Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40799-022-00583-4

RESEARCH PAPER

Modeling and Experimental Verification of Torsional Deformation

Constitutive Model of Tread Rubber Based on Digital Image
Correlation
X. Gao1 · Y. Wang1 · W. Fan2 · Z. Long2 · X. Li3 · X. Yue1 · Y. Liu1 · Y. Yan1 · J. Wang1

Received: 12 July 2021 / Accepted: 27 May 2022 / Published online: 17 June 2022
© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc 2022

Abstract
Due to the complex constitutive relationship of tread rubber and the strong non-linearity of the dynamic contact relationship
between tread rubber and road surface, the torsional deformation characteristics and distribution mechanism are difficult to
be modeled theoretically in the tire contact patch. In order to accurately express the nonlinear flexible large deformation of
tire tread block under torsional condition, the constitutive theory modeling of tread rubber based on continuum mechanics
and the constitutive model verification based on improved digital image correlation are studied. A novel constitutive model
considering the hyperelastic, viscoelastic and frictional property of tread rubber is established. A full-field measuring
equipment for torsional deformation of tread block is established based on machine vision technology. The digital image
sequence of instantaneous torsion deformation is analyzed by the improved digital image correlation to obtain the strain
rate distribution characteristics and distribution law of the marker points and the whole area of the tread block. The analysis
results demonstrate that the proposed constitutive model is feasible to predict the full-field distribution characteristics and
distribution trend of tread rubber blocks in the contact patch.

Keywords  Rubber constitutive model · Digital image correlation · Continuum mechanics · Rubber contact surface · Full-
field distribution

Introduction rolling tire, especially on the handling stability of the rolling

The tire is the only contact part between the vehicle and
the ground [1]. The mechanical properties of tires play an
important role in the mechanical properties of automobiles,
especially the handling stability of automobiles [2]. The
tread rubber is the part of the tire in direct contact with the
ground [3]. The mechanical properties of tread rubber have
an important influence on the mechanical properties of the
* X. Gao
xueliang_gao@126.com
1
School of Mechatronic Engineering, Changchun University
of Technology, Changchun 130012, Jilin, China
2
Department of Chassis Parts, North China Vehicle Research
Institute, Beijing 100072, China
3
Durable Section of Chassis Test and Research Department,
CAT​ARC​Automotive Test Center (Tianjin) Co., Ltd,
Tianjin 130012, China
tire in the condition of large steering angle [4]. Therefore,
the constitutive relation of tread rubber is very important to
understand the interaction mechanism between rolling tire
and ground under large steering angle.
To study the contact mechanical properties of a rolling
tire with the road surface at high speed and large steering
angle, it is necessary to seek reasonable and practical consti-
tutive relations to predict and analyze the large deformation
properties of a rolling tire. At present, theoretical research on
the constitutive relation of rubber material is mainly carried
out in the form of strain energy function [5]. One of the main
methods is to establish the strain energy function of rub-
ber material based on the continuum mechanics theory [6].
The strain energy function and deformation tensor invariants
are used to characterize the properties of rubber material.
The typical rubber constitutive models include the Neo-
Hookean model [7], Mooney-Rivlin model [8], Yeoh model
[9], and Ogden model [10], etc. Another method to estab-
lish strain energy function is the statistical thermodynamic

Vol.:(0123456789)
750
method based on the molecular network structure [11]. This
method explains the physical properties of rubber material
macromolecules from the microscopic structure of material
and deduces the macroscopic physical properties of rubber
material using statistical theory. The constitutive models
of rubber material established by this method include the
Gaussian statistical model [12], three-chain model [13],
four-chain model [14], Arruda-Boyce model [15], etc. How-
ever, the expression of strain energy function established by
the statistical thermodynamic method is extremely complex,
which has a large error in describing material experiments
and engineering phenomena, and is seldom used in practical
engineering analysis.
The viscoelastic constitutive model of integer-order tread
rubber is obtained by combining the ideal Hooke elastic
model with the ideal Newtonian fluid model [16]. Drozdov
[17] systematically studies the linear and nonlinear rubber
viscoelastic constitutive models and experimental verifica-
tion methods. Bernstein et al. [18] propose viscoelastic con-
stitutive equations for incompressible solids. Coleman et al.
[19] derive the relaxation constitutive equation for isotropic
incompressible materials. These models could represent
the linear viscoelastic properties of rubber materials, but
they are limited in application due to their large number of
parameters and small application range.
In recent years, the fractional derivative theory has
been successfully applied to constitutive model modeling
of viscoelastic materials [20]. Compared with the integer-
order viscoelastic constitutive model, the fractional-order
viscoelastic constitutive model could express the mechani-
cal properties of viscoelastic material in the wide range of
time and frequency domains with fewer parameters. Bagley
et al. propose a generalized fractional derivative model and
confirm that the fractional derivative constitutive relation
could better express the relaxation phenomena and creep
phenomena of rubber materials [21, 22].
The optical-mechanics method is based on the principle
of mechanics and optical technology, which has the advan-
tages of real-time, non-contact, and full-field measurement
[23]. The material mechanical parameters such as displace-
ment, strain, and stress of deformed objects are measured
and analyzed by this method [24–26]. The digital image
correlation is a kind of optical-mechanics method, which
has become one of the effective means for the measurement
of mechanical properties of deformation materials [27–29].
Hiraoka et al. [30] propose to use the digital image cor-
relation method to obtain in-plane strain and out-of-plane
displacement of the tire. In Ref. [31, 32], the digital image
correlation method has been used to calculate the dynamic
contact patch length and rolling resistance coefficient of the
rolling tire. Based on Ref. [33], the paper proposes to use
full-field deformation distribution of tire tread block to ver-
ify the rubber constitutive model in the cornering condition.
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765
To sum up, a new constitutive model and full-field model
experimental verification method for large torsional defor-
mation of tread block are proposed in this paper.
The contents of paper are organized as follows: Sect. 2
proposes a new constitutive model to describe the torsional
deformation of tread block; Sect. 3 deduces the improved
digital image correlation method; Sect. 4 elaborates the
system development and experimental preparation; Sect. 5
discusses and analyzes the results; and Sect. 6 gives the
conclusion.
Rubber Constitutive Model
In order to expressing the torsional deformation of tread
block, a novel rubber constitutive model is proposed by the
mechanical analogy. As shown in Fig. 1, the new constitu-
tive model consists of the hyperelastic stress model, viscoe-
lastic stress model and frictional stress model. To describe
the hyperelastic mechanical properties of tread rubber, the
strain energy density function is introduced. The viscoelastic
mechanical properties of rubber materials are very complex,
which are usually related to frequency, temperature, time,
etc. The constitutive models to describe viscoelastic proper-
ties mainly include integer order and fractional order deriv-
ative model [34]. According to the torsional deformation
distribution characteristics of tread rubber [33], the friction
model adopts the form of dynamic-static friction exponential
decay. Parameter identification and internal correlation of
each component of the tread rubber constitutive model are
shown below.
Hyperelastic Model
In order to expressing the hyper-elastic characteristic of
tread block, the strain energy density function is used [5].
The strain energy density function that complies with the
Fig. 1  Schematic diagram of rubber constitutive model
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765 751

