengagement from the relationship. Future
research is needed to better understand the complex interplay between emotion
regulation strategies and attachment styles, and how this affects the development and
maintenance of adult relationships. Additionally, further research is needed to develop
more comprehensive measures of emotion regulation that capture the range of
strategies used by individuals in response to different types of stressors.
Understanding how individuals regulate their emotions can lead to the development
of effective interventions for individuals experiencing psychological distress, as well
as for those seeking to improve the quality of their interpersonal relationships.
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Theoretical Approach of Variable II (Attachment Styles):
Attachment styles refer to the characteristic ways in which individuals approach and
interact with others in close relationships. These styles develop in infancy and
childhood and shape the nature and quality of social interactions throughout life. In
order to study attachment styles in psychology, researchers have developed various
scales and measures that allow for a quantitative assessment of attachment styles. This
literature review will provide an overview of the technical approach to measuring
attachment styles and the scales commonly used in psychological research.
The most widely used and well-known scale for measuring attachment styles is the
Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1996). This measure
involves a semi-structured interview designed to elicit an individual’s memories and
reflections on their experiences with attachment figures during childhood. The
interview is scored on several dimensions, including coherence, accuracy, and
content, and produces a classification of the individual’s attachment style as either
secure, dismissing, preoccupied, or unresolved.
Another commonly used measure of attachment styles is the Attachment Style
Questionnaire (ASQ) (Feeney, Noller, & Hanrahan, 1994). This self-report measure
consists of 40 items that assess an individual’s beliefs about relationships, including
their feelings of closeness and dependence, fear of rejection or abandonment, and
views on the importance of emotional intimacy. The ASQ yields scores on three
dimensions of attachment style: secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant.
The Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised (ECR-R) scale is another widely
used measure of attachment styles (Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000). This self-report
52
questionnaire consists of 36 items that assess an individual’s attitudes and behaviors
in close relationships, including their desire for closeness, fear of rejection or
abandonment, and tendency to seek or avoid intimacy. The ECR-R yields scores on
two dimensions of attachment style: anxiety and avoidance.
The Relationship Scales Questionnaire (RSQ) (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994) is a
self-report measure of attachment styles that assesses an individual’s beliefs and
feelings about relationships. The RSQ consists of 30 items and yields scores on four
dimensions of attachment style: secure, dismissing, preoccupied, and fearful.
The Attachment Inventory (AI) (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) is a self-report
measure that assesses an individual’s attachment style based on their responses to four
hypothetical relationship scenarios. The AI yields scores on four dimensions of
attachment style: secure, dismissing, preoccupied, and fearful.
The Brief Assessment of Adult Attachment (Collins & Read, 1990) is a self-report
measure of attachment style that consists of 18 items. The measure assesses an
individual’s beliefs about relationships and yields scores on two dimensions of
attachment style: secure and insecure.
In addition to these commonly used measures, there are several other scales and
questionnaires that have been developed to assess attachment styles, including the
Attachment Style Questionnaire for Children (Kerns, Klepac, & Cole, 1996), the
Adult Attachment Scale (Collins & Read, 1990), and the Relationship Questionnaire
(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991).
53
In summary, the measurement of attachment styles in psychology involves a variety
of scales and measures that assess an individual’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in
close relationships. These measures provide a quantitative assessment of attachment
styles and allow for the study of how attachment styles relate to various psychological
outcomes, such as mental health, relationship satisfaction, and social functioning.
In psychology, attachment anxiety is commonly measured using a variety of self-
report scales and questionnaires. The following are some of the most widely used
measures:
1. Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) Scale: This is a 36-item questionnaire
that measures attachment anxiety and avoidance. Participants rate their agreement
with statements such as "I worry about being abandoned" and "I find it difficult to
allow myself to depend on others". The ECR has demonstrated good internal
consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity.
2. Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ): The ASQ is a 40-item measure of adult
attachment style that includes three subscales: attachment anxiety, attachment
avoidance, and secure attachment. Participants rate their agreement with statements
such as "I find it easy to get close to others" and "I prefer not to be too close to
romantic partners". The ASQ has demonstrated good psychometric properties,
including internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent validity.
3. Adult Attachment Scale (AAS): The AAS is a 40-item measure of adult attachment
style that includes two subscales: attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance.
Participants rate their agreement with statements such as "I worry a lot about my
54
relationships" and "I find it difficult to trust others completely". The AAS has
demonstrated good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity.
4. Relationship Questionnaire (RQ): The RQ is a 30-item measure of adult attachment
style that includes three subscales: attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and
secure attachment. Participants rate their agreement with statements such as "I worry
about being rejected" and "I am comfortable depending on romantic partners". The
RQ has demonstrated good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent
validity.
5. Attachment Style Measure (ASM): The ASM is a 15-item measure of adult
attachment style that includes three subscales: attachment anxiety, attachment
avoidance, and secure attachment. Participants rate their agreement with statements
such as "I worry about being alone" and "I am comfortable with intimacy and
closeness". The ASM has demonstrated good internal consistency and construct
validity.
Overall, these scales and questionnaires provide researchers and clinicians with
reliable and valid measures of attachment anxiety, allowing for a better understanding
of the impact of attachment styles on various psychological and social outcomes.
55
Attachment avoidance is another important attachment style in psychology that has
been studied using various scales and questionnaires. Here are some commonly used
measures for attachment avoidance:
1. Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) scale: This is a widely used self-report
questionnaire that measures attachment anxiety and avoidance in adult romantic
relationships. The ECR consists of 36 items, with 18 items measuring attachment
anxiety and 18 items measuring attachment avoidance. Respondents rate how much
they agree or disagree with each statement on a 7-point Likert scale, with higher scores
indicating greater attachment avoidance.
2. Adult Attachment Scale (AAS): The AAS is a 40-item self-report questionnaire that
measures attachment styles in adults. It includes 20 items for measuring attachment
anxiety and 20 items for measuring attachment avoidance. Respondents rate each item
on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Higher scores on the attachment avoidance subscale indicate greater avoidance.
3. Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ): The ASQ is a 40-item self-report
questionnaire that measures adult attachment styles. It includes 20 items for
measuring attachment anxiety and 20 items for measuring attachment avoidance.
Respondents rate each item on a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). Higher scores on the attachment avoidance subscale
indicate greater avoidance.
56
4. Relationship Questionnaire (RQ): The RQ is a 4-item self-report questionnaire that
measures attachment avoidance in romantic relationships. Respondents rate each item
on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 7 (very much like me).
Higher scores indicate greater attachment avoidance.
5. The Relationship Scales Questionnaire (RSQ): The RSQ is a 30-item self-report
questionnaire that measures attachment styles in adult romantic relationships. It
includes 15 items for measuring attachment anxiety and 15 items for measuring
attachment avoidance. Respondents rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores on the attachment
avoidance subscale indicate greater avoidance.
These scales and questionnaires have been used extensively in attachment research
and have demonstrated good reliability and validity in measuring attachment
avoidance in adults.
57
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN
58
Variables:
The independent variable in the study of the impact of emotion regulation strategies
on attachment styles in adult relationships is the emotion regulation strategy being
used, which can be either expressive suppression or cognitive reappraisal. The
dependent variable is the attachment style of the individual in the adult relationship,
which can be either attachment anxiety or attachment avoidance.
The study aims to investigate whether the use of different emotion regulation
strategies affects an individual's attachment style in their adult relationships. The
choice of emotion regulation strategy is the independent variable because it is
manipulated or varied by the researcher. The attachment style is the dependent
