Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456

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Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Mitigation techniques for autogenous shrinkage of ultra-high-performance

concrete – A review
Li Yang a, b, c, Caijun Shi a, b, c, *, Zemei Wu a, b, c, **
a
Key Laboratory for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials and Application Technologies of Hunan Province, Changsha, 410082, PR China
b
International Innovation Center for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials of Hunan Province, Changsha, 410082, PR China
c
College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) demonstrates relatively high autogenous shrinkage at early age due to
UHPC the use of high binder content and low water-to-binder ratio of approximately 0.2. High shrinkage can result in
Autogenous shrinkage potential cracking and eventually reduced strength and durability of concrete. Several approaches can be used to
Hydration
mitigate the autogenous shrinkage based on restraining mechanism. These include (1) control of hydration re­
Mitigation techniques
action; (2) addition of internal restraint; (3) reduction of the surface tension of pore solution; (4) formation of
expansive products; and (5) replenishment of water through internal curing. This paper reviewed those miti­
gation techniques from the perspective of restraining mechanism and influential factors. Finally, the advantages
and disadvantages of those techniques were compared. It is indicated that internal curing is the most straight­
forward and effective approach to reduce autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. The combination of two and/or more
techniques can simultaneously exert their functions, and thus maximizing the restraining effectiveness.

1. Introduction
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is a novel composite ma­
terial with specified compressive strength of at least 120 MPa, nominal
maximum size aggregate of less than 5 mm, and mini-slump flow be­
tween 200 and 250 mm, in accordance with ASTM C1856 [1]. Four
theoretical principles are often followed to design UHPC, including
reduction in porosity, improvement in microstructure, enhancement in
homogeneity, and increase in toughness [2]. The use of extremely low
w/b around 0.2 and a substantial amount of binder of typically
800–1200 kg/m3 in UHPC makes its early autogenous shrinkage much
greater than those of conventional concrete and high-performance
concrete [3]. Autogenous shrinkage is defined as the macroscopic vol­
ume change due to the capillary pressure induced by self-desiccation
and chemical process of cement hydration, without water transferring
to the surrounding environment [4]. It is reported that autogenous
shrinkage can occur in concrete with water-to-binder ratio (w/b) less
than about 0.42 [5], and increases with the decrease of w/b. High
autogenous shrinkage developed at the early ages can lead to potential
cracking, and thus affect mechanical properties and durability of hard­
ened cement-based materials.
Zhang et al. [6] reported that the autogenous shrinkage of plain
concrete made with w/b of 0.35 was 40 microstrains at 98 days. Deboodt
et al. [7] revealed that the autogenous shrinkage developed in
high-performance concrete with w/b of 0.37 was 210 microstrains at 6
days. Liu et al. [8] reported that the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC at 7
days reached to 500–1500 microstrains. In addition to w/b, the autog­
enous shrinkage also depends on curing time, curing condition, and
mixture composition.
Extensive researches have been conducted to mitigate the autoge­
nous shrinkage of cement-based materials during the past decades,
including the use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and
chemical admixture, increase in volume fraction of aggregate, incor­
poration of fibers, change of curing condition, internal curing etc.
Kawashima et al. [9] found that the addition of 2% cellulose fibers
reduced the 7-d autogenous shrinkage of cement paste by 32%. Shen
et al. [10] reported that the 60-d autogenous shrinkage of UHPC was
decreased by 67% when the aggregate to cement ratio increased from

* Corresponding author. Key Laboratory for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials and Application Technologies of Hunan Province, Changsha, 410082,
PR China.
** Corresponding author. Key Laboratory for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials and Application Technologies of Hunan Province, Changsha, 410082,
PR China.
E-mail addresses: cshi@hnu.edu.cn (C. Shi), 316270219@qq.com (Z. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107456
Received 6 May 2019; Received in revised form 12 September 2019; Accepted 15 September 2019
Available online 27 September 2019
1359-8368/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Yang et al.
0.7 to 1.5. Meddah et al. [11] employed a combination of shrinkage
reducing agent and expansive agent to restrain the autogenous
shrinkage of concrete with w/b of 0.15 and found that the autogenous
shrinkage was substantially reduced up to 50%. Rahman et al. [12]
addressed that a sufficient amount of water well distributed throughout
the concrete matrix by internal curing is necessary to ensure a high
degree of cement hydration. The mitigation mechanisms and techniques
for autogenous shrinkage of cement-based materials are summarized in
Table 1.
The following sections review the research progresses on the miti­
gation of autogenous shrinkage of UHPC based on its action
mechanisms.
