DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: Making Informed Teacher Decisions

Author(s): Susan Watts-Taffe, B.P. (Barbara) Laster, Laura Broach, Barbara Marinak,
Carol McDonald Connor and Doris Walker-Dalhouse
Source: The Reading Teacher , Dec 2012 / Jan 2013, Vol. 66, No. 4 (Dec 2012 / Jan 2013),
pp. 303-314
Published by: International Literacy Association and Wiley

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23321311

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 DIFFERENTIATED
INSTRUCTION
Making Informed Teacher Decisions
Susan Watts-Taffe •■B.P.
B.P.(Barbara)
(Barbara)Laster
Laster*• Laura
Laura Broach
Broach ■
■ Barbara
Barbara Marinak
Marinak
* Carol McDonald Connor
Connor ■
* Doris
Doris Walker-Dalhouse

This article provides an inside look at two classrooms where focused

assessment and tailored instruction are key to differentiation.

■ I thought the whole point of using research

administrators grapple with the complexities based instructional strategies was to be more
of differentiating instruction for students effective with my students. I'm unclear on what
In schools
whose literacyacross theand country, teachers and
needs, interests, more I should be doing.
strengths vary widely. Although the notion of
differentiating instruction is not new, it has become Meanwhile, administrators and professional

increasingly important in schools where large development facilitators state: We know that teachers

numbers of students are not achieving the highest and students need more direction than core reading

levels of literacy. programs can provide to help students who struggle

For example, Lincoln School District in reading. How can we support our teachers?

(pseudonym), a large, urban school system with In this article, we address the concept of

low districtwide reading scores, was mandated differentiation by investigating what it means, the

to establish a more comprehensive vision for research base supporting it, what it can look like in

its reading program. District administrators both primary and intermediate-grade classrooms,

selected a core reading program to be used in all and the teacher decision making behind it. We begin

schools and allocated longer blocks of time for

whole-class instruction, small-group differentiated
instruction, and independent learning. In this
Susan Watts-Taffe is an associate professor at the University of Cincinnati,
district, and others where students consistently Ohio, USA; e-mail susan.watts-taffe@uc.edu.
score lower than do students in more affluent
B.P. (Barbara) Laster is director of the graduate reading programs at
school settings, the need for further differentiation Towson University, Maryland, USA; e-mail blaster@towson.edu.

is pitted against the realities of limited teacher
time and the need for more knowledge about how
to differentiate instruction to meet the variability
in student needs.
Laura Broach is a literacy specialist at Lexington Public Schools,
Massachusetts, USA; e-mail laurabroach@gmail.com.
Barbara A. Marinak is an associate professor at Mount St. Mary's
University, Emmitsburg, Maryland, USA; e-mail barbara.marinak@
gmail.com.

The following comments, heard recently in Carol McDonald Connor is a professor of psychology and director of the
Early Learning Research Initiative Center and senior learning scientist at the
schools, may sound familiar: Learning Sciences Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, USA; e-mail
Carol.Connor@asu.edu.
■ The basal gives us models, materials, and
methods to differentiate instruction for all Doris Walker-Dalhouse is an associate professor at Marquette University,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA; e-mail doris.walker-dalhouse@marquette.edu.
students; isn't that enough?

The Reading Teacher Vol.66 Issue 4 pp. 303-314 D0!:10.1002/TRTR.01126 © 2012 International Reading Association