variable because it is influenced by the use of the emotion regulation strategy. For
example, in a study comparing the effects of expressive suppression versus cognitive
reappraisal on attachment anxiety, participants may be randomly assigned to one of
two groups. One group may be instructed to use expressive suppression when
experiencing a negative emotion, while the other group is instructed to use cognitive
reappraisal. The level of attachment anxiety is then measured and compared between
the two groups to determine if there is a significant difference in attachment anxiety
between those who used expressive suppression versus those who used cognitive
reappraisal.
Similarly, in a study comparing the effects of expressive suppression versus cognitive
reappraisal on attachment avoidance, participants may be randomly assigned to one
of two groups. One group may be instructed to use expressive suppression when
experiencing a negative emotion, while the other group is instructed to use cognitive
59
reappraisal. The level of attachment avoidance is then measured and compared
between the two groups to determine if there is a significant difference in attachment
avoidance between those who used expressive suppression versus those who used
cognitive reappraisal. Therefore, the independent variable in both cases is the type of
emotion regulation strategy used (expressive suppression or cognitive reappraisal),
while the dependent variable is the attachment style (attachment anxiety or attachment
avoidance) of the individual in the adult relationship.
(i) Emotion Regulation (Independent Variable):
Emotion regulation can be defined as the process of managing one's emotional
experiences and responses. It involves the ability to recognize and understand one's
own emotions, and then use strategies to either enhance positive emotions or reduce
negative emotions. In the context of research, emotion regulation can be considered
an independent variable, as researchers can manipulate or measure different emotion
regulation strategies to see how they affect other variables of interest, such as
attachment styles.For example, in a study examining the impact of emotion regulation
on attachment styles, researchers may manipulate the use of cognitive reappraisal or
expressive suppression techniques in one group of participants, while a control group
uses no specific emotion regulation strategy. The attachment style of both groups can
then be assessed to determine if there is a difference in attachment style between the
group that used emotion regulation strategies and the control group. Overall, emotion
regulation can be viewed as an independent variable because it can be manipulated or
measured in order to determine how it affects other variables, such as attachment
styles.
60
(ii) Attachment Styles (Dependent Variable):
Attachment styles can be considered dependent variables in research studies because
they are typically measured or observed as a result of other factors, such as childhood
experiences or current interpersonal relationships. Attachment style refers to an
individual's characteristic way of relating to others, which is often shaped by early
interactions with caregivers and subsequent experiences in close relationships
throughout life. For example, in a study examining the relationship between childhood
experiences and adult attachment styles, the experiences of participants during
childhood would be considered the independent variable, while the attachment style
exhibited by participants as adults would be the dependent variable. Researchers could
use a standardized measure of attachment style, such as the Adult Attachment
Interview (AAI), to assess the attachment style of each participant. In another
example, in a study examining the effect of emotion regulation strategies on
attachment styles, the use of emotion regulation techniques would be considered the
independent variable, while the attachment style exhibited by participants after using
these techniques would be the dependent variable. The attachment style could be
measured using a self-report questionnaire, such as the Experiences in Close
Relationships (ECR) scale. Overall, attachment styles are dependent variables in
research because they are often measured or observed as a result of other factors or
interventions, such as early experiences or emotion regulation strategies.
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Sample:
When you conduct research on a group of individuals, it’s rarely doable to collect
statistical data from everybody within that particular group. Instead, a researcher
chooses to select a sample. The sample is a smaller group of people a researcher
chooses as participants in an analysis. Thus, a sample refers to “a smaller, manageable
version of a bigger group”. It’s a subset containing the characteristics of a bigger
population.
Samples are utilized in statistical testing when population sizes are overly large for
the test to incorporate all potential members or observations. A sample should
represent the population as a whole and not be influenced by any bias toward a specific
attribute. The set of criteria to find out which subjects would be included in the sample
is the “Inclusion Criteria” while the criterion to find out which subjects will not
constitute the sample is the “Exclusion Criteria”.
In my study, the Inclusion Criteria is as follows;
• Males and Females from the age group of 18 to 25.
• Males and Females who know how to read and respond to English.
The Exclusion Criteria were as follows;
• Males and Females below the age of 18 and above the age of 25.
• Males and Females who do not know how to read and respond to English.
In order to understand the impact of emotion regulation strategies on attachment styles
in adult relationships, it is important to have a clear understanding of the sample
62
population. The sample knowledge includes information about the individuals who
were involved in the research study, such as their age range, gender, relationship
status, and other relevant demographics.
The sample knowledge is critical because it helps to determine whether the results of
the study can be generalized to a broader population. In addition, it helps to identify
any potential biases or limitations in the study, such as sample selection bias or
confounding variables.
Studies that have investigated the impact of emotion regulation strategies on
attachment styles in adult relationships have typically used a diverse sample
population in terms of age, gender, and relationship status. For example, a study by
Huang and colleagues (2018) included 155 participants, ranging in age from 20 to 65
years, who were currently in a romantic relationship.
Another study by Dykas and Cassidy (2011) included 142 participants, ranging in age
from 18 to 29 years, who were also in a romantic relationship. Both studies included
participants of different genders and relationship statuses, although the majority of
participants in both studies were heterosexual and in a committed relationship.
It is important to note that sample knowledge is not limited to demographic
information. Other important factors to consider include the participants' mental
health status, their previous experiences with relationships, and any other relevant
contextual factors that could impact their attachment styles or emotion regulation
strategies.
63
For example, a study by Borelli and colleagues (2010) examined the impact of
maternal emotional expressiveness on infant attachment and found that infants with
mothers who were more expressive had a greater likelihood of developing a secure
attachment style. In this case, the contextual factor of maternal emotional
expressiveness was an important aspect of the sample knowledge.
Overall, having a clear understanding of the sample population is essential for drawing
meaningful conclusions about the impact of emotion regulation strategies on
attachment styles in adult relationships. By carefully selecting participants and
considering relevant contextual factors, researchers can enhance the generalizability
and validity of their findings.
Hence, the current study was conducted considering a population sample of college-
going students ranging within the age limit of 18 – 25 years, i.e., the youth population,
and data was collected from 112 respondents (N = 112); and under the same, 48 males
and 64 females voluntarily participated in the online survey circulated through the
mode of Google forms. Further, 52 respondents lied between the age range of 18 to
20 years and 60 of them lied in the age range of 21 to 25 years.
64
Tool:
(01) Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) for assessing the variable of Emotion
Regulation:
The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) is a widely used self-report
questionnaire that measures two distinct emotion regulation strategies: expressive
suppression and cognitive reappraisal. The ERQ was developed by Gross and John
(2003) and consists of ten items, with five items measuring each emotion regulation
strategy. Participants are asked to rate their level of agreement with each statement on
a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
The first subscale of the ERQ, expressive suppression, measures the extent to which
individuals inhibit the expression of their emotional responses. Example items from
this subscale include "I keep my emotions to myself" and "I control my emotions by
not expressing them." Scores on this subscale range from 5 to 35, with higher scores
indicating greater use of expressive suppression.
The second subscale of the ERQ, cognitive reappraisal, measures the extent to which
individuals reinterpret the meaning of emotional events in order to change their
emotional responses. Example items from this subscale include "When I want to feel
more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change the way I'm thinking
about the situation" and "I change the way I'm thinking about the situation in order to
change how I feel about it." Scores on this subscale range from 4 to 28, with higher
scores indicating greater use of cognitive reappraisal.
65
The ERQ has been shown to have good internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha
coefficients ranging from .68 to .80 for the expressive suppression subscale and from
.72 to .79 for the cognitive reappraisal subscale (Gross & John, 2003). The ERQ has