2. Control of hydration
2.1. Replacement of cement and/or silica fume with other SCMs and/or
inert materials
The autogenous shrinkage of UHPC is dependent upon the hydration
reactions of cementitious materials and pore structure formed. It is re­
ported that the ultimate degree of hydration of the cement paste with a
low water-to-cement ratio under sealed curing conditions reached up to
about 50% and silica fume was fully reacted [13]. The pozzolanic re­
action of silica fume is known to accelerate cement hydration and is less
sensitive to self-desiccation compared to the reaction of cement clinker
[14]. The addition of silica fume increases pore volume of 5–50 nm,
which is considered to be one of the main factors influencing the
autogenous shrinkage and has a significantly positive correlation with
the natural logarithm of autogenous shrinkage [15]. Thus, the role of
silica fume in refining pore structure and promoting hydration degree of
UHPC has a greater effect on autogenous shrinkage than that in decrease
of cement content. It should be noticed that ultra-fine silica fume par­
ticles can easily agglomerate, leading to entrapped air pores, and
thereby reducing properties of UHPC.
The great majority of studies reveal that the addition of silica fume
increases autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. However, a reduction of
autogenous shrinkage in the case of 10% and 20% silica fume substi­
tution for cement was observed by Ye [16], but no explanation was
given. A decrease in silica fume content would form a coarser pore
structure and reduce autogenous shrinkage. High content of cement and
silica fume up to 600–1200 kg/m3 are often used in UHPC. The use of
other SCMs (fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, rice husk ash,
and metakaolin) and inert materials in UHPC is often driven by costs and
improvements in long-term properties [17–19]. The following sections
will discuss the influence of characteristics of SCMs on autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC.
Table 1
Mitigation mechanisms and techniques for autogenous shrinkage of UHPC.
No Mechanism Mitigation techniques
1 Control of hydration Replacement of cement and/or silica
fume by other SCMs and/or inert
materials
Use of superplasticizer and viscosity
modifying agent
Regulation of curing temperature
2 Addition of internal Use of aggregate and/or fiber
restraint
3 Reduction of the surface Use of shrinkage reducing agent
tension of pore solution
4 Formation of expansive Use of expansive agent and materials
products with expansive potentials, such as
MgO, CaO
5 Replenishment of water Use of super absorbent polymer and/
through internal curing or porous aggregate or superfine
powder
Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456
2.1.1. Chemical properties
SCMs vary in chemical composition, including oxide composition,
phase composition, and amorphous content. The chemistry of SCMs is
generally characterized by lower calcium content compared to that of
Portland cement. The reactivity of SCMs also highly depends on the
alkalinity of pore solution. Hanehara et al. [20] found complete deple­
tion of portlandite only after hydration time of 1 year and longer when
more than 60% Portland cement was replaced by fly ash. Given PH and
temperature, the dissolution of glassy phase in SCMs is complex and
variable, affected by the presence of calcium and aluminum. It is re­
ported that calcium and aluminum can prevent glassy phase from dis­
solving due to the formation of precipitated products on the surface of
glassy phase [21]. On the other hand, the replacement by SCMs restricts
the initial hydration of cement in UHPC. The chemical shrinkage and
self-desiccation caused by hydration process are reduced. However, it
should be noted that with a further increase of SCMs, the microstructure
and strength of UHPC can be negatively affected, lowering the formation
of a stiff skeleton that can resist shrinkage stress [33,45]. Besides, nat­
ural zeolites as pozzolans can be also added to concrete as internal
curing agents due to a high adsorption capacity [22]. Some inert ma­
terials, e.g., quartz powder [23], limestone powder, and wollastonite
[24] etc., have been confirmed to reduce autogenous shrinkage of
UHPC.
2.1.2. Physical properties
Surface area and/or fineness of particles directly affect the pozzo­
lanic reactivity and hydration degree of SCMs. Apart from enhanced
nucleation and extra space for growth of CSH during cement hydration,
a reduction in particle sizes of SCMs has been shown to improve
pozzolanic reactivity and thus increasing autogenous shrinkage. For
example, Tazawa et al. [25] reported that replacement of cement with
up to 70% slag with Blaine fineness of 400 m2/kg or higher gradually
increased the autogenous shrinkage of paste. However, no increase in
autogenous shrinkage was observed in paste made with slag at Blaine
fineness of 300 m2/kg. The enhancement of slag activity due to higher
fineness is probably responsible for the refinement of pore structure and
greater chemical shrinkage, which induces faster and greater
self-desiccation, thus resulting in greater autogenous shrinkage.
Rice husk ash has very high specific surface area due to its porous
structure, which leads to a variety of benefits in lowering autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC. These include a reduction in drop rate of internal
relative humidity [26], enhancement in hydration degree [27], and in­
crease in portion of pores larger than 50 nm [28]. This high internal
surface area provides an internal curing function to reduce autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC. It is noteworthy that extremely fine particles may
have an adverse effect on the efficiency of internal curing due to the
collapsed structure of particles during grinding [29].