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 DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS
by examining the following questions:
What does differentiation mean? Why
is it important? What does the extant
research suggest about what works for
differentiation?
What Is Differentiated
Instruction?
Differentiated instruction allows all
students to access the same classroom
curriculum by providing entry
points, learning tasks, and outcomes
tailored to students' learning needs
PauZe we* Ponder
i One dimension of differentiation is in-depth
knowledge of the reading process and the
evidence base for reading instruction.
What areas of reading development do you content they are learning.
feel most comfortable with and know the
most about? If you were to begin
differentiating, where would be a good
place to start?
" How do you allow students to demonstrate
their knowledge? How might you use your
knowledge of your students' cultural and
linguistic differences to plan and assess
differentiated instruction that is responsive literacy instruction.
to their needs and builds upon their
backgrounds and experiences?
" What supports your collaboration with
colleagues? What inhibits your
collaboration with colleagues? Think of
factors that are "systemic" as well as
those that are specific to you.
' Many schools use published reading
programs, core literacy curricula, or other
materials to support literacy learning. How
can the published program and
differentiation coexist to the maximum
benefit of your students?
sua The Reading Teacher Vol.66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 /Jai 2013
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"Differentiated instruction allows all students
to access the same classroom curriculum by
providing entry points, learning tasks, and
outcomes tailored to students' learning needs."
(Hall, Strangman, & Meyer, 2003). For example, when students engage
Differentiated instruction is not a with differentiated text, their literacy
single strategy, but rather an approach environment may encourage greater
to instruction that incorporates a risk taking, thereby causing the teacher
variety of strategies. In other words, to alter the processes or products based
differentiation is responsive instruction on students' engagement. Therefore,
designed to meet unique individual given the dynamic nature of literacy
student needs. As Tomlinson (2001) instruction, it is important to keep
stated, differentiating instruction can in mind that the four dimensions of
occur by focusing on the process by differentiation (Tomlinson, 2001) could,
which students learn, the products or and indeed sometimes should, affect
one other.
demonstrations of their learning, the
environment in which they learn, or the
Why Is Differentiated
In our view, differentiating the Literacy Instruction
process by which students learn, the Important?
products or demonstrations of their As research was conducted over the
learning, the environment in which they past decade about how children learn to
learn, or the content they are learning read, correlational evidence consistently
is not a mutually exclusive exercise. In showed that some types of instruction
fact, we suggest there is often important were more effective for some students
reciprocity among Tomlinson's four and less effective for others (Juel &
differentiation dimensions during Minden-Cupp, 2000). More recently,
school-based research studies have
For example, grouping students been conducted in which teachers
appropriately for reading instruction were randomly assigned to either
is a key component of the learning differentiate reading instruction based
environment; however, it can also create on students' reading and vocabulary
a process of literacy learning that is social skills or to provide more effective, but
and collaborative. Furthermore, working not differentiated, instruction during
with students in small groups is often their literacy block (Connor, 2011).
aligned with differentiated content or These studies showed that from
products of instruction. The same is true kindergarten through third grade,
for text selection. Students should always students made greater gains in word
be reading texts worth reading. Hence, reading and reading comprehension
differentiation of the environment, when their teachers differentiated
processes, or products could be the result instruction, using small, flexible
of offering appropriate text as the content learning groups during a center or
of literacy instruction. station time, than did students whose
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DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS
teachers provided high-qualityFurthermore,
but
primarily whole-class instruction.
learning are
these studies, the heart of effective
Instead, it is understood that children
differentiated instruction was
understanding students' skill profiles
and matching amounts and types
of instruction to each profile. Valid
and reliable ongoing assessments of
students' reading and vocabulary skills
were used to identify different student
profiles, which changed over time. This
research also revealed the importance
of using ongoing assessments and
truly understanding students' specific
strengths and needs as they changed
in response to effective literacy
instruction.
Differentiated instruction is also
central to honoring diversity. In his
review of research on literacy and
diversity, Tatum (2011) reported
nine categories of diversity pertinent
to literacy educators, including
gender, ethnicity, language,
race, socioeconomic status, and
exceptionalities (physical, mental,
emotional, intellectual), noting that
"there are many interactions that
can exist within and across each of
the categories, and each is affected
by dynamics of power and privilege"
(p. 427). He stated that an important
way to honor the multiple ways in
which students are diverse is to offer
appropriately differentiated instruction.
In his review, Tatum (2011) identified
specific instructional recommendations,
which include making connections
between instruction and students'
experiences, fostering student
autonomy, making effective use of
strategic grouping, and providing
research-based cognitive strategy
instruction. A truly differentiated
classroom is one in which learners are
understood to be constantly growing
and changing as they participate in
various literacy events.
\\
particular ways of students, especially those from different
In not privileged over others.
cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
It further states: "The boundaries
bring to school an array of valuable between differentiation and intervention
cultural and linguistic experiences
are permeable and not clear-cut.
that may be similar or dissimilar to Instruction or intervention must be
those of the teacher or other children
flexible enough to respond to evidence
in the classroom (e.g., Terry & Connor,
from student performance and teaching
2012). The idea that classrooms are
interactions."
fundamentally diverse in a variety of
In an RTI framework, providing
ways, including experiences with and
differentiated and responsive instruction
achievement in school-based literacy,
is an important prerequisite to
is in keeping with concepts underlying
referring a child for special educational
Response to Intervention (RTI), which services. This is in direct contrast to
blurs the lines between traditional
earlier models in which differentiation
notions of "mainstream" or "general"
may have been viewed as a special
instruction versus "specialized"
educational service to be provided only
instruction.
when children did not read as well
Differentiation has drawn
as their cognitive abilities predicted
increasing attention since 2004, when
(e.g., IQ) and comparisons with peers
reauthorization of the Individuals with
suggested they should. Thus students
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
had to wait until their reading skills
introduced RTI. RTI assumes that
were seriously delayed before they
literacy teachers differentiate as a matter
could receive services. Unfortunately,
of course, within both the context of the
many never caught up. With RTI,
general classroom (sometimes called differentiated instruction can be
Tier 1) and within the context of more
provided to every student and, for some
specialized and targeted instruction/
students, may prevent the development
intervention (sometimes called Tier 2
of long-term reading difficulties (Mathes
and Tier 3).
et al„ 2005).
According to the Response to
Because every child learns
Intervention: Guiding Principles for
differently, and every child is different,
Educators (International Reading the most effective instruction is
Association [IRA], 2010):
designed to fit each learner (Connor
Students have different language and et al, 2011). When differentiation
literacy needs so they may not respond is viewed in this way, the role of
similarly to instruction, even when the teacher as an informed decision
research-based practices are used. No
single process or program can address the maker is paramount. Although the
broad and varied goals and needs of all sentiments conveyed by the quotes at
"In an RTI framework, providing differentiated
and responsive instruction is an important
prerequisite to referring a child for special
educational services
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 DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