also been found to have good test-retest reliability over a 6-week period (Gross &
John, 2003).
The ERQ has been used in numerous studies to investigate the role of emotion
regulation in a variety of psychological processes, including stress, mood disorders,
and interpersonal relationships. For example, research has found that greater use of
cognitive reappraisal is associated with better psychological adjustment and less
symptomatology in individuals with depression (Garnefski & Kraaij, 2006).
Similarly, greater use of expressive suppression has been linked to higher levels of
stress and lower levels of well-being (Gross & John, 2003).
In conclusion, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) is a widely used self-
report measure of emotion regulation strategies, consisting of two distinct subscales:
expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. The ERQ has good psychometric
properties and has been used in numerous studies to investigate the role of emotion
regulation in various psychological processes. Understanding the aspects and facets
of the ERQ, as well as its scoring system, is crucial for researchers and clinicians
seeking to measure and assess emotion regulation strategies in individuals.
The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) measures the two main emotion
regulation strategies of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. The scale
consists of ten items in total, with six items assessing cognitive reappraisal and four
items assessing expressive suppression.
66
Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
Sr. No. Factor Item Serial Number Total
A. Cognitive 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 6
Reappraisal Facet
B. Expressive 2, 4, 6, 9 4
Suppression Facet
Items 10
Table 3.1 Tabular Representation of Factors and their Corresponding Items
The scoring of the ERQ is based on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 7, with 1
indicating "strongly disagree" and 7 indicating "strongly agree." For the cognitive
reappraisal items, a higher score indicates greater use of cognitive reappraisal as an
emotion regulation strategy. For example, the item "When I want to feel more positive
emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change what I'm thinking about" is scored on
a 1-7 scale, with 1 indicating "strongly disagree" and 7 indicating "strongly agree." A
high score on this item indicates that the individual frequently uses cognitive
reappraisal to increase positive emotions.
For the expressive suppression items, a higher score indicates greater use of
expressive suppression as an emotion regulation strategy. For example, the item "I
keep my emotions to myself" is scored on a 1-7 scale, with 1 indicating "strongly
67
disagree" and 7 indicating "strongly agree." A high score on this item indicates that
the individual frequently suppresses their emotions in social situations.
The ERQ has been widely used in research to examine individual differences in
emotion regulation strategies and their relationship with various psychological
outcomes, including attachment styles.
(02) Experiences in Close Relationship Scale- Short Form (ECR-S) for assessing the
variable of Attachment Styles:
The Experiences in Close Relationship Scale (ECR) is a widely used self-report
measure of adult attachment styles. The ECR was originally developed by Brennan,
Clark, and Shaver in 1998, and has been revised and validated in subsequent studies.
The short form of the ECR, ECR-S, is a 12-item questionnaire that assesses
attachment anxiety and avoidance in close relationships. The ECR-S consists of two
subscales, each containing six items. The first subscale measures attachment
anxiety, which refers to the fear of abandonment and rejection in close relationships.
The second subscale measures attachment avoidance, which refers to the desire to
maintain emotional distance and avoid intimacy in close relationships. Respondents
rate each item on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree).
The attachment anxiety subscale of the ECR-S includes items such as “I worry a lot
about my relationships” and “I fear being alone”. Higher scores on this subscale
indicate greater levels of attachment anxiety, reflecting a preoccupation with the
need for intimacy and fear of rejection. The attachment avoidance subscale includes
items such as “I prefer not to be too close to romantic partners” and “I get
68
uncomfortable when a romantic partner wants to be very close”. Higher scores on
this subscale indicate greater levels of attachment avoidance, reflecting a tendency
to maintain emotional distance and avoid intimacy. The ECR-S has been found to
have good psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and test-
retest reliability. It has been used in numerous studies to examine the relationship
between attachment styles and various psychological outcomes, such as well-being,
relationship satisfaction, and mental health.
In terms of scoring, the ECR-S provides separate scores for attachment anxiety and
avoidance. Each subscale score is calculated by summing the responses to the items
on that subscale, with higher scores indicating greater levels of attachment anxiety
or avoidance. Total scores can also be calculated by summing the scores on both
subscales, providing a measure of overall attachment insecurity.
It is important to note that the ECR-S is a self-report measure, and therefore relies
on the accuracy of the respondent's self-awareness and ability to report their
thoughts and feelings accurately. Additionally, the ECR-S only assesses attachment
anxiety and avoidance, and does not capture other dimensions of attachment such as
security or disorganization. Therefore, it is often used in conjunction with other
measures of attachment to provide a more comprehensive assessment of adult
attachment styles.
The Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Short Form (ECR-S) is a widely used
self-report questionnaire for measuring attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance
in adult romantic relationships. The ECR-S comprises 12 items, six of which measure
attachment anxiety and six of which measure attachment avoidance.
69
Experiences in Close Relationship Scale-Short Form (ECR-S)
Sr. No. Factor Item Serial Number Total
A. Attachment Anxiety 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 6
B. Attachment 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 6
Avoidance
Items 12
Table 3.2 Tabular Representation of Factors and their Corresponding Items
For each item, participants are asked to rate their level of agreement with a statement
on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
To score attachment anxiety, the items are reverse-scored, so that higher scores
indicate greater anxiety. The scores are then summed to produce an overall attachment
anxiety score, with a possible range of 6-42.
To score attachment avoidance, the items are not reverse-scored. Higher scores
indicate greater avoidance. The scores are then summed to produce an overall
attachment avoidance score, with a possible range of 6-42.
The ECR-S has been used extensively in research to examine the relationship between
attachment styles and a wide range of psychological outcomes, including emotion
regulation strategies. Overall, these scales provide researchers with valuable tools for
measuring emotion regulation and attachment styles in adults.
70
Procedure:
The procedure for conducting a psychology study while forming tools and collecting
responses involves careful planning, attention to ethical considerations, and rigorous
data collection and analysis.
As mentioned above, in total, two questionnaires were employed under this research
study, namely; the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (10 item scale and a 7 Point
Likert Scale) Experiences in Close Relationship Scale-Short Form (ECR-S) (12 item
scale and a 7 Point Likert Scale). In all, the final form circulated for the data collection
process included an informed consent, including the intention behind conducting this
research study, conveying all the details regarding the goal of the chosen topic, and
what it aims to measure. Additionally, the final form comprised of 22 questions.
Considering the convenience and avoiding the dire consequences of the current post-
pandemic situation, the forms were circulated through the online platform of Google
Forms. Initially, 127 respondents voluntarily participated in the research study, out of
which, 112 responses were considered as the remaining ones had to be removed due
to the issue of duplication. These responses were collected in a span of 2 weeks.
Furthermore, respondents were also given the choice of receiving a response sheet
containing the responses that they had submitted. Also, on request of some of the
participants, their scores on the tests were also shared with them. The data was
analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
71
Data Analysis:
Frequency Table (01)
Gender Distribution
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
Male 48 42.9 42.9 42.9
Valid Female 64 57.1 57.1 100.0
Total 112 100.0 100.0
Table 3.4 Tabular Representation of Gender Distribution
Table 3.4 demonstrates the gender distribution of male college-going students and
female college-going students. It can be seen in the table that, in all 112 participants
willingly volunteered for the data collection process, of which, 48 were males and 64
of them were females. The percent and valid percent values for male and female
college-going students are 42.9 and 57.1 respectively.
72
Data Analysis:
Age Distribution
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
18 to 20
52 46.4 46.4 46.4
age
Valid 21 to 25
60 53.6 53.6 100.0
age
Total 112 100.0 100.0
Table 3.5 Tabular Representation of Age Distribution
Table 3.5 demonstrates the age distribution of the total population. The sample
population was divided into two clusters, i.e., 18 to 20 years and 21 to 25 years. It can
be seen in the table that, out of the total sample population consisting of 112
volunteers, 52 of them belonged in the age range of 18 to 20 years, and 60 of them
belonged in the age range of 21 to 25 years. The percent and valid percent value for
18 to 20 year olds versus the 21 to 25 year olds is 46.4 and 53.6 respectively.
73
Data Analysis:
Emotion
Attachment
Regulation
Styles
Strategies
Valid 112 112