Morphological characteristics of SCMs may affect the autogenous
shrinkage development of UHPC. For example, smooth surface and
smaller surface area of fly ash easily cause release of entrapped water,
thus lowering the rapid drop of internal relative humidity, especially for
Ref. the matrix with low w/b. Metakaolin has a relatively strong water ab­
[24,
sorption capacity due to its layered microstructure. This may lead to
32] delayed hydration of cementitious components in UHPC and internal
curing function, causing lower autogenous shrinkage [30]. Staquet et al.
[37, [31] used metakaolin to substitute 67% of silica fume and observed a
40]
reduction of around 50% in 6-d autogenous shrinkage of UHPC.
[45]
[52,
60] 2.1.3. Replacement level
[77] It is well known that cement hydration is accompanied by large
amounts of heat evolution. This elevated temperature promotes chem­
[78,
83]
ical reactions of cement clinkers, and therefore increasing autogenous
shrinkage of high-performance cement-based materials and UHPC. The
[52, addition of SCMs reduces the heat of hydration and thus retarding hy­
87, dration process, as apparently observed in fly ash blended systems. Also,
100]
the alkalinity of pore solution decreases as replacement level of SCMs
2
L. Yang et al.
increases. This reduces glassy phase dissolution of SCMs, and thus
weakens their pozzolanic reaction rate. Unreacted SCMs can act like
microaggregates, and thus restrain shrinkage deformation to some
extent.
Compared to a blend of Portland cement–slag, the effect of fly ash on
autogenous shrinkage of UHPC is typically more sensitive to its
replacement level. When cement replacement to fly ash increased from
0% to 15%, 30%, and 50%, the 7-d autogenous shrinkage values of
UHPC were reduced by about 28.9%, 49.2%, and 63.1%, respectively.
The corresponding values were 44%, 54%, 59% for UHPC made with
slag [32]. Ye [29] found that the 28-d autogenous shrinkage values of
UHPC were reduced by around 40% and 95% when rice husk ash con­
tents were increased by 10% and 20%, respectively. It is worth noticing
that rice husk ash is costly, and thereby searching less expensive po­
tential cement replacement materials in the production of UHPC is
necessary, such as waste tailings. Another study reported by Wang et al.
[33] found that there was a balance point minimizing the autogenous
shrinkage and concurrently without sacrificing the mechanical proper­
ties of UHPC. An optimum replacement ratio of lead-zinc tailings was
recommended to be around 20%. This is because that when further
increasing replacement ratio of lead-zinc tailings (e.g. up to 30%), the
microstructure development of UHPC can be negatively affected, post­
poning the formation of a stiff hydrated skeleton that can resist internal
stresses.
2.1.4. Refinement of pore structure
SCMs are well known to change pore structure, which is closely
linked to the autogenous shrinkage. Each SCM mixture presents
distinctly different effects on pore structure due to their different
physical properties and activities. The activity of slag is greater than that
of fly ash. The addition of high-volume slag can accelerate water con­
sumption rate and rapidly decrease the critical radius of capillary pores,
and thus increasing autogenous shrinkage development. This explains
why some researchers report aggravated autogenous shrinkage of UHPC
when slag was used [34]. Similarly, Song et al. [35] observed an increase
in pore size distribution within the range of about 5–10 nm in UHPC
with a combined use of 60% silica fume and 40% metakaolin. Nano­
materials like carbon nanotubes, acting as nucleation points for hydra­
tion products, was found to be capable of increasing autogenous
shrinkage of cement composites as a micro-filler material [36].
2.2. Use of superplasticizer and viscosity modifying agent
2.2.1. Superplasticizer
The commonly used superplasticizer in UHPC is comb-shaped poly­
carboxylate (PCE) ether polymer, which can produce electrostatically
repulsion or steric action to release the entrapped water among cement
particles, as demonstrated in Fig. 1 [37]. Different adsorbed amounts of
superplasticizer on cement particles resulting from charge characteris­
tics (amount of anionic groups and charge density) and concentrations
Fig. 1. Mechanism of action of superplasticizer [37].
3
Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456
of superplasticizer remaining in the aqueous phase determine their
dispersion efficiency. This action simultaneously retards cement hy­
dration, thus mitigating autogenous shrinkage development. Li et al.
[39] examined the effect of superplasticizer type and content on
autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. It was found that the retardation effect
of superplasticizer on the setting time significantly affected autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC and the increased superplasticizer content led to
smaller autogenous shrinkage due to slower physical coagulation and
chemical process. The resultant reduction degree of autogenous
shrinkage depends on the type of superplasticizer.