Did the pets in this story remind you of

"Effective differentiation is not found
anything?
in a basal
By using appropriately leveled
series or even in a particular research-based
material, the students easily read this

instructional strategy...it is found in the decisions

particular text, thus allowing more
cognitive energy to be focused on
teachers make...." making important connections as
evidenced in shared details from their
own lives that were related to those of
the beginning of this article the
arematerials
not available in your the characters in the book.

uncommon, the reality is that classroom.

effective
differentiation is not found in a basal
series or even in a particular research
based instructional strategy. Rather, it
is found in the decisions teachers make
based on their understanding of the
reading process, in-depth knowledge
of their students, consideration of an
array of effective instructional practices (Rylant, 2004) with four of her first-grade
supported by research, and ability to
select models, materials, and methods
to suit particular students as they
engage in particular literacy acts.
In the remainder of this article,
we examine differentiated literacy
instruction through specific classroom
examples. (Names of teachers and
students are pseudonyms.) In these
two classrooms, one in Massachusetts
and one in Pennsylvania, students
with a range of needs and a variety of
"The dog in this book reminds
me of my puppy," offered Ned. "She
Differentiating Text sometimes jumps on the furniture, too."
Selection and Using "His name is Mudge," added
Flexible Grouping in a Brianna. "He plays hide-and-seek with
Primary-Grade Classroom the cat and he even licked her."
Ms. Cooper, a third-year teacher, "My cat wouldn't let a dog do that.
discussed Puppy Mudge Makes a Friend She would never play with a dog."
Yvonne said.
students. The children in this group, "That's interesting," said Ms. Cooper.
including Yvonne and Kentaro, who are "Brianna noticed that, in the story, the
English learners, had typically struggledcat was playing with the dog and letting
to comprehend while reading simple it lick her, but Yvonne said that her
beginning texts; now, in this group, theycat wouldn't do that. What do you all
had the opportunity to read a book at anthink about that? How does Yvonne's
appropriate level for them while receiving
piece of information about her cat—her
specific comprehension instruction. connection—help us understand what's
In this case, Ms. Cooper was teachinggoing on in this story?"
students how to engage with a text by "If they are playing together, then
calling forth their own experiences in maybe they are good friends!" said
relation to the characters and events Brianna.

cultural experiences are participating in of the story. Although generally useful "Good thinking, Brianna." Turning
appropriately differentiated instruction. for all students, this strategy would to Kentaro, who had been quiet so
The first vignette explores differentiation especially support Yvonne and Kentaro far in the discussion, Ms. Cooper
using text selection and flexible grouping. as English learners by helping them to asked, "What do you think about that,
The second describes differentiation make connections between the text and
Kentaro? Do you have a connection to
using a continuum of graphic organizers their own lives (Tatum, 2011). this story?"
to scaffold comprehension. Earlier that week, Ms. Cooper did Kentaro shook his head.