Table 1  Several hyperelastic Hyperelastic model The strain energy density function

models of incompressible
material ( )
Neo-Hookean UNH = C10 I1 − 3 + 𝛾2 (J − 1)2
( ) { }
Mooney-Rivlin UMR = C10 tr(Cr ) − 3 + 21 C01 tr(Cr )2 − tr(Cr2 ) − 3 + 𝛾2 (J − 1)2
Yeoh { } { }2 { }3
UY = C10 tr(Cr ) − 3 + C20 tr(Cr ) − 3 + C30 tr(Cr ) − 3 + 𝛾2 (J − 1)2
Odgen ∑3
2𝜇i � 𝛼i 𝛼 𝛼 �
UO = 𝛼2
𝜆1 + 𝜆2i + 𝜆3i − 3 + 𝛾2 (J − 1)2
i=1 i

Reduced-Polynomial(N = 4) U  = ∑N C �I − 3�i

RP i=1 i0 1
Arruda-Boyce ∑5 Ci � i �
UAB = 𝜇 i= 𝜆2i−2 I1 − 3i
1 m

objective principle is a function of the strain invariants ­I1, ­I2

and ­I3. It could be defined as

∑
3
I1 = tr(Cr) = 𝝀2n (1)
n=1

1{ ( )} ∑ ( )2
I2 = tr(Cr)2 − tr 𝐂𝐫 2 = 𝝀𝐦 𝝀𝐧 (2)
2 1≤m<n≤3

( )2
I3 = det(Cr) = 𝝀, 𝝀2 𝝀3 (3)

where Cr = J T J denotes as the right Cauchy–Green defor- Fig. 2  Tread block uniaxial tensile test rig
mation tensor, J is the matrix of the position vector gradi-
ents, tr(Cr) is the trace of Cr, and {𝜆n} expresses the princi-
ple stretch ratios. If the material is incompressible, the strain
energy density function is a function of I1 and I2. The Rivlin
polynomial of the strain energy density function consisting
of strain invariants is defined as

∑
N
( )i ( )j
W= Cij I1 − 3 I2 − 3 , (4)
i,j=0

where Cij expresses the material constant. The penalty

method could be used to impose the incompressibility condi-
tion. The formula of the penalty function could be defined as
𝛾
Up = (J − 1)2 , (5)
2
where 𝛾 denotes as the stiffness coefficient. The strain energy
density function of the incompressible Rivlin model could
Fig. 3  Specimen of tread block
be defined as U = W + Up . Therefore, several hyperelastic
models are developed to describe the stress–strain rela-
tion. The expression formula of the models are shown as motor (2) ball screw (3) mobile platform (4) material fixture
in Table 1. (5) force sensor (6) support plate (7) linear guideway and (8)
Where 𝛼i , 𝜆i denote as the material parameters. C1 = 0.5, displacement sensor. The tensile specimen sheet (2 mm) is
C2 = 1/20,
√ C3 = 11/1050, C4 = 19/7000, C5 = 519/673750, provided by the tire manufacturer. The tensile specimens are
𝜆m= U are the limit elongation ratio. cut by the dumbbell cutter specified in GB/T 9865.1. The
In order to determine the hyperelastic model param- tensile specimen is shown in Fig. 3. The profile dimensions
eters of tread block, the uniaxial tensile test rig is set up. of the sample A, B, C, D, E and F are 35 mm, 6 mm,12 mm,
As shown in Fig. 2, the test rig is composed of (1) driving 2 mm, 3 mm and 3 mm, respectively.
752 Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765