It is increasingly accepted that superplasticizer exhibits a high
sensitivity to sulfate ions, which is identified as competitive adsorption
between superplasticizer molecules and dissolved sulfate ions in the
pore solution. Several ways for solving sulfate sensitivity problems have
been proposed, such as an introduction of highly anionic charge blocks
into main chain (e.g. in gradient polymers) or incorporation of highly
surface-affine anchor groups into superplasticizer molecules (e.g.
dicarboxylates, phosphates or phosphonates) [38]. In addition, super­
plasticizer can preferentially adsorb on the surface of cement or silica
fume particles. Since the surface area of silica fume is much higher than
that of cement, uniform disperse of silica fume in the UHPC system is of
great concern.
2.2.2. Viscosity modifying agent
The viscosity modifying agent that absorbed on the surface of cement
particles inhibits the cement dissolution sites and the sites for nucleation
of hydration products. Higher viscosity modifying agent dosage can
result in delayed hydration of cement [40], and hence decreasing
autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. Note that the use of viscosity modifying
agent would increase air bubble content in UHPC during the mixing
process due to the increase of plastic viscosity. This increases the
porosity and average pore radius to impair mechanical properties and
durability. The combination of viscosity modifying agent with super­
plasticizer is usually recommended in practice [41].
2.3. Regulation of curing temperature
The change of temperature can affect hydration speed and autoge­
nous shrinkage development of cement-based materials. Based on
experimental investigation, when the temperature was increased from
10 � C to 40 � C, the development of autogenous shrinkage was strongly
accelerated at an early age owing to the degree of cement hydration and
activity of pozzolanic materials improved. Later, the rate of shrinkage
strain started to decrease due to the restraint effect of a solid skeleton
rapidly developed at high temperature [45]. A slight increase in the
capillary stress is offset by the reduced rate of cement hydration and
self-desiccation at lower curing temperature, of which a slightly higher
strength of matrix provides more resistance to shrinkage [42]. Jiang
et al. [46] modified method the measurement method of autogenous
shrinkage under different curing temperatures, as shown in Fig. 2. The
L. Yang et al.
experimental results demonstrate that an increase in curing temperature
improved both the rate and the magnitude of autogenous shrinkage, but
effect degree varied with w/b, composition of cementitious materials
and age.
No consensus has been reached on autogenous shrinkage behavior
exposed to different temperature conditions in current literatures. The
influences of curing temperature on autogenous shrinkage have been
investigated early by Jensen et al. [47], who proposed that the tradi­
tional maturity concept generally was not applicable to autogenous
deformation and change of internal relative humidity. Chu et al. [48]
demonstrated that high curing temperature at early ages caused a lower
magnitude of autogenous stresses at later ages compared to that sub­
jected to relatively low curing temperature. This phenomenon is prob­
ably due to the coarse and more porous microstructure of cement paste
at high temperatures [49]. However, some researchers found that the
ultimate autogenous shrinkage of UHPC was not significantly affected
by curing conditions [50]. It is reported that autogenous shrinkage for
UHPC cured at ambient and heat conditions after 60 days were about
450 microstrains. From the point of view of development rate, Mar­
uyama et al. [51] divided autogenous shrinkage of ultra high strength
concrete into two stages, i.e., the earlier age followed by the later age
stage. They found that low temperature enhanced autogenous shrinkage
at early ages, while high temperature produced great autogenous
Fig. 2. Autogenous shrinkage test method from initial set to 3-day age [46].
4
Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456
shrinkage at later ages.
A lot of researches have been conducted to investigate the effect of
curing condition on autogenous shrinkage of UHPC, such as the partial
substitution of mixing water with crushed ice [43], change of relative
humidity at high temperature [44]. The effect degree of silica fume
content on autogenous shrinkage is greater than that of cement content
for the heat cured UHPC. This is inconsistent with the case of room
temperature where the cement content showed a larger effect [10].
3. Addition of internal restraint
3.1. Aggregates
Stiff and high elastic modulus aggregate contributes to restraining
shrinkage deformation of UHPC. The autogenous shrinkage decreases
with the reduction of binder-to-aggregate ratio [52,53]. The increase of
aggregate size also effectively restrains autogenous shrinkage of UHPC
[54,55]. Shen et al. [10] reported that when the aggregate size of quartz
sand increased from 0.212 to 2 mm, the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC
was decreased by 30.8%. Yoo et al. [55] reported that the autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC was reduced by approximately 40% with the inclu­
sion of coarse aggregate. However, it should be noted that the use of
aggregate with a higher modulus of elasticity may enhance the local
L. Yang et al.
stresses, which induces potential cracking within the interfacial transi­
tion zones. Meanwhile, the increase in aggregate size negatively affects
the compressive strength due to the larger size of the interfacial tran­
sition zone [56].