For each, we begin by presenting a
snapshot of differentiation in action,
then go behind the scenes to examine
the teacher thinking and decision
making that led to the examples
shared, as well as the research that
supports it. Finally, we present
common characteristics of effective
differentiation and ideas to stimulate
your own growth in this area using
a think-aloud while modeling the act Ms. Cooper continued, "Kentaro,
of connecting personal experiences what do you think about Mudge and the
with text. On this particular day, using cat?"
carefully constructed, open-ended Kentaro said softly, "The cat is nice.
questions, she encouraged a lively She is nice to the dog."
discussion. The questions she used to From this snapshot of the group's
prompt the students' connections to thediscussion, the teacher gleaned a bit
text included: What did you think aboutmore information about the students'
this story? Did any part make you smilestrategy use and their understanding
or laugh? Did anything surprise you? of the story. And although Kentaro

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 307

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

to understand it thoroughly. In other

"Ms. Cooper had differentiated the text difficulty
words, the book was easily decoded
by the group, and because of this, it
and specific content while providing the same
was the perfect choice for a focus on

intensive instruction on making connections to

comprehension strategy instruction.
While they were learning to make

improve comprehension...for all her students." connections with Puppy Mudge, a second
small group of first graders who read
books of slightly more difficult text
Some students
was initially reluctant to participate, he were scheduled to visit complexity were applying the same
a particular center several times during
benefited by being grouped strategically comprehension strategy to the book they
the week to increase their opportunities
with only a few native English speakers chose, Small Pig, by Arnold Lobel (1989).
for practice, whereas other students
in a less formal setting, which allowed Other groups, too, were reading books
him to listen to one student at a time
visited that particular center only once with appropriate levels of text difficulty
and to occasionally share his own ideas.At many stations, the activities and learning to make connections to
or twice.
themselves were varied to provide
In future lessons, it is important text to improve their comprehension.
for Ms. Cooper to continue to different learning experiences; for A third group, comprising six children,
example, students worked on different
encourage Kentaro and Yvonne to could read more complicated texts, and
make connections to their own lives groups of words at the magnetic word they were making connections while
and to share their own experiences building center or read texts of varying reading My Name Is Yoon, by Helen
with their peers. She will also need levels of difficulty with partners for Recorvits (2003). Ms. Cooper had paired
to provide more opportunities for fluency practice. the fourth group with the book Amazing
practice and extensive scaffolding so Meanwhile, in the period of a week, Grace, by Mary Hoffman (1991), which
that all her students will be able to Ms. Cooper aimed to meet with each proved challenging enough for this
independently apply the strategy of of her small groups three or four times, group of particularly strong readers.
making connections to deepen their for 20-minute sessions. Setting up By expertly matching the texts to the
understanding of the text. this schedule required a little trial and readers, Ms. Cooper had differentiated
In other areas of the room, other error, but over time and with growing the text difficulty and specific content
students were engaged in a variety of experience, she established a routine while providing the same intensive
literacy tasks designed to meet their that worked successfully and ensured instruction on making connections
needs, too. Some worked in a small that each child received effective small to improve comprehension—the
group with a reading specialist who group targeted instruction and had instructional content—for all her

came into the classroom each morning opportunities to engage in worthwhile students.
for 45 minutes, whereas others worked literacy activities that met his or her own Ms. Cooper knew, too, that her
at various centers. Students who were particular literacy needs. At any given students were individuals who learned

not working with a teacher rotated moment, each child knew exactly what
through a selection of literacy centers to do and where to do it.

such as magnetic word building on white After determining her grouping

boards, literature-response writing in a
journal, leveled-book basket browsing,
word-study practice at the computer, and carefully selected a number of texts that
partner reading for fluency.
These centers had been created
and organized by Ms. Cooper as an
integral component of her approach to
differentiation, and they were carefully
designed to provide differentiated
learning experiences for her students.
strategy and the classroom structure
necessary to support it, Ms. Cooper
"These centers...were
she thought were best suited for each
group of students. From that set of books,
carefully designed to
Yvonne, Kentaro, Brianna, and Ned
chose a book from the Puppy Mudge
provide differentiated
series by Cynthia Rylant. They were able
learning experiences
to read this book independently with
99% accuracy, yet they needed support for her students."