According to the uniaxial tensile test data, the hyperelastic 𝜎̇ 𝜎

model parameters of tread block are identified. The identifica-
𝜀̇ = +
E1 𝜂 (8)
tion results are shown in Table 2.
( )
1 t
Viscoelastic Model 𝜀(t) =
E1
1+
𝜏 0
𝜎 (9)

The viscoelasticity of rubber material is between linear
elasticity and ideal viscosity, so the mechanical proper-
ties of rubber materials could be expressed by different
combinations of viscous and elastic element. When the
inertial effect of rubber material is ignored, the constitu-
tive relation of linear spring could be expressed by the
following formula:
𝜎 = E1 ⋅ 𝜀 (6)
In the equation (6), E1 denotes as the material constant of
spring. The constitutive relation for Newton pot unit element
is:
𝜎=𝜂⋅
d𝜀
(7)
dt
In the equation (7), 𝜂 denotes as viscosity of rubber mate-
rial. In the classical theory, the well-known viscoelastic
models are Maxwell model, Kelvin model and three-element
model. The Maxwell model adopts series spring element and
Newton pot unit element to represent the mechanical prop-
erties of rubber material, and structural schematic diagram
is shown in Fig. 4(a). According to the structural schematic
diagram, the mathematical expression of stress and strain is
shown in the equations (8) and (9). In the Kelvin model, vis-
coelastic properties are represented by the parallel connection
between the spring element and the Newton pot unit element,
and structural schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 4(b). The
three-element model is the Kelvin model with spring element
in series or the Maxwell model with a spring element in paral-
lel. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 4(c).
The mathematical models introduced have a very simple
expression to describe the viscoelasticity of rubber material,

Table 2  Parameter identification Hyperelastic model Hyperelastic model parameters (Mpa)

results of hyperelastic model
Neo-Hookean C10 = 0.4633
Mooney-Rivlin C10 = 0.4490 C01 = 0.011

Yeoh C10 = 0.4817 C20 = -0.0468 C30 = 8.226 × ­10–3

Reduced-Polynomial C10 = 0.4841 C20 = -2.418 × ­10–2 C30 = 3.028 × ­10–3 C40 = 1.684 × ­10–4
Ogden α1 = 1.3569 α2 = -14.786 α3 = 12.3495
μ1 = 1.3586 μ2 = -1.1375 × ­10–7 μ3 = 2.2848 × ­10–5
Arruda-Boyce μ = 0.7658 λ = 2.5915

Fig. 4  Schematic diagram of
integer order mathematical
model structure

(a) Maxwell model (b) Kelvin model (c) Three element model
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765
but it has some limitations to describe the mechanical prop-
erties. Therefore, the generalized Maxwell model and the
generalized Kelvin model are generated to describe the com-
plex mechanical properties of rubber material. The struc-
ture diagram of the generalized Maxwell model is shown in
Fig. 5, which is made up of multiple Maxwell elements in
parallel. As shown in equation (10) and equation (11), the
stress of the generalized Maxwell model is the sum of a sin-
gle Maxwell element, and the strain is the sum of the strains
of the spring element and the clay pot element.
𝜎 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + … + 𝜎n
𝜀 = 𝜀h + 𝜀v
where, 𝜀h presents the strain generated by the spring ele-
ment, 𝜀v denotes as the strain generated by the glue pot ele-
ment, and n is the number of elements in the generalized
Maxwell model. Then the expression of the generalized
Maxwell model is as follows
Fig. 5  Schematic diagram of generalized Maxwell model structure
(a) Maxwell model of (b) Kelvin model of
fractional derivative fractional derivative
Fig. 6  Schematic diagram of fractional mathematical model structure
753
∑
N
𝜏j
𝜎0 = Ej 𝜀(t) (12)
𝜏j + t
j=1
where ­Ej ( j = 1, 2,…, N) is the elastic modulus of the j-th
Maxwell element, and 𝜏i = Ei .𝜂i (i = 1, 2, ⋯ N) is the viscos-
𝜂
i
ity constant of the i-th Maxwell element.
The above constitutive model could express the viscoelastic
properties of most rubber materials. However, the generalized
Maxwell viscoelastic model and the generalized Kelvin model
require more fitting parameters, which has brought many limita-
(10) tions. Bagley [35] innovatively introduces the concept of frac-
tional derivative to describe the viscoelastic properties of rubber
(11) materials. After that, more and more researchers begin to study
the fractional differential viscoelastic constitutive model [22, 36].
The fractional derivative introduces the pop-pot element, and the
stress expression of the pop-pot element is shown in equation (13):
𝜎(t) = E𝜏 𝛼 D𝛼 𝜀(t) (13)
where 𝜂 presents the viscosity, and E is the elastic modulus and
𝜏 = 𝜂∕E denotes as relaxation time. When 𝛼 = 0 , the pop-pot
model degenerates into an ideal spring model; When 𝛼 = 1 ,
the pop-pot model is the ideal Newton Pot Unit element; When
0 < 𝛼 < 1 , the pop-pot model is a combination of the ideal spring
model, the ideal Newton Pot Unit element and the fractional
derivative model. The fractional derivative viscoelastic constitu-
tive model is obtained by different combination of the pop-pot
element model and the ideal spring model.
As shown in Fig. 6(a), the Maxwell model with fractional
derivative is the most commonly used fractional differential
viscoelastic model [37]. The schematic diagram of fractional
derivative Kelvin model [36], the Zener model of fractional
derivative [38, 39] and FDZ model with ten parameters
[40, 41] is shown in Fig. 6(b-d). Maxwell's model of fractional
derivative is taken as an example to carry out model derivation.
(c) Zener model of (d) FDZ model with ten
fractional derivative parameters
754 Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765