3.2. Fibers
Fibers can resist the shrinkage deformation of the cementitious ma­
trix with a low elastic modulus at an early age and delay the occurrence
of cracking owing to the stress transfer from matrix to fibers. The effi­
ciency of using fibers in restraining shrinkage is greatly affected by their
size, type and content, dispersion and orientation, elastic modulus, and
aspect ratio. The following section discusses the effects of inorganic
fiber, polymeric fiber, and cellulose fiber on autogenous shrinkage of
UHPC.
3.2.1. Inorganic fibers
The bond strength of steel fibers with the matrix enhances the
deformation capacity of the composite and restrains extension of
microcracks [57] and reduces those pores with size over 50 nm [58].
With the use of steel fibers with volume fractions varying from 0% to
4%, it is reported that the autogenous shrinkage of steam cured UHPC
with 1% steel fibers was reduced by 34% comparing to non-fibrous
UHPC. However, for the UHPC with more than 1% steel fibers, the
decreasing rate dropped up to about 5% when each increasing 1% steel
fibers dosage [59]. Wu et al. [60] evaluated the effect of steel fibers
content (0, 1%, 2%, and 3%) and type (straight, corrugated, and
hooked) on autogenous shrinkage of UHPC, as shown in Fig. 3. The
geometry of steel fibers demonstrated less effect on reducing autogenous
shrinkage when compared to the change of fibers content. Given the
fibers geometry and content, the hooked fibers were more effective in
restraining shrinkage than those of straight and corrugated fibers due to
the enhancement of fiber-matrix bond strength. However, Meng et al.
[61] found that the use of 2% hooked fibers (0.5 mm in diameter and
30 mm in length) increased 56-d autogenous shrinkage of UHPC, but the
incorporation of 1% straight fibers and 1% hooked-end fibers reduced
the autogenous shrinkage by 25%. This adverse effect resulting from
hooked fibers could be due to fiber cluster issues associated with rela­
tively long fiber length.
In general, high surface area of nanofibers results in an increased
amount of nucleation sites for precipitating hydration products and
enhancing the degree of hydration. Moreover, refinement in pore
structure and increase in mesopore with the size between 2 and 50 nm
accelerates the occurrence of self-desiccation [62]. Compared to
Fig. 3. Effect of steel fibers content and type on autogenous shrinkage of UHPC [60]. S, C, H represent the type of steel fibers with straight, corrugated, and hooked
geometry, respectively.
5
Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456
graphite nanoplatelet, Meng et al. [62] found that UHPC made with
carbon nanofibers showed higher autogenous shrinkage due to their
longer length, greater aspect ratio, and lower stiffness as well. Lim et al.
[63] noticed that the incorporation of graphite nanoplatelet decreased
autogenous shrinkage. It could be due to the following two reasons: (1)
homogeneously dispersed graphite nanoplatelet enhances the
nano-bridging between capillary pores and nano- and/or micro-pores;
(2) much stronger bond properties between nano-fibers and cement
matrix, which restrains shrinkage deformation to some extent.
3.2.2. Synthetic fibers
The elastic modulus of polyvinyl alcohol fibers is lower than that of
steel fibers. The use of polyvinyl alcohol fibers contributes to the miti­
gation of early-age deformation, especially for cement-based materials
with relatively low modulus of elasticity and fracture energy, etc. It is
shown that the adhesion between polyvinyl alcohol fibers and matrix is
relatively weak, and polyvinyl alcohol fibers can promote the internal
connection of pores through bridging effect [64]. The combined use of
steel and polyvinyl alcohol fibers is confirmed to be more beneficial in
restraining autogenous shrinkage than the use of single steel fibers [61].
3.2.3. Cellulose fibers
Cellulose fibers can act as internal restraint and internal reservoir
due to their lumen structure to absorb water [65]. Thus, the autogenous
shrinkage can be reduced due to the efficiency of internal curing from
cellulose fibers, which is discussed in Section 6.4. Ma et al. [66] found
that UHPC made with 0.9 kg/m3 cellulose fibers (MC2) exhibited the
lowest 7 and 60-d autogenous shrinkage values, which were up to about
70% and 33% lower than that of reference UHPC, respectively, shown in
Fig. 4.