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308

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

that they learn best. She achieved this by

"Ms. Cooper would carefully observe and
gathering data from district assessments,
by observing the children closely as they
document progress and be prepared to rearrange
worked, and by asking them questions

the small groups frequently to match each child's

about their thinking and their methods
for decoding unfamiliar words and
changing strengths and needs."
solving problems. She found that one
of the best ways to learn about her
students was to conduct running records
at different rates; therefore, she
tailored to their needs. The quality while they read self-selected texts. She
continuously evaluated her students'
of verbal interactions and scaffolding also examined the kinds of errors and

(learning
progress and considered their process) within the small
changing miscues her students were making and
group
interests to keep her groupings would not have been possible
flexible. how they self-corrected (Clay, 2000).
Yvonne, Kentaro, Brianna, and Ned
without Ms. Cooper's attention to other After checking for accuracy and fluency
would not always read together
aspectsin
of differentiation. in this manner, Ms. Cooper followed
a small group. Ms. Cooper would
A further look at this example of Ms. up with some careful questioning to
Cooper's
carefully observe and document differentiation reveals several
their determine her students' comprehension
powerful elements of her decision
progress and be prepared to rearrange and motivation while reading particular
making
the small groups frequently to matchprocess. There are a number passages.
of studies that provide evidence that
each child's changing strengths After she gathered all these data
Ms. Cooper's instructional strategies
and needs. By keeping the groups about her students, Ms. Cooper
flexible, Ms. Cooper providedaretruly
likely to be effective. These include analyzed them to find patterns of
differentiated instruction. studies on using assessment to guide learning strengths and needs. As she
instruction and the use of small flexible studied her records, combined with
The Research and Decision learning groups (Connor et al., 2011; more formal assessment results, she
Making Behind Ms. Cooper's
Elleman, Compton, Fuchs, Fuchs, & began to notice patterns about the
Differentiation Bouton, 2011; Mathes et al., 2005). way the children were learning. After
Ms. Cooper's classroom reflects theHere, we focus on two of them: dynamic determining her students' reading
ways in which differentiation can assessment and evidence-based practice. levels, she was better prepared to
simultaneously focus on learning provide them with appropriate texts that
processes, products, environment, and
Dynamic Assessment. Ms. Cooper was they could read without struggling. This
a master at dynamic assessment; she
content, and reflects the ways in which information, combined with knowledge
these dimensions of differentiation often focused her efforts on learning as much about the students' specific reading
as she could about each child—about
interact. In this classroom, four groups behaviors, helped Ms. Cooper take the
how the child reads and learns, what
of students were learning the same next step: selecting a grouping strategy.
that child does well, and what he or she
comprehension strategy (content)—
making connections to text—although needs to learn next—to achieve the highEvidence-Based Practice. More
level of literacy expected of all students and more evidence has pointed to
Ms. Cooper differentiated the texts
in her classroom. the importance of balancing whole
(another aspect of content) with which
Ms. Cooper learned as much as class instruction with small-group
they worked.
possible about her students and the waysconfigurations (Wharton-McDonald,
Ms. Cooper determined that small
group instruction was important and
therefore created an overall classroom

learning environment to support this

endeavor. In so doing, she created
"Ms. Cooper learned as much as possible
differentiated learning centers that
about her students and the ways
allowed students to work independently
on aspects of reading and writing that they learn best."

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 309

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

record data to form homogeneous

"Decide on a differentiation strategy. Modify
groups for instruction such as in the
scenario described previously. At
the process, the materials, the environment, the
other times, she allowed the children

product, or a combination of to choose which texts to read and

these."
asked them to explain why they chose
their books. This helped engage
these young readers. And whenever
Pressley, & Hampston, 1998).stagnant: She rearranged the children possible, she used a combination
Therefore, Ms. Cooper preferred
every few weeks according to their of these approaches by providing a
reading progress and their shifting
to keep her whole-class literacy choice between two similarly leveled
instruction to a minimum, using
literacy that
needs and strengths. texts.