N
Missing 0 0
Mean 46.27 44.55
Median 47.00 46.00
Std. Deviation 11.973 9.650
Variance 143.348 93.134
Table 3.6 Tabular Representation of Statistical Data for all Variables
Table 3.6 demonstrates the basic/ fundamental statistical data for both variables. As
mentioned above in the procedure section, 15 responses had to be discarded from the
original data sheet due to the technical error of duplication. Hence, out of a total of
127 responses, only 112 were considered for data analysis purposes due to the same
reason. Therefore, all the missing values display a 0 against them, as those entries
have been removed from the original datasheet. Considering the variable of emotion
regulation strategies, the table demonstrates that the mean, median, standard
deviation, and variance are 46.27, 47.00, 11.973, and 143.348 respectively.
Considering the variable of attachment styles, the table demonstrates that the mean,
median, standard deviation, and variance are 44.55, 46.00, 9.650, and 93.134
respectively.
74
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 1:
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Expressive Male 48 18.42 5.549 0.801
Suppression
Emotion Female 64 18.16 5.457 0.682
Regulation
Table 3.7 Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 1
Test for Independent Samples

Levene’s
Test for
t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of
Variances
Sig. Mean
Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2- Differen
Difference
tailed) ce
Equal
variances 0.061 0.23 1.014 110 0.804 0.26 0.0087
Expressive
assumed
Suppression
Equal
Emotion
variances
Regulation 0.912 69.67 0.805 0.26 0.0079
not
assumed
Table 3.8 Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 1
75
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 1:
The 1st hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
maladaptive expressive suppression emotional regulation strategy manifested by male
and female college-going students. Table 3.7 demonstrates the group statistics for
testing hypothesis 1. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for male
students are 18.42, 5.549, and 0.801 respectively. On the other hand, the mean,
standard deviation, and standard mean error for female students are 18.16, 5.457, and
0.682 respectively.
Table 3.8 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 1. From this table, it
can be concluded that H0 is accepted, and there is no significant difference in the
prevalence of maladaptive expressive suppression emotional regulation strategy
manifested by male and female college-going students because Sig. (2- tailed) value
of 0.805 > α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/
p-value 0.05 suggests that there is no significant difference in the two conditions
presented.
76
Group Statistics
Age N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Expressive 18 to 20 52 17.65 6.253 0.867
Suppression age
Emotion 21 to 25 60 18.58 4.800 0.620
Regulation age