4. Reduction of the surface tension of pore solution
Shrinkage reducing agent (SRA) is mainly composed of amphiphilic
(i.e., surfactant) molecules, known to reduce shrinkage deformation and
cracks of cement-based materials. The interactions between SRA and
cement paste’s pore solution can be decisive to its effect on cement-
based materials. In general, the formation of SRA in pore solution can
be classified into three parts, as shown in Fig. 5 [67]. Part 1 represents
the adsorption on water-air interface of pore solution, playing a role in
shrinkage reduction. Part 2 represents SRA dissolved in the pore solu­
tion. The phenomenon of aggregation of SRA molecules can be obtained
when SRA concentration is over critical micelle concentration, which is
not beneficial in reducing the surface tension and will affect hydration of
L. Yang et al.
Fig. 4. Effects of various cellulose fiber contents on autogenous shrinkage of
UHPC [66]. MC0, MC1, MC2, MC3 represent the mixtures with cellulose fiber of
0, 0.7, 0.9, and 1.1 kg/m3, respectively.
cement. Part 3 is a part of SRA that is adsorbed on water-solid interface,
which also reduces shrinkage based on the shrinkage mechanisms of
surface free energy of solid gel particles [68,69].
In addition to the reduction in capillary stress by decreasing the
surface tension of pore solution [70], the potential role of reducing
autogenous shrinkage using SRA can be due to: (1) maintenance of in­
ternal relative humidity at a high level and decrease in self-desiccation
[71]; (2) an increase in the concentration of Ca2þ and the oversaturation
portlandite and ettringite [72]. Consequently, early age expansion due
to crystallization pressure compensates for partially autogenous stress.
The retardation of hydration with the addition of SRA is initially
believed to be due to a reduction of alkali content in the pore solution
[73]. Later, Eberhardt [74] noticed that the adsorption of SRA molecules
onto portlandite limited the growth rate of crystals. The retardation of
hydration of cement of course also contributes to the reduction of early
autogenous shrinkage.
Several papers reported that the shrinkage reduction by using SRA in
UHPC was more significant than the use of wollastonite [77] and
expansive agent [78]. However, the decline rate decreases slightly with
the increase of SRA content from 1% to 2% [78]. Soliman et al. [45]
investigated the efficiency of SRA at different temperatures and found
that 40 � C was more beneficial in decreasing autogenous shrinkage than
those at 10 � C and 20 � C. Possible reason is that water is quickly
consumed at high temperature, while SRA remained or was consumed at
Fig. 5. Existent form of SRA in cement-based materials [67].
6
Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456
a slower rate, which increased the SRA concentration. Temperature ef­
fect may also make some contributions. In view of pure water, it is re­
ported that the surface tension increases by a factor of approximately
1.09 when the temperature decreases from 40 to 0 � C [79]. Given that
adverse effect on the early hydration and strength development [75],
also loss of entrained air in the case of individual use of SRA [76], the
hybrid uses of SRA and SAP is generally recommended. Liu et al. [86]
addressed that a use of 2% SRA and 0.3% SAP in ultra-high strength
concrete is most effective in term of minimum autogenous and drying
shrinkage.
5. Formation of expansive products
Chemical reactions between the expansive agent and water leads to
macroscopic volume expansion due to the generation of large amount of
ettringite or calcium hydroxide at an early age from concrete hydration,
and subsequently expansive forces resulting from crystallization pres­
sure and swelling pressure compensate partial autogenous shrinkage of
cement-based materials. Fig. 6 [107] illustrates the principle of expan­
sive agents to improve shrinkage behavior. (a) Describes the mechanism
of expansive stresses and restrained stresses that compensate for tensile
stresses in cracks, (b) shows the generation of expansive products and
their resultant effects of filling into pores of concrete, (c) demonstrates
the process of expansion of expansive agents in concrete, obviously seen
that the initial connection in hydrated matrix will be broken by
expansive products and consequently resulting in a new connection. The
expansive agent is categorized as iron powder, alumina powder,
magnesia, calcium sulfoaluminate, and calcium oxide series [80]. The
hydration process of sulfoaluminate series consumes a lot of water,
which cannot well compensate the autogenous shrinkage at later ages,
while less water is needed for magnesia-based expansive agent [81].
Besides, sulfoaluminate based expansive agent might lead to the possi­
bility of delayed ettringite formation. In this case, the shrinkage
compensating effect cannot be fully performed at curing temperature
over than 70 � C, especially when in massive concrete [82]. Increasing
expansive agent content did not significantly reduce autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC, which is probably due to limited amount of
expansive substance [78]. Thus, expansive agent is often used with
shrinkage reducing agent or internal curing substances.
Crystal products with potential expansion reactions, such as MgO
and CaO, can restrain cement hydration [83]. The expansive reaction of
hard burnt MgO does not occur until the hardening of concrete,
Therefore, the use of MgO that was calcined at low temperature is
L. Yang et al. Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456

Fig. 6. Principle of expansive agents to improve shrinkage behavior [107].

7
L. Yang et al.
suggested in cement-based materials [84]. More stable hydration
products from MgO is expected to perform a long-term expansive effect
[85]. In practice, the combined use of CaO and MgO is suggested for
shrinkage compensation that occurred at both early and later ages.