time primarily for interactive read ■ Use a gradual release of responsibility

alouds and brief minilessons on
targeted topics. This decision led Ms.
Cooper to provide the bulk of the
instruction for her students individuallyclassrooms.
or in small groups.
As she reviewed the data she had
collected, she quickly noticed which
students could be grouped together
because they read at similar levels
and had similar learning needs
(e.g., comprehension). The students
described earlier were decoding at a
common level of difficulty, and they all
demonstrated a need to improve their
comprehension. Ms. Cooper decided
to put these four students in a group
for several days while she provided
Ideas to Apply model in teaching. The conversation
There are several ideas gleaned from among Yvonne, Ned, Brianna, and
Ms. Cooper that can be applied in other Kentaro was the result of several
days of preparation, during which
Ms. Cooper gradually released
■ Assess students carefully and reg
responsibility to her students. Before
ularly using a variety of formative
the discussion described here, Ms.
assessment tools, then analyze result
Cooper did a think-aloud, gave
ing data to determine patterns of
examples, and modeled how to
need and group students accordingly.
make connections when the text was
Ms. Cooper incorporated running
implicit. After having students connect
records into her classroom routine
the ideas depicted in the text to their
and blocked off time weekly to revisit
own experiences, Ms. Cooper moved
grouping configurations so as to truly
them to making connections with
be flexible and fluid in her grouping
other texts.
arrangements.
■ Decide on a differentiation strategy.

them with texts at their reading level

and offered the specific comprehension
strategy instruction (i.e., making
connections) that she thought would
help them best.
In fact, Ms. Cooper noticed that
most children in her class would benefit
from learning how to make connections
and improve their understanding of the
text; therefore, the rest of the students
were similarly arranged, with four
to six children in a group, according
to their reading levels. Although the
groups were reading different material,
they all received instruction about
how to make connections to improve
comprehension. Finally, Ms. Cooper
knew these groups could not be
Modify the process, the materials, Differentiating Using
the environment, the product, or a a Continuum of Graphic
combination of these. Ms. Cooper Organizers in
used grouping that was flexible and an Intermediate Classroom
varied, plus a variety of texts, to offer
Mrs. Manley is in her 15th year of
a range of environments for learning teaching in a fourth-grade classroom.
and materials that best suited the
Her students represent a range of
strengths, needs, and interests of literacy achievement, including a group
groups of students. of four children receiving reading
■ Organize the literacy block to intervention from a reading specialist
accommodate small groups of children and two students who receive gifted
learning together. Ms. Cooper daily services. In addition, there is one child
provided specific reading instruction with a moderate hearing loss and
in these small groups. three students with specific learning
■ Match texts to readers, including text disabilities.
that is part of the core curriculum. After reading two informational
Ms. Cooper had several ways of passages from Wild Babies by Seymour
doing this. At times she used running Simon (1998), Mrs. Manley's fourth

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310

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

graders compared and contrasted

Figure
Figure1 Andrew's
1 Andrew'sPerformance
Performance
on a Prompt-Specific
on a Prompt-Specific
Rubric Rubric
emperor penguins and giraffes. After
Prompt for: Zipping, Zapping, Zooming Bats by Ann Early
discussing the passages and identifying
attributes used to compare andAfter rereading Zipping, Zapping, Zooming Bats including the extended glossary,
contrast
compare and contrast the brown bat and the California leaf-nosed bat. Be sure to include
two seemingly very different animals
information about the attributes location, prey, hunting, and habitat. Support your answer
(e.g., where they live, number of
with two comparing text support details and two contrasting text support details.
babies, type of birth, and protection
of young), the children were asked to 3 2 1 0 Andrew's

independently construct a paragraph Score

Introduction The The The The 2
summarizing their similarities
introduction introduction introduction introduction
and differences. All her students
is accurate is somewhat is inaccurate is missing
constructed a comparison-contrast accurate
paragraph, although they used different Compare The response The response The response The 1

supports in the process. In this case, provides two provides one provides response
accurate accurate inaccurate does not
Mrs. Manley provided a continuum of
comparing comparing comparing include
differentiated graphic organizers based
text support text support text support comparing
on variation in student needs. Text details detail details text support
maps, pattern guides, retelling pyramids, details

and question guides (Marinak & Contrast The response The response The response The 1