Table 3  Parameters identification of viscoelastic model

E1 𝜀1 (t) = 𝜎(t) (14)
Number gi ki τi
(15)
𝛼 𝛼
E𝜏 D 𝜀2 (t) = 𝜎(t) 1 0.5915 0 10.8548
2 0.0978374 0 0.33379
𝜀1 (t) + 𝜀2 (t) = 𝜀(t) (16) 3 0.11092 0 0.064759752
4 0.19969 0 0.008
E1 E𝜏 𝛼 D𝛼
𝜎(t) = 𝜀(t) (17)
E1 + E𝜏 𝛼 D𝛼
where 𝜇s denotes as the static friction coefficient, 𝜇k denotes
where D𝛼 denotes as the fractional differential operator, 𝜎(t) as the dynamic friction coefficient, de denotes as the expo-
expresses the stress, and 𝜀(t) denotes as the strain, E1 denotes nential attenuation coefficient, and v denotes as the relative
as the spring material parameter. sliding velocity.
Fractional order differential viscoelastic model has more In order to obtain the friction characteristics of the
advantage than integer order differential viscoelastic model, tread rubber material, a friction experimental setup for
but it is difficult to calculate the fractional differential vis- the rubber tread block is built, as shown in Fig. 7. The
coelastic constitutive model [36, 42]. Therefore, it is very experimental setup consists of a computer control mod-
important to choose a reasonable viscoelastic constitutive ule (01), a loading screw slide (02), a two-axis force
to represent the mechanical properties of rubber material sensor (03), a rubber tread block holding device (04), a
according to different working conditions. transparent glass plate (05), a loading screw slide (06)
The proposed constitutive model adopts Maxwell model in and a CCD camera (07). The rubber specimen is shown
series to express the viscoelastic properties of rubber material. in Fig. 10. The vertical force and longitudinal force of
In order to identify parameters of multiple Maxwell model tread block are obtained by means of a two-axis force
elements, Prony series [43] expansion is adopted to represent sensor (03). Finally, the friction model parameters are
its dependence on time, and the shear modulus is expressed as: obtained by numerical fitting method. The identification
( ) results are shown in Table 4.
∑
n
−t
G(t) = G0 {1 − gi 1 − e 𝜏 i } (18) To sum up, the hyperelastic-viscoelastic-friction cou-
i=1 pling model proposed in this paper is shown in Fig. 1.
In the following content, simulation analysis of coupling
where ­G0, G(t) represent the initial and instantaneous values
models is carried out to compare the simulation results
of shear modulus, gi , 𝜏i denote as dimensionless material
with the experimental results. Through the analysis of
constant and dimensionless relaxation time, respectively.
marked points and full-field strain rates, the validity and
G(t) ∑ ( n
−t
) adaptability of the coupling model to the torsion condi-
g(t) = =1− gi 1 − e 𝜏 i (19) tion are verified.
G0 i=1

According to the dimensionless shear relaxation modulus

G (t) and the experimental normalized data, the least square
method is used to identify the parameters gi , 𝜏i . The identi-
fication parameters are shown in Table 3.
Friction Model
There are many factors that affect the friction characteristics
of tire rubber. In addition to the influence of working condi-
tions and environment, such as pressure, sliding friction, speed,
temperature and humidity. The friction between tread rubber
and road surface is an important factor affecting the mechani-
cal properties of tires. Oden [42] gives the correlation between
friction coefficient and sliding velocity under certain pressure
and temperature, and the correlation is shown as follows.
𝜇 = 𝜇s + (𝜇s − 𝜇k )e−de×v (20)
Improved Digital Image Correlation
Shabana proposes the Absolute Node Coordinate For-
mula (ANCF) to describe large deformation of flexible
bodies [43, 44]. The digital image correlation is improved
by combining the digital image correlation with ANCF
algorithm [45]. The improved digital image correlation
defines the global node position coordinates and node
position vector gradient coordinates as the image corre-
lation search parameters, and the improved algorithm is
suitable for the non-contact acquisition of large deforma-
tion of flexible objects. Under the absolute nodal coor-
dinate (X1, X2), the improved digital image correlation
firstly divides measurement area into elements that are
connected by the element nodes. The principle of the
improved digital image correlation is shown in Fig. 8.
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765 755