A uniform distribution of expansive components in the matrix is
often difficult to achieve, which may be responsible for highly localized
formation of ettringite crystals. The challenges that arise from using
expansive agents include the suitable occurrence time and expansion
degree. Otherwise, the internal stress can be induced [84].
6. Replenishment of water through internal curing
6.1. Superabsorbent polymer
Good candidate of internal curing agent should possess a high ca­
pacity of water absorption, which can easily release the absorbed water
into cementitious matrix in front of the imminent drop in relative hu­
midity. SAP particles can absorb a large amount of water during the
mixing process of cement-based materials, and then is swelled to form
hydrogel, preventing self-desiccation during cement hydration due to
the formation of water-filled inclusions. Fig. 7 describes the water ab­
sorption process of distilled water into SAP [86]. The water entrained
within SAP increases the hydration degree, which behaves in a way of
increasing w/b. Meanwhile, shrinkage reduction effect from using SAP
is much more significant [87].
The efficiency of using SAP in restraining autogenous shrinkage
depends on its chemical structure, particle size, and dosage [88]. Given
SAP dosage and extra water, large SAP particles present a more pro­
nounced shrinkage reduction effect than small ones due to more
absorbed water. Additionally, the effectiveness of SAP also relies on
curing temperature of concrete. Soliman et al. [45] found that the
autogenous shrinkage of UHPC could be decreased by approximately
71% at 10 � C, and was 24% at 20 � C and 28% at 40 � C. The expansion in
the presence of SAP is beneficial to mitigation of autogenous shrinkage
of UHPC [89], which can be explained by the swelling of cement gel or
formation of ettringite [90,91]. The SAP type exerts certain effect on
autogenous shrinkage of UHPC due to their different absorption ca­
pacities and sizes. Compared to acrylic acid, large and globular pores
may form in UHPC when acrylic acid-co-acrylamide is used [92]. The
introduction of holes by SAP after release of water can also negatively
affect the strength of concrete. Thus, use of proper type and content of
SAP is essential.
Fig. 7. Interactions of SAP with water [86].
8
Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456
6.2. Porous aggregates
Porous aggregates can also release water to supplement the water
consumed by cement hydration when the internal relative humidity
drops. The internal curing efficiency of porous aggregates is strongly
dependent on its content, size, pore size distribution, and water satu­
ration degree. Porous aggregates are often treated after pre-saturation
process to enhance their water absorption [102]. Fine saturated
porous aggregates are used to minimize self-desiccation shrinkage
instead of coarser ones due to a more uniform distribution of curing
water. It should be noted that the shrinkage mitigation technique of
porous aggregates is less controlled than the use of SAP [93,94]. This can
be explained by a quick desorption of internal curing in porous aggre­
gates due to larger pore sizes.
Different porous aggregates, including pre-saturated coral aggregate
[74,95], lightweight sand [53], expanded shale [96], and recycled
aggregate [100], have been utilized to reduce autogenous shrinkage of
UHPC. Liu et al. [97] noticed that the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC
with 20% expanded shale was increased contrarily. The ultimate
autogenous shrinkage at 3 d was reduced by 31.9%, 47.9%, 78.4%, and
54.6% with expanded shale increased from 0 to 5%, 10%, 15%, and
20%, respectively. They also addressed that pretreated fine porous
aggregate under the vacuum condition was more effective in internal
curing compared to normal soaking and un-treated ones. Meng et al.
[96] suggested that a replacement of 25% lightweight sand to river sand
was an optimum content for the production of UHPC. Several re­
searchers found that using porous aggregates at appropriate content did
not only reduce autogenous shrinkage but also slightly enhanced the
compressive strength of UHPC [8,98,99]. This can be explained by a thin
and denser interfacial transition zone (ITZ) formed between cement
paste matrix and porous aggregates, as shown in Fig. 8 [106]. The
optimal content depends on w/b, mixture proportions, and aggregate
type and size. A novel pretreatment method for porous aggregates was
proposed by Sun et al. [105]. They utilized porous aggregates to absorb
SRA solution, and then these pretreated porous aggregates were used to
replace the fine aggregates in UHPC. Research results showed that
porous aggregates carrying SRA were more beneficial to reduce autog­
enous shrinkage than direct addition of SRA, and without negative effect
on its setting time.
It becomes increasingly accepted that calcium hydroxide crystals can
act as internal restraints for shrinkage reduction. Soliman et al. [93]
used of partially hydrated cementitious materials from recycling left­
over/unused concrete and found that the autogenous shrinkage was
reduced, possibly due to the reasons similar to those for un-hydrated
L. Yang et al.
Fig. 8. Microstructure of ITZ in cement mortar (a) with porous aggregate, (b) with normal aggregate [106].
cement particles and aggregate. Meanwhile, the relatively large porosity
due to the use of recycled materials also mitigates the autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC. A key issue needs to be considered is the existence of
calcium hydroxide crystals, which can easily lead to carbonation over
time.