Levene’s
Test for
Equality of
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
Difference Difference
tailed)
Equal
variances 8.345 0.67 1.33 110 0.341 0.93 0.247
Expressive
assumed
Suppression
Equal
Emotion
variances
Regulation 1.38 84.62 0.350 0.93 0.212
not
assumed
77
The 2nd hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
maladaptive expressive suppression emotion regulation strategy manifested by
individuals between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying between the age
range of 21 to 25. Table 3.9 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 2.
The mean, standard deviation and standard mean error for students in the age group
of 18 to 20 years are 17.65, 6.253, and 0.867 respectively. On the other hand, the
mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for students in the age group of 21
to 25 years are 18.58, 4.800, and 0.620 respectively.
prevalence of maladaptive expressive suppression emotion regulation strategy
manifested by individuals between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying
between the age range of 21 to 25 because Sig. (2- tailed) value of 0.350 > α 0.05, and
as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/ p-value 0.05 suggests
that there is no significant difference in the two conditions presented.
78
Group Statistics
Income Status N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Expressive Financially 28 20.08 4.898 0.926
Suppression Independent (partially
Emotion or completely)
Regulation
Financially 84 17.51 5.550 0.606
Dependent (on
Parents)

Levene’s
Test for
Equality of
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Equal
variances 65.375 0.96 3.317 110 0.030 2.57 0.320
Expressive
assumed
Suppression
Equal
Emotion
variances
Regulation 3.311 85.37 0.022 2.57 0.284
not
assumed
79
The 3rd hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
maladaptive expressive suppression emotion regulation strategy manifested by
financially independent individuals versus pocket-money-dependent individuals.
Table 3.11 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 3. The mean,
standard deviation and standard mean error for financially independent individuals
are 20.08, 4.898, and 0.926 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard
deviation, and standard mean error for pocket-money-dependent individuals are
17.51, 5.550, and 0.606 respectively.
can be concluded that H0 is rejected, there is a significant difference in the prevalence
of maladaptive expressive suppression emotion regulation strategy manifested by
financially independent individuals versus pocket-money-dependent individuals,
because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.022 < α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value less
than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is a significant
difference in the two conditions presented. Furthermore, this suggests that financially-
independent people show more of maladaptive expression suppression emotion
regulation strategy as compared to financially-dependent-on-parents individuals, as
per the mean values.
80
Group Statistics
Current N Mean Std. Std. Error
Residence Type Deviation Mean
Home (or other 102 20.45 6.913 0.684
places under
Avoidance
authority)
Levels
By self (without 10 16.71 0.684 3.059
authority)

Levene’s
Test for
Equality of
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Equal
variances 12.848 0.83 1.205 110 0.218 3.74 2.375
Avoidance
assumed
Levels
Equal
variances
1.533 64.38 0.603 3.74 1.536
not
assumed
81
The 4th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
avoidance levels manifested by individuals living with parents versus the ones living
independently or with friends. Table 3.13 demonstrates the group statistics for testing
hypothesis 4. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals
living with parents or under some authority are 20.45, 6.913, and 0.684 respectively.
On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for
individuals living independently or with friends are 16.71, 0.684, and 3.059
respectively.
prevalence of avoidance levels manifested by individuals living with parents versus
the ones living independently or with friends because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.603 >
α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value
0.05 suggests that there is no significant difference in the two conditions presented.
82
Group Statistics
Type of N Mean Std. Std. Error
Family Deviation Mean
Expressive Nuclear 88 20.22 7.489 0.798
Suppression Family
Emotion Joint 20 19.71 6.890 1.540
Regulation Family

Levene’s
Test for
Equality of
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Equal
variances 5.801 0.74 3.142 106 0.159 0.51 0.742
Expressive
assumed
Suppression
Equal
Emotion
variances
Regulation 3.015 89.29 0.617 0.51 0.561
not
assumed
83
avoidance levels manifested by individuals brought up in a nuclear family versus in a
joint family. Table 3.15 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 5. The
mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in a
nuclear family are 20.22, 7.489, and 0.798 respectively. On the other hand, the mean,
standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in a joint
family are 19.71, 6.890, and 1.540 respectively.
prevalence of avoidance levels manifested by individuals brought up in a nuclear
family versus in a joint family because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.617 > α 0.05, and as
per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that
there is no significant difference in the two conditions presented.
84
Group Statistics
N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Relation Expressive 112 18.12 5.434 0.514
between Suppression
Emotion Emotion
Regulation Regulation
Strategy and Anxiety 112 24.32 7.886 0.745
Attachment Levels
Styles

Levene’s
Test for
Equality of
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Influence of Equal
Expressive variances 55.106 0.93 6.42 222 0.000 6.20 0.231
Suppression assumed
Emotion
Equal
Regulation
variances
on Anxiety 6.33 176.24 0.009 6.20 0.195
not
Attachment
assumed
Style
85
The 6th hypothesis claims that there is a significant relationship between maladaptive
expressive suppression emotion regulation strategy and anxiety levels in individuals.
standard deviation and standard mean error for high use of maladaptive expressive
suppression emotion regulation strategy individuals are 18.12, 5.434, and 0.514
respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error
for high attachment anxiety individuals are 24.32, 7.886, and 0.745 respectively.
can be concluded that H0 is rejected, there is a significant relationship between
maladaptive expressive suppression emotion regulation strategy and anxiety levels in
individuals, because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.009 < α 0.05, and as per the norm, any
value less than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is a significant
relationship between the two conditions presented. Furthermore, this suggests that
individuals with a high maladaptive expression suppression emotion regulation
strategy utilization lean more towards developing high attachment anxiety, as per the
mean values.
86
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Cognitive Male 48 28.73 8.406 0.896
Reappraisal
Emotion Female 64 27.77 7.008 1.567
Regulation

Levene’s Test for
Equality of t-test for Equality of Means
Variances
Sig. Mean
Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2- Differ
Difference
tailed) ence
Equal
variances 4.512 0.86 3.442 110 0.230 0.96 0.671
Cognitive
assumed
Reappraisal
Equal
Emotion
variances
Regulation 3.174 93.25 0.447 0.96 0.541
not
assumed
87
adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotional regulation strategy manifested by male and
female college-going students. Table 3.19 demonstrates the group statistics for testing
hypothesis 7. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for male students
are 28.73, 8.406, and 0.896 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard
deviation, and standard mean error for female students are 27.77, 7.008, and 1.567
respectively.
prevalence of adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotional regulation strategy manifested
by male and female college-going students because Sig. (2- tailed) value of 0.447 > α
0.05, and as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/ p-value 0.05
suggests that there is no significant difference in the two conditions presented.
88
Group Statistics
Age N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Cognitive 18 to 20 52 28.18 8.346 1.157
Reappraisal age
Emotion 21 to 25 60 28.32 6.970 0.900
Regulation age

Levene’s Test for
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Equal
variances 4.360 0.73 5.253 110 0.102 0.14 0.257
Cognitive
assumed
Reappraisal
Equal
Emotion
variances
Regulation 5.014 91.54 0.972 0.14 0.209
not
assumed
89
adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotion regulation strategy manifested by individuals
between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying between the age range of 21
to 25. Table 3.21 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 8. The mean,
standard deviation and standard mean error for students in the age group of 18 to 20
years are 28.18, 8.346, and 1.157 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard
deviation, and standard mean error for students in the age group of 21 to 25 years are
28.32, 6.970, and 0.900 respectively.
prevalence of adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotion regulation strategy manifested
by individuals between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying between the
age range of 21 to 25 because Sig. (2- tailed) value of 0.972> α 0.05, and as per the
norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there
is no significant difference in the two conditions presented.
90
Group Statistics
Income N Mean Std. Std. Error
Status Deviation Mean
Cognitive Financially 28 30.04 6.636 1.254
Reappraisal Independent
Emotion (partially or
Regulation completely)
Financially 84 27.62 7.840 0.855
Dependent
(on Parents)