Fig. 7  Rubber tread block fric-

tion test bench

Table 4  Parameters identification results of friction model

Parameter name 𝜇s 𝜇k de

Identification result 1.1449 0.673 2.125

( ) ( )
Where x1ij , x2ij and x1ij
′ ′
, x2ij denote as the i-th point
of the j-th element of the reference image and the deformed
image, respectively.
In the absolute nodal coordinate system, the displace-
ment and strain of object surface are acquired by the tem-
plate matching algorithm of digital image correlation [46].
The correlation coefficients between the reference digital
image elements and the deformed digital image elements
are calculated by the template matching algorithm, and the
displacement vector relationship between them is deter-
mined. The correlation coefficient formula is defined as
[ , , ]2 Fig. 8  The principle of the improved digital image correlation
∑n ∑ M fj (x1ij , x2ij ) − fn gj (x1ij , x2ij , ej ) − gn
CANCF = −
j=1 i=1 Δf Δg
(21) rj (xj ) = [r1j , r2j ]T = Sj (xj )ej , (22)
( ) ( )
where fj x1ij ,x2ij and gj x1ij , x2ij stand for the grayscale
� �
[ ( )( )]T
intensity levels of the point of reference image element and 𝜕rjk 𝜕rjk
deformed image element. n denotes as the number of ele- ej = rjk k = 1, 2, 3, 4. (23)
𝜕xkj 𝜕ykj
ments. M denotes as the number of the element’s points. The
ej consists of the plate element node coordinates of the
reduced order.
756 Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765

where Sj (xj ) denotes as the element shape function. The image subset and the deformed image subset approximately
correlation coefficient is minimized by Newton-Roughson satisfy fj (x1ij , x2ij ) ≈ gj (x1ij
, ,
, x2ij , ej ) , and then can be simpli-
algorithm. fied as
∇CANCF (ej0 ) � � � �
⎧ ⎫
� � 𝜕gj x� , x� , ej 𝜕gj x� , x� , ej ⎪
(24)
n M
ej = ej0 − . ⎪ 1ij 2ij 1ij 2ij
∇∇CANCF = 2 DTj ⎨ K2
⎬ Dj
∇∇CANCF (ej0 ) j=1 ⎪ i=1 𝜕ek 𝜕el ⎪ k = 1, 6m (28)
⎩ ⎭
i = 1, 6m
where ej0 and ej denote as the element node vectors of the
un-deformed image and the deformed image. In the global absolute nodal coordinates, the numerical

� �
⎧M � , , � � � ⎫
�
n
� g (x , x , e ) − g 𝜕g x , x , e
T⎪ ⎪ (25)
fj (x1ij , x2ij ) − fn j 1ij 2ij j n j 1ij 2ij j
∇CANCF = −2 Dj ⎨ K × − × ⎬
j=1 ⎪ i=1 Δf Δg 𝜕e l ⎪
⎩ ⎭l=1,6m

[ [ ] ] solutions of ∇CANCF and ∇∇CANCF are obtained by bicubic

,
𝜕 gj (x1ij ,
,x2ij ,ej )−gn [ ]
,
× Δg − gj (x1ij ,
, x2ij , ej ) − gn × 𝜕(Δg)
subpixel interpolation method, and then the gray intensity
𝜕el 𝜕el
of any point in the subset of the deformed image can be
K=
(Δg)2 expressed as
(26)

⎧ � � � � � � ⎫
⎡ ⎛ gj x� ,x� ,ej −gn ⎞ ⎤ 𝜕gj x� ,x� ,ej 𝜕gj x� ,x� ,ej
⎪ ⎢ 𝜕K ⎜ fj (x1ij ,x2ij )−fn − 1ij 2ij
⎟ − K2⎥ 1ij 2ij 1ij 2ij ⎪
⎪M ⎢ k⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎪
�n
� 𝜕e Δf Δg 𝜕ek 𝜕el
T⎪ ⎣ ⎝ � ⎠ ⎦� ⎪
(27)
∇∇ANCF = −2 Dj ⎨ � � ⎬ Dj
⎪ i=1 𝜕 2 gj x� ,x� ,ej ⎛ gj x� ,x� ,ej −gn ⎞ ⎪
⎜ fj (x1ij ,x2ij )−fn −
j=1
⎪ +K
1ij 2ij 1ij 2ij
⎟ ⎪
⎪
𝜕ek 𝜕el ⎜ Δf Δg ⎟ ⎪ k = 1, 6m
⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭
i = 1, 6m

where Dj is the 6m × 6n assembly matrix. The node position � � �

3
�
3
� �r � �s
vector gradient of the j-th reducer plate element is connected
�
gj x1ij �
, x2ij ,e = 𝛼rs Sij Dj e‖1 Sij Dj e‖2 (29)
with the node position vector gradient of the adjacent r=0 s=0

reducer plate element by the Dj . When ej is close to the exact

solution, the corresponding image points in the reference

Fig. 9  Test system layout. (a)

test system assemble relation-
ship; (b) test system develop-
CCD camera
ment Rotating
loading
regulator Optical
source
Normal
loading Optical
mechanism frame

Clamp
mechanism
Platform
Torque
sensor

(a) (b)
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765 757

The above solution region is extended to the whole

region of the tested subset to obtain the displacement
and the vector gradient of the element node. On this
basis, the generalized node displacement vector and
the generalized node Green–Lagrange strain vector of
any reduced-plate element in the subset region of the
deformed image are calculated. The calculation expres-
sion is as follows
rj = Sj Dj e, (31)