6.3. Porous powder
As mentioned before, rice husk ash particles have a large specific
surface area due to meso-porous structure, which increases amorphous
silica source and determines how they affect the shrinkage of concrete
[101]. The pore size distribution of rice husk ash is mainly in the range
of approximately 2–50 nm, which corresponds to the change of internal
relative humidity from approximately 75%–98% [26]. When the inter­
nal relative humidity of UHPC matrix drops below 98%, it will release
the absorbed water to compensate for the humidity drop to mitigate the
self-desiccation. Other porous powder, such as natural zeolite, leaching
residue of boron mud, bottom ash, and recycled superfine powder, can
also be used as internal curing agents [103]. Their abilities to release
water are effective only when their pore sizes are larger than that of the
matrix.
6.4. Cellulose fibers
Compared to steel and synthetic fibers, cellulose fibers not only act as
a reinforcement to prevent brittle failure and to improve the perfor­
mance of UHPC at a much lower cost, but also act as an internal reservoir
due to their lumen structure [65]. As shown in Fig. 9, at the center of the
elementary fiber, the concentric cylinders with a small open channel in
the middle called the lumen, which contributes to water uptake. Their
highly hydrophilic feature, porous microstructure, and water holding
capacity allow to absorb enough water regardless of mixing process or
dedicated pre-saturation [104]. The obvious benefit of using cellulose
fibers over porous aggregate and superabsorbent polymer is their
resistance to crack formation and propagation. In addition, cellulose
fibers are subjected to little volume change during water transportation,
Fig. 9. A schematic view of the multi-scale structures [65].
9
Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456
thus achieving better internal curing effect [66]. It is widely accepted
that the addition of cellulose fibers also contributes to the control of
cracking as induced by drying and plastic shrinkage. However, studies
regarding their effect on autogenous shrinkage of UHPC are limited.
7. Comparison of mitigation strategies
Existing shrinkage mitigation strategies have their own advantages
and limitations. Table 2 summarizes the characteristics of each method.
The pronounced decrease in internal relative humidity and the in­
crease of capillary stress in the pore solution are responsible for the
occurrence of autogenous shrinkage. Thus, internal curing and use of
shrinkage reducing agent are straightforward strategies to mitigate
autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. In order to achieve a better shrinkage
reduction effect, optimal dosage of shrinkage reducing agent should be
tested and determined. Otherwise, it would exert negative impact on
cement hydration and strength of UHPC. Moreover, the reduction de­
gree changes with the type of shrinkage reducing agent and mixture
proportion. The introduction of internal water through internal curing
can directly provide additional water for further hydration of cementi­
tious materials, and thus restrain self-desiccation. Given the high
amount of unhydrated cement clinker presented in UHPC, this approach
is considered as the most straightforward and effective strategy for
minimizing autogenous shrinkage. The selection of appropriate internal
curing materials, including their type, size, and dosage, and availability
of uniformly distributed moisture can help achieve the most efficiency.
8. Conclusions and recommendations
This paper reviewed the recent research results of autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC. Five categories of mitigation techniques were clas­
sified based on the restraining mechanism. According to the above an­
alyses and discussions, the conclusions can be drawn as follows:
(1) SCMs (except for silica fume) as cement replacement can restrain
initial hydration of cement, and thereby the self-desiccation
L. Yang et al. Composites Part B 178 (2019) 107456

Table 2 (6) The combination of two and/or more techniques can simulta­
Advantages and disadvantages of mitigation strategies. neously exert their functions, and thus maximizing the restrain­
Strategies Reduction Advantages Disadvantages ing effectiveness.
degree

Addition of 19%–88% Straightforward Negative effects on

internal curing [74,100] supplement for mechanical
Declaration of competing interest
internal water properties
Shrinkage 15%–69% Reduction of capillary Decrease in The authors declared that they have no conflicts of interest to this
reducing agent [73,74] stress development effectiveness over work.
and water time, destabilization
evaporation in the of air voids,
plastic stage retardation of Acknowledgment
cement hydration
Replacement of 9%–80% Reduction in cost, Inconsistent raw Financial support from the National Key Research and Development
cement and/or [26,32] production of materials, lower
Program of China (2018YFC0705400) and the Hunan Provincial Inno­
silica fume by sustainable concrete, early strength,
other SCMs achievement of vation Foundation for Postgraduate are greatly appreciated.
desirable long-term
properties
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