Levene’s Test for
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Equal
variances 6.074 0.14 0.537 110 0.641 2.42 0.399
Cognitive
assumed
Reappraisal
Equal
Emotion
variances
Regulation 0.749 81.72 0.122 2.42 0.343
not
assumed
91
adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotion regulation strategy manifested by financially
independent individuals versus pocket-money-dependent individuals. Table 3.23
demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 9. The mean, standard
deviation and standard mean error for financially independent individuals are 30.04,
6.636, and 1.254 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and
standard mean error for pocket-money-dependent individuals are 27.62, 7.840, and
0.855 respectively.
can be concluded that H0 is accepted, there is no significant difference in the
prevalence of adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotion regulation strategy manifested
by financially independent individuals versus pocket-money-dependent individuals,
because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.122> α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value more
than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is no significant
difference in the two conditions presented.
92
Group Statistics
Current N Mean Std. Std. Error
Residence Type Deviation Mean
Anxiety Home (or other 102 23.69 7.767 0.769
Levels places under
authority)
By self (without 10 31.29 6.130 1.938
authority)

Levene’s
Test for
Equality of
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Equal
variances 13.819 0.94 3.81 110 0.010 7.60 1.169
Anxiety
assumed
Levels
Equal
variances
4.02 67.21 0.005 7.60 0.926
not
assumed
93
anxiety levels manifested by individuals living with parents versus the ones living
independently or with friends. Table 3.25 demonstrates the group statistics for testing
hypothesis 10. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals
living with parents or under some authority are 23.69, 7.767, and 0.769 respectively.
On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for
individuals living independently or with friends are 31.29, 6.130, and 1.938
respectively.
Table 3.26 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 10. From this table,
it can be concluded that H0 is rejected, and there is a significant difference in the
prevalence of anxiety levels manifested by individuals living with parents versus the
ones living independently or with friends because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.005 < α
0.05, and as per the norm, any value less than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05
suggests that there is a significant difference in the two conditions presented.
Furthermore, this suggests that individuals living by self and away from family or
closed ones show more attachment anxiety in relationships as compared to stay-at-
home individuals, as per the mean values.
94
Group Statistics
Type of N Mean Std. Std. Error
Family Deviation Mean
Anxiety Nuclear 88 24.62 8.127 0.866
Levels Family
Joint 20 22.65 7.026 1.571
Family

Levene’s
Test for
Equality of
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
tailed)
Equal
variances 7.557 0.001 1.76 110 0.240 1.98 0.705
Anxiety
assumed
Levels
Equal
variances
1.48 60.40 0.376 1.98 0.594
not
assumed
95
anxiety levels manifested by individuals brought up in a nuclear family versus in a
joint family. Table 3.27 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 11.
The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in
a nuclear family are 24.62, 8.127, and 0.866 respectively. On the other hand, the mean,
standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in a joint
family are 22.65, 7.026, and 1.571 respectively.
it can be concluded that H0 is accepted, and there is no significant difference in the
prevalence of anxiety levels manifested by individuals brought up in a nuclear family
versus in a joint family because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.376 > α 0.05, and as per the
norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there
is no significant difference in the two conditions presented.
96
Group Statistics
N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Relation between Cognitive 112 28.22 7.510 0.710
Cognitive Reappraisal
Reappraisal Emotion
Regulation Regulation
Strategy and Avoidance 112 20.28 7.264 0.686
Attachment Styles Levels

Levene’s Test
for Equality t-test for Equality of Means
of Variances
Mean
Sig. (2- Std. Error
F Sig. t df Differe
tailed) Difference
nce
Influence of Equal
Cognitive variances 72.336 0.96 5.25 222 0.000 0.246 0.024
Reappraisal assumed
ER on Equal
Avoidance variances
5.19 176.24 0.001 0.246 0.011
Attachment not
Style assumed
97
The 12th hypothesis claims that there is a significant relationship between adaptive
cognitive reappraisal emotion regulation strategy and avoidance levels in individuals.
standard deviation, and standard mean error for high use of adaptive cognitive
reappraisal emotion regulation strategy individuals are 28.22, 7.510, and 0.710
respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error
for high attachment avoidance individuals are 20.28, 7.264, and 0.686 respectively.
it can be concluded that H0 is rejected, there is a significant relationship between
adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotion regulation strategy and avoidance levels in
individuals, because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.001 < α 0.05, and as per the norm, any
value less than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is a significant
relationship between the two conditions presented. Furthermore, this suggests that
individuals with a high adaptive cognitive reappraisal emotion regulation strategy
utilization lean more towards developing high attachment avoidance, as per the mean
values.
98
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 6 (Correlational Analysis):
Expressive Anxiety
Suppression Levels
Pearson Correlation 1 0.152
Expressive Suppression Sig. (2-tailed) - 0.000
N 112 112
Pearson Correlation 0.152 1
Anxiety Levels Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 -
N 112 112
Table 3.31 Tabular Representation of Correlational Analysis of Expressive
Suppression and Attachment Anxiety Levels.
The above-mentioned box is called the “correlation matrix”. The correlation matrix
demonstrates the correlation coefficient for every combination of variables. As per
Table 3.31, it can be concluded that the correlation between the Expressive
Suppression ER strategy and Anxiety attachment style is 0.152. This means that both
of these variables are positively correlated, i.e., as the independent variable increases,
so does the dependent variable. Hence, in our case, it means that, as the Expressive
Suppression ER strategy increases, so does attachment anxiety. This finding can be
considered valid because several research studies support the same hypothesis.
99
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 12 (Correlational Analysis):
Cognitive Avoidance
Reappraisal Levels
Pearson Correlation 1 0.062