( ( )T )
( ) 1 T 𝜕Sj 𝜕Sj
𝜀kl j = e e − 𝛿kl , k, l = 1, 2. (32)
2 j 𝜕xkj 𝜕xkj j

Experiment Setup and Preparation

Test System Development

In order to reproduce the compression and shear coupling

Fig. 10  The speckle distribution of tread block
deformation of the tread block, the test system is devel-
oped. The system consist of a platform, a normal loading
mechanism, a rotating loading regulator, CCD camera
where 𝛼rs represents the bicubic surface coefficient of adja- (MER-031-300GM), optical source (CCS), clamp mecha-
cent points of the digital image subset element. The deriva- nism and a torque sensor. The tread block is fixed by the
tive of gray intensity of any point in the image deformation clamp mechanism. The normal loading mechanism is used
subset is solved by the differential chain method. The spe- to load in the direction of the vertical. The rotating loading
cific expression is as follows regulator could adjust angular velocity in the contact sur-
( ) ( ) face of tread block. The arrangement of the experimental
( )
𝜕 Dj e ‖
� � 2 𝜕g x� , x� , e
𝜕gj x1ij , x2ij ,e ∑ j 1ij 2ij ‖ system is shown in Fig. 9.
= Sij ‖ (30)
𝜕ea 𝜕x � 𝜕e ‖
k=1 kij a ‖k

Fig. 11  Angular velocity vs
time relation
758
Fig. 12  Region of interest and
subset (25 pixels)
Experimental Preparation
The geometric dimensions of the tread block are
12mmx12mmx12mm, which is obtained by cutting
machine. The displacement and strain of the surface
are measured by tracking the change of the grayscale
intensity of the subsets. Speckle is used as the carrier of
surface deformation information, and then the speckle
pattern is created on the contact surface of the tread
block. The speckle of tread block ought to have the char-
acteristics of spatial intensity variation and distribution
disorder. Figure 10 shows the speckle distribution and
Fig. 13  The location of the
marker points
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765
feature of tread block. In the process of experiment, the
tread block is tightened by a clamping mechanism. The
experimental condition include: (1) vertical loading dis-
placement 1 mm; (2) rotational angular velocity 3 deg/s.
Figure 11 presents the angular velocity vs time relation.
Region of interest (ROI) of tread block is selected
on the contact surface of reference image. As shown in
Fig. 12, the shape of ROI is a red circle region, and the
circle diameter is 8 mm. The marker points (red asterisk
points in Fig. 13 are selected on the contact surface of
ROI in absolute coordinate system.
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765
Fig. 14  Experiment results of strain rate at marked points
Results and Analysis
Experiment Results and Analysis
CCD camera is used to collect continuous torsional defor-
mation images of tread block. In order to obtain the com-
plete deformation image of the sample, the torsional defor-
mation process is recorded the 5 s in advance. The strain
of each marked point is obtained by equation (32) in the
global coordinate system. Because the distance between
each mark point and the rotation center is different, the
strain rate amplitude of the mark point is different. The
strain rate test result of each mark point with time is plot-
ted, as shown in Fig. 14.
Time 0s 3s
DIC
results
Detail
Fig. 15  Full-field strain rate distribution
759
According to the strain rate distribution in the Fig. 14, it
could be obtained:
1) By observing the strain rate curves of each marker, the
strain rate increases gradually from the center of rotation
to the outside.
2) The change trend of the 2–4 mark points are as follows:
Firstly, the strain rates of all the mark points increase
with time. Secondly, the strain rate of the mark points
fluctuates slightly after reaching the peak. The strain rate
change trend of mark point 1 begin to show an upward
trend, and then the strain compression zone appears at
the rotation center.
3) According to the strain rate test results of mark points, it
could be obtained that before 4 s, the tread rubber block
is in stick–slip state with the increase of the strain rate
of the tread rubber block. After 4 s, the strain rate of the
tread block is relatively stable, and the tread block enters
the torsional full slip state.
The torsional deformation images captured by CCD cam-
era are processed by the improved digital image correlation
to obtain full-field strain rate distribution of 0 s, 3 s, 4 s, 6 s,
7 s and 10 s, as shown in Fig. 15. According to the experi-
mental results, it could be obtained:
1) With the accumulation of torsional deformation of the
tread block, the full-field compression strain rate dis-
tribution is transformed from interphase distribution to
centralized distribution, and the full-field tensile strain
rate distribution is transformed from centralized distri-
bution to interphase distribution.
2) From the perspective of the full-field strain rate distribu-
tion, the state transition point from stick–slip state to full-
4s 6s 7s 10s
760 Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765

Fig. 16  Simulation results of
strain rate at marked points.
(a) Yeoh model simulation
result; (b) Neo-Hookean model
simulation result; (c) Reduced
polynomial (N = 4) model simu-
lation result; (d) Mooney-Rivlin
model simulation result; (e)
Arruda-Boyce model simulation
result

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

slip state of the rubber tread block is 4 s, which is consist- simulation results are shown in Fig. 16. According to the
ent with the strain rate distribution of the marked points. simulation results, it could be obtained:

1) The strain rate of mark points of Yeoh coupling model

Model Simulation Results and Analysis
Combined with the rubber constitutive model, the torsional
strain rate of the tread block is obtained by the finite ele-
ment method. In the hyperelastic part of the rubber con-
stitutive model, the Yeoh model, the Neo-Hookean model,
the Reduced-Polynomial (N = 4) model, the Mooney-Riv-
lin model and the Arruda-Boyce model are used, and the
and Arruda-Boyce coupling model firstly rise and then
reach the peak value, after the strain rate fluctuates
around the peak value. The strain rate of marked point
1 gradually increases in the stick–slip stage. The strain
rate distribution of other marked points are divided into
stick–slip stage and then full-slip stage. The peak point
of strain rate is the switching point from stick–slip stage
to full slip stage.
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765
Fig. 17  Marked points strain
rate comparison and analysis of
simulation results and experi-
ment results. (a) Yeoh model;
(b) Neo-Hookean model; (c)
Reduced polynomial(N = 4)
model; (d) Mooney-Rivlin
model; (e) Arruda-Boyce model
(a)
(c)
2) The strain rate of marked points 1 and 2 gradually
increase in the Neo-Hookean coupling model and
the Polynomial (N = 4) coupling model. The strain
rate of mark points 3 and 4 firstly increase and then
reach the peak value, after the strain rate fluctuates
near the peak value. It is obtained that the strain
rate of marked points 1 and 2 are stick–slip stage in
the whole change stage. The strain rate distribution
of marked points 3 and 4 are also divided into the
stick–slip stage and the full-slip stage, and the peak
position of strain rate is the switching point from
stick–slip stage to full slip stage.
761
(b)
(d)
(e)
3) The strain rate of mark point 1, 3 and 4 of the Mooney-
Rivlin coupling model firstly rise and then reach the
peak value, after the strain rate fluctuates around the
peak value. The whole change stage of the strain rate
of the marked point 1, 3 and 4 are also divided into the
stick–slip stage and the full-slip stage, and the peak posi-
tion of strain rate is the switching point from stick–slip
stage to full slip stage.
The strain rate experimental results of the marked points
are compared with the simulation results, and the analysis
results are shown in Fig. 17.
762 Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765

Table 5  Average and standard deviation of marker point 1 of experi- Table 8  Average and standard deviation of marker point 4 of experi-
mental and coupled models mental and coupled models
Mark point 1 Average Standard deviation Mark point 4 Average Standard deviation

Experiment data 0.57594 0.42018 Experiment data 1.39301 0.49888

Yeoh model 0.63088 0.42158 Yeoh model 1.50502 0.66305
Neo-Hookean model 1.01 0.6297 Neo-Hookean model 1.294 0.6165
Reduced-polynomial(N = 4) 0.864 0.5391 Reduced-polynomial(N = 4) 1.493 0.6997
model model
Mooney-Rivlin model 1.226 0.5862 Mooney-Rivlin model 1.365 0.66
Arruda-Boyce model 4.493 1.766 Arruda-Boyce model 3.204 1.018

Table 6  Average and standard deviation of marker point 2 of experi-

time, the slip state at the marker point is stick–slip state.
mental and coupled models
For the relatively stable change of strain rate with time,
Mark point 2 Average Standard deviation the marker point enters the stage of full slip.
Experiment data 0.36962 0.2611 2) The strain rate simulation results of marked point 3 and
Yeoh model 0.4767 0.3128 4 based on the Neo-Hookean coupling model are basi-
Neo-Hookean model 0.6581 0.8742 cally consistent with the experimental results. Compared
Reduced-polynomial(N = 4) 0.6156 0.816 with the strain rate simulation results of marked point
model 3 and 4, the simulation results of marked point 1 and 2
Mooney-Rivlin model 0.4738 0.6779 have great fluctuations, and there is a large error between
Arruda-Boyce model 4.691 1.646 simulation results and the experimental results. This is
because the model has low precision and few param-
According to marked points strain rate comparison and eters, which could not adapt to the complicated torsion
analysis, it could be obtained: process. The strain rate simulation results based on the
Reduced -Polynomial (N = 4) coupling model are basi-
1) The strain rate distribution of the Yeoh coupling model cally consistent with the experimental results. However,
is consistent with the experimental results. However, the fluctuation of local simulation data is large, which
there are also some small fluctuation errors, which is leads to large local error. Similar to the errors gener-
mainly derived from the vibration of the test device and ated by the Neo-Hookean model, there are all abnormal
electromagnetic interference. On the other hand, because wave points and are concentrated at marked point 1 and
the distance between the marker points and the load- marked point 2.
ing center is different, the rotation torque of the marker 3) Compared with the experimental results, the strain
points is different under the same working condition, changes obtained based on the Mooney-Rivlin coupling
and then the deformation characteristics are different. model could basically describe the torsion process of
It is consistent with the tire deformation characteristics rubber tread block in stick–slip stage, but after a period
in the real contact imprint. As the strain rate rises with of full slip stage, some abnormal points will appear. This
is because the model could not predict the strain over
time. In particular, the change of the experimental strain

Table 7  Average and standard deviation of marker point 3 of experi-

mental and coupled models
Table 9  Total mean value error of overall fitting of four markers in
Mark point 3 Average Standard deviation
each coupling model
Experiment data 1.01623 0.59869 Model Eerror
Yeoh model 1.225 0.54192
Neo-Hookean model 1.184 0.5574 Yeoh model 0.4828
Reduced-polynomial(N = 4) 1.217 0.5824 Neo-Hookean model 0.98923
model Reduced-polynomial(N = 4) model 0.83868
Mooney-Rivlin model 1.463 0.9393 Mooney-Rivlin model 1.22602
Arruda-Boyce model 2.928 0.7947 Arruda-Boyce model 11.9612
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765 763