Cognitive
Sig. (2-tailed) - 0.000
Reappraisal
N 112 112
Pearson Correlation 0.062 1
Avoidance Levels Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 -
N 112 112
Table 3.32 Tabular Representation of Correlational Analysis of Cognitive
Reappraisal and Attachment Avoidance Levels.
The above-mentioned box is called the “correlation matrix”. The correlation matrix
demonstrates the correlation coefficient for every combination of variables. As per
Table 3.32, it can be concluded that the correlation between the Cognitive Reappraisal
ER strategy and Avoidance attachment style is 0.062. This means that both of these
variables are positively correlated, i.e., as the independent variable increases, so does
the dependent variable. Hence, in our case, it means that, as the Cognitive Reappraisal
ER strategy increases, so does attachment avoidance. This finding can be considered
valid because several research studies support the same hypothesis.
100
Ethical Considerations:
Some of the ethical considerations under this research study are;
• During the circulation of the online survey, participants’ anonymity and the
confidentiality of their responses were assured. The assurance conveyed to the
participants was maintained throughout the data collection process. Hence, the
respondent’s right to privacy was maintained.
• An informed consent was circulated along with the survey and the intention to
collect the data with the purpose of conducting an education-based research
was also conveyed to them beforehand. Therefore, all the participants were
given a choice of participating voluntarily and the respondent’s right to choice
and information was maintained.
• All the questionnaires employed in the research were standardized, hence, no
questions were aimed at exposing the participants to mental stress, and none
of the statements caused embarrassment, hindrance, or any offense to them.
Through this, the respondent’s right to respect and safety was maintained.
• A provision of providing the responses that the respondents had filled in was
also provided to them since the mode of the survey was online. Respondents
had the right to ask for the response sheet that they had filled in, alongside
requesting full information pertaining to the scores they had received on each
of the tests. Hence, the respondent’s right to information was maintained.
101
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
102
Results and Discussion:
Hence, the results of our present study conclude that;
(01). There is no significant difference in the prevalence of maladaptive expressive
suppression ER strategy manifested by male and female college-going students. (H0
accepted).
(02). There is no significant difference in the prevalence of maladaptive expressive
versus the ones lying between the age range of 21 to 25. (H0 accepted).
(03). There is a significant difference in the prevalence of maladaptive expressive
pocket-money-dependent individuals. (H3 accepted).
(04). There is a significant difference in the prevalence of avoidance levels manifested
(H0 accepted).
(05). There is a significant difference in the prevalence of avoidance levels manifested
by individuals brought up in a nuclear family versus in a joint family. (H0 accepted).
(06). There is a significant relationship between maladaptive expressive suppression
ER strategy and anxiety levels in individuals. (H6 accepted).
(07). There is no significant difference in the prevalence of adaptive cognitive
reappraisal ER strategy manifested by male and female college-going students. (H0
accepted).
103
versus the ones lying between the age range of 21 to 25. (H0 accepted).
pocket-money-dependent individuals. (H0 accepted).
(10). There is a significant difference in the prevalence of anxiety levels manifested
(H10 accepted).
(11). There is no significant difference in the prevalence of anxiety levels manifested
by individuals brought up in a nuclear family versus in a joint family. (H0 accepted).
(12). There is a significant relationship between adaptive cognitive reappraisal ER
strategy and avoidance levels in individuals. (H12 accepted).
Additionally, through the method of correlation, we were able to correlate two
variables, namely; emotion regulation strategy and attachment styles, the result of
which is in major consensus with already researched and concluded findings. The
results suggested that there is a positive correlation between the variables of
maladaptive expressive suppression emotion regulation strategy and attachment
anxiety. There is a positive correlation between adaptive cognitive reappraisal
emotion regulation strategy and attachment avoidance. These are the findings of the
sixth and twelfth hypothesis, respectively. We also witnessed the impact of income
source associated with more maladaptive expressive suppression emotion regulation
104
strategy, and the impact of living independently on attachment anxiety levels. These
concluded the findings of the third and tenth hypothesis, respectively.
Some limitations also need to be considered under this research study;
(01). Issue of limited sample size:
Considering the pandemic situation, as there were restrictions pertaining to mobility
and travel, collecting the responses from all the participants personally was not a
feasible option. Additionally, another major reason for a limited sample size can also
be the scarcity of technological devices / resources. Since the forms were circulated
through an online platform, many respondents eligible to volunteer for the data
collection process could not have been able to do so due to the lack of computers,
mobile phones, laptops, etc.
(02). Concerns of overemphasis on a particular population:
The sample population only considered those individuals lying in the range of 18 to
25 years. It excluded all the individuals lying in the age of below 18 and above 25.
Hence, our research only focussed on the youth population. Hence, the results
obtained from the study cannot be generalised for individuals not lying in this age
range. Hence, the rule of generalizability cannot be applied on individuals belonging
to the adult / older population.
(03). Concerns over understanding the trend:
As a cross sectional research methodology was employed under this research, a proper
trend of the impact of emotion regulation strategy and attachment styles on every
105
potentially influencing factor could not be measured. These characteristics and
practices change over time due to variations in the internal and external factors. But
because the research had employed a cross sectional design, the trend pattern and
variations could not be studied properly.
(04). Issue of reliability and validity:
Initially, 127 respondents voluntarily participated in the research study, out of which,
112 responses were considered as the remaining ones had to be removed due to the
issue of duplication. Hence, due to the limited sample size, the results that were
analysed do indicate positive / negative correlations, but the values are not significant
enough to make any concrete conclusions. For serving the same purpose, a large
sample size needs to be incorporated under the research study so as to get strong
correlational values and for establishing reliable evidences.
(05). Issues of a short questionnaire:
Since the questionnaire consisted of 22 items in total, there was immense space for
adding qualitative questions as respondents could experience fatigue and could
consequently drop out from the middle of the data collection process. Qualitative
questions could enhance the understanding of the topic as novel perspectives could be
reflected upon and light could be shed on individual behaviours more accurately, but
due as the questionnaire was already created and used, the idea of adding open ended
questions was discarded.
106
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
107
Conclusion and Future Directions:
Hence, we can say that emotion regulation and attachment styles can be considered as
working synonymous to the findings of relation. But, due to a small sample size, the
overall values were not significant enough to conclude the same, hence, further
research is needed along with a large sample size to provide considerable evidence on
this topic. One major limitation of this research study is that only individuals ranging
from 18 to 25 were considered under this project, and due to the current circumstances
and constraints on mobility, only 112 responses were collected.
In conclusion, the impact of emotion regulation strategies on attachment styles in adult
relationships has been extensively researched in the field of psychology. The review
of literature shows that emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal and
expressive suppression have significant effects on attachment anxiety and attachment
avoidance.
Cognitive reappraisal has been found to be an effective emotion regulation strategy in
promoting secure attachment styles and reducing attachment anxiety and avoidance.
Expressive suppression, on the other hand, has been found to be less effective and
even detrimental to attachment styles, leading to greater attachment anxiety and
avoidance.
Moreover, the review highlights the importance of using valid and reliable scales to
measure emotion regulation and attachment styles in research studies. The Emotion
Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) and the Experiences in Close Relationship Scale-
108
Short Form (ECR-S) are two widely used scales for measuring emotion regulation and
attachment styles, respectively.
Future research can explore the impact of other emotion regulation strategies such as
acceptance, mindfulness, and rumination on attachment styles. Additionally, it would
be valuable to investigate the mediating and moderating factors that influence the
relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment styles, such as
personality traits, gender, culture, and developmental history.
In clinical settings, the findings of this review can inform interventions aimed at
promoting secure attachment styles and reducing attachment anxiety and avoidance.
Psychotherapy and mindfulness-based interventions can be tailored to help
individuals develop effective emotion regulation strategies and overcome maladaptive
patterns of attachment.
In conclusion, the impact of emotion regulation strategies on attachment styles is a
complex and multifaceted phenomenon that requires further investigation. By
understanding the mechanisms underlying these processes, researchers and
practitioners can develop more effective interventions aimed at promoting healthy
attachment styles and improving overall well-being in adult relationships.
109
APPENDICES
110
Appendices:
Experiences in Close Relationship Scale-Short Form (ECR-S)
Instruction: The following statements concern how you feel in romantic

relationships. We are interested in how you generally experience relationships, not
just in what is happening in a current relationship. Respond to each statement by
indicating how much you agree or disagree with it. Mark your answer using the
following rating scale:
1. It helps to turn to my romantic partner in times of need.
2. I need a lot of reassurance that I am loved by my partner.

3. I want to get close to my partner, but I keep pulling back.
4. I find that my partner(s) don't want to get as close as I would like.
5. I turn to my partner for many things, including comfort and reassurance.
6. My desire to be very close sometimes scares people away.
7. I try to avoid getting too close to my partner.
8. I do not often worry about being abandoned.
9. I usually discuss my problems and concerns with my partner.
10. I get frustrated if romantic partners are not available when I need them.
11. I am nervous when partners get too close to me.
12. I worry that romantic partners won't care about me as much as I care about them.
Scoring Information:
Anxiety = 2, 4, 6, 8 (reverse), 10, 12
Avoidance = 1 (reverse), 3, 5 (reverse), 7, 9 (reverse), 11
111
Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
Description of Measure:
A 10-item scale designed to measure respondents’ tendency to regulate their emotions

in two ways: (1) Cognitive Reappraisal and (2) Expressive Suppression. Respondents
answer each item on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to
7 (strongly agree).
Instructions and Items:
We would like to ask you some questions about your emotional life, in particular, how
you control (that is, regulate and manage) your emotions. The questions below involve
two distinct aspects of your emotional life. One is your emotional experience, or what
you feel like inside. The other is your emotional expression, or how you show your
emotions in the way you talk, gesture, or behave. Although some of the following
questions may seem similar to one another, they differ in important ways. For each
item, please answer using the following scale:
1. ____ When I want to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I
change what I’m thinking about.
2. ____ I keep my emotions to myself.

3. ____ When I want to feel less negative emotion (such as sadness or anger), I
change
what I’m thinking about.
4. ____When I am feeling positive emotions, I am careful not to express them.
5. ____When I’m faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a
way that helps me stay calm.
112
6. ____ I control my emotions by not expressing them.
7. ____When I want to feel more positive emotion, I change the way I’m thinking
about
the situation.
8. ____ I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m
in.
9. ____When I am feeling negative emotions, I make sure not to express them.
10. ____When I want to feel less negative emotion, I change the way I’m thinking
about the situation.
Scoring:
Items 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 make up the Cognitive Reappraisal facet.
Items 2, 4, 6, 9 make up the Expressive Suppression facet.
Scoring is kept continuous.

Each facet’s scoring is kept separate.
113
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Impact of Emotion Regulation Strategies on Attachment Styles

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of

School of Liberal Studies

This dissertation titled ‘Impact of Emotion Regulation Strategies on Attachment

Rishita Pankaj Agarwal

Place: PDEU (Name) Rishita Pankaj Agarwal

Date: / 05 / 2023 (Roll no.) 18BABBA236

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who directly or

for providing me seamless access to our e–resources that helped me enhance my

encouragement, support, and motivation to remain focused on this study.

strategies can have implications on interpersonal relationships, and individual well-

the formation and maintenance of attachment styles in adult relationships. Mikulincer

throughout our lives. Emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression, reappraisal,

and distraction, are used to manage emotional experiences in response to various

coregulation, dysregulation, and self-regulation are important factors in understanding

of developing insecure attachment styles. This may be because suppression can

prevent individuals from fully processing their emotions and communicating

effectively with their partners.

be helpful in some situations, such as when experiencing intense negative emotions,

to the development of insecure attachment styles.

Additionally, individuals with certain personality traits, such as high levels of

neuroticism or low levels of agreeableness, may be more likely to use maladaptive

emotion regulation strategies, which can contribute to the development of insecure

in managing stress is key to maintaining healthy relationships. Emotion regulation

strategies can have a significant impact on the development and maintenance of

attachment styles in adult relationships. Reappraisal, which involves changing the

styles, while suppression has been linked to a greater likelihood of developing

styles. Overall, understanding the impact of emotion regulation strategies on

Keywords: emotion regulation, attachment styles, suppression, distraction,

personality traits, insecure attachments, reappraisal, self-regulation, communication.

1.1. Background of the study

Chapter 2: Literature Review...........................................................26

2.1. Literature on Variable 1

Chapter 3: Research Design............................................................58

Chapter 4: Results and Discussion.................................................102

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Future Directions................................107

the processes by which individuals manage their emotional experiences in response

to various situations. Two primary emotion regulation strategies are expression

suppression and cognitive reappraisal.

Expression suppression involves hiding or avoiding emotional displays, often by

consciously or unconsciously inhibiting facial expressions, gestures, or vocalizations.

or negative evaluation of others, and to maintain interpersonal harmony. However,

expression suppression can also have negative consequences, such as increased

physiological stress, decreased positive affect, and decreased communication

effectiveness in social interactions.

emotional response to them. Cognitive reappraisal has been found to be an effective

increasing positive emotions, such as happiness and love.

positive affect, and reduced social engagement. Additionally, individuals who

depression and in enhancing psychological well-being.

Moreover, recent studies have highlighted the importance of considering individual

Additionally, individual differences in personality traits, such as neuroticism,

of emotion regulation strategy use and outcomes.

example, individuals may use expression suppression to regulate emotions in social

situations where emotional displays are considered inappropriate or to avoid conflicts,

over their emotional experiences.

regulation strategies. Neuroimaging studies have shown that expression suppression

is associated with increased activation in brain regions involved in inhibitory control,

is associated with increased activation in brain regions involved in cognitive

In conclusion, emotion regulation strategies, such as expression suppression and

cognitive reappraisal, are important components of adaptive emotional functioning.

various cognitive, behavioral, and social consequences. Individual differences, such

emotion regulation strategies. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these

managing their emotional experiences.

Cognitive reappraisal is an emotion regulation strategy that involves altering one’s