Time 0s 3s 4s 6s 7s 10s

DIC
results

Detail

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Fig. 18  Full-field strain rate simulation and experimental results. (a) Yeoh model; (b) Neo-Hookean model; (c) Reduced polynomial(N = 4)
model; (d) Mooney-Rivlin model; (e) Arruda-Boyce model

rate at marked point 1 is always lower than the predicted
value of the model, because the marked point 1 is close
to the torsion center, and the model could not describe
the small torsion strain.
4) As shown in Fig. 17(e), compared with the experimental
results, the distribution of strain rate simulation results
based on the Arruda-Boyce coupling model has a large
error above the experimental results. This is because the
model is not suitable to express the torsion condition of
tread rubber.
5) In order to more clearly analyze the comparative analy-
sis of various coupling models and DIC experimental
results, the mean and standard deviation between each
marker point experiment and each coupling model are
calculated. The results are shown in Tables 5, 6, 7, 8.
In addition, equation (33) is used to define the total
mean fitting error of four marker points. The total mean
fitting error is summarized in Table 9.
764
( )
∑
4
Eerror = X i − X i , i = 1, 2, 3, 4 (33)
i=1
where Eerror denotes as the total mean fitting error of four
marker points, X i represents the average value of experimen-
tal data, X i represents the average value of model simulation
data and i represents the number of marker points.
It can be seen from Table 9 that the Yeoh model error
of each coupling model is the minimum and Arruda-Boyce
model error is the maximum. Combined with the standard
deviation in Tables 5, 6, 7, 8, it can be seen that the overall
fluctuation of Yeoh Model is also small, which is close to
the experimental data. The fluctuation mainly comes from
the vibration of the test device and electromagnetic interfer-
ence. More importantly, large nonlinear torsional deforma-
tion results in speckle fragmentation on the contact surface
of tread rubber block, which results in errors when digital
image correlation algorithm calculates the strain rates in the
marker points and ROI.
The simulation and experimental full-field strain rate
results of 0 s, 3 s, 4 s, 6 s, 7 s and 10 s are shown in Fig. 18.
Where, 0S is the image of the beginning of the torsion pro-
cess in the experimental step, because the rubber tread block
has been loaded with a predetermined load at the begin-
ning of the torsion, so there will be strain. Because DIC is
a relative analysis process, the initial strain does not affect
subsequent analysis results.
According to full-field strain rate simulation and experi-
mental results, it could be obtained:
1) The full-field strain rate distribution obtained by the cou-
pling models and the improved DIC algorithm is com-
pared and analyzed. The switching point of the tread
torsional deformation from stick–slip state to full-slip
state could be determined. The full-field strain rate dis-
tribution characteristics at the switching point are shown
as the torsional strain rate distribution at the moment of
4 s. In the light of the full-field strain rate distribution of
6-10 s, the three-point distribution of the Yeoh model,
the Neo-Hookean model, the Reduced-Polynomial
(N = 4) model and the Mooney-Rivlin model is consist-
ent with the experimental strain rate distribution. How-
ever, the two-point distribution of Arruda-Boyce model
is inconsistent with the experimental strain rate distribu-
tion, and there is a large error between simulation and
experimental results.
2) According to the full-field strain rate distribution at
the switching point, the two-point distribution of the
Reduced-Polynomial (N = 4) model is consistent with
the experimental strain rate distribution, and the error
between the simulation results of Yeoh model and the
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765
experimental results is the smallest. The full-field strain
rate of the Neo-Hookean model and the Mooney-Rivlin
model shows a trend of multi-point distribution, which
is inconsistent with the full-field strain rate distribution
at the moment of 4 s.
3) Compared with the experimental full-field strain rate
distribution, the Yeoh model and the Reformed Polyno-
mial (N = 4) model show a two-point distribution trend
from 1 to 3 s. However, from the perspective of distri-
bution location and distribution region, the Yeoh model
has a higher consistency with the experimental full-field
strain rate distribution.
In summary, the rubber coupling model using Yeoh
model is suitable for constitutive model describing tread
torsional deformation, and the validity and accuracy of the
proposed constitutive model are further verified from the
perspective of full-field strain rate distribution.
Conclusions
In the paper, a constitutive model modeling and experi-
mental verification method for nonlinear large deformation
of tread rubber under torsion condition is proposed. The
experimental results show that it is feasible to reveal the
mechanical properties, predict the full-field distribution
characteristics and distribution trend of tread rubber blocks
in the contact patch. The conclusions are as follows:
• A constitutive model considering the hyperelastic, viscoe-
lastic and frictional property of tread material is created.
• A real-time test system for torsional deformation of tread
rubber block and experimental devices for mechanical
properties of rubber material are developed.
• The strain rate distribution characteristic and variation
law of marked points and ROI are calculated by using
the improved digital image correlation method.
• The Yeoh coupling model is the most suitable consti-
tutive model to express the mechanical properties and
describe the torsional strain characteristics of tread block.
Acknowledgements  This research was supported by the Science and
Technology Research Project of Education Department of Jilin Prov-
ince (JJKH20220677KJ), the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (61790564) and the National Key Research and Development
Program of China (2018YFB0104804).
Declarations 
Conflict of Interest Statement  The authors declare that they have no
conflict of interest.
Experimental Techniques (2023) 47:749–765 765

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