Gambrell, 2008) were used to provide provides two provides one provides response
accurate accurate inaccurate does not
increasing levels of support. include
contrasting contrasting contrasting
Mrs. Manley selected graphic text support text support text support contrasting
organizers for each student based details detail details text support
details
on formative data collected during
previous writing workshops, including Signal The response The response The response The 0
Words contains provides twoprovides response
prompt-specific rubric scores from a three- four three inaccurate provides no
variety of brief constructed responses. accurate accurate signal word signal words
These scores allowed Mrs. Manley signal words signal words
Conclusion The The The The 1
to identify the amount of language
conclusion conclusion is conclusion is conclusion
support needed to construct a
is accurate somewhat inaccurate is missing
summary, with lower rubric scores accurate
indicating the need for a more intensive
linguistic scaffold.
An example of a set of rubric scores
Performance Criteria
for Andrew is found in Figure 1.
3= Proficient
The prompt asked him to compare 2=Basic
and contrast the brown bat and the 1 and 0= Below Basic
California leaf-nosed bat. Andrew

had difficulty providing accurate

text support details and appropriate
signal words. As a result of Andrew's
performance on this prompt, Mrs.
Manley provided him with a question
guide to scaffold comparing and
contrasting the emperor penguin and
giraffe.
Some of Mrs. Manley's students
were able to construct their compare/
contrast paragraph using a text map, it scaffolds comparing and contrasting
which provides a visual representationmore deliberately than a Venn diagram,
of both the important concept from because it requires the identification
the text and the informational text of the attributes that will be used to
structure (Armbruster, Anderson, & compare and contrast (Marinak, Moore,
Ostertag, 1987; Duke & Pearson, 2002; & Henk, 1998).
Neufeld, 2005; Vacca & Vacca, 1999). For students who needed support
Mrs. Manley used a text map because beyond the text map, Mrs. Manley

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 311

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

scaffold
provided a pattern guide. Figure 2 to support discussion and between Emperor penguins and
paragraph writing.
shows a pattern guide for emperor giraffes and construct a summary
penguins and giraffes. Pattern Finally, several of Mrs. Manley's paragraph using four important
students, including Andrew, required a attributes from the text.
guides include several pieces of
more explicit question-answer scaffold
important information that have
been strategically selected to to compare and contrast the emperor The Research and Decision
penguin
illustrate the structural pattern and giraffe. A question guide
being Making Behind Mrs. Manley's
taught. This pattern guide provides
offered significant linguistic structure Differentiation
by providing
one major idea, two attributes, a the question, same/ Mrs. Manley did not differentiate
different
comparative supporting detail and a choice, and the necessary the product of instruction, which
signal
contrasting supporting detail. Thiswords to create a sentence was a summary paragraph including
pattern guide is very similar (Hall,
to the Sabey,
text& McClellan, 2005). As similarities and differences gleaned
map discussed previously. In Mrs.
fact,Manley's
the students answered the from an informational text. She

questions, they wrote full sentences

text map uses the same organizational differentiated the process of instruction,
thatthe
template, but does not include can be used to construct the which allowed students to get to the
scaffolding effect of a samplesummary
idea, paragraph. A sample final product in a variety of ways. Mrs.
detail, and attribute written in the guide for one of the attributes
question Manley's differentiation is marked
appropriate text boxes. is found in Figure 4. The sentence by evidence-based practice, ongoing
For students who needed more under the question matrix was written assessment, and gradual release of
language support to construct their by the student after answering the responsibility, as was Ms. Cooper's in
paragraph, Mrs. Manley provided a guiding question. After completing a the previous vignette. Additionally,
retelling pyramid. A retelling pyramid question guide for the four attributes, her differentiation is characterized by
(Pressley, 1989) scaffolds students by sentences of compare and contrast collaboration with colleagues and a focus
providing additional text language were discussed in pairs, written on some of the key components of text
support, as shown in Figure 3. The individually, and then shared with the structure.

prompts, written by Mrs. Manley and whole class.

another teacher on the fourth-grade Using a continuum of differentiated Collaboration With Colleagues.
team, are a combination of questions graphic organizers, all the students Mrs. Manley's school district
and statements. After completing the in Mrs. Manley's class were able to incorporates a model of intentional
pyramid, students use the rich linguistic discuss the similarities and differences practitioner collaboration and

Figure 2
2 Pattern
Pattern Guide
Guide for
for Wild
Wild Babies
Babiesby
bySeymour
SeymourSimon Figure 33 Retelling
Simon1 Figure Retelling Pyramid
Pyramid for
for Wild
Wild Babies
Babies
Conware / Contrast
one

Major Idea Major Idea

Emperor Penguin How many babies do giraffes and Emperor penguins have at a time?

Antarctica Africa

Supporting Details Supporting Details

Africa Live Use two words to describe where the Emperor penguin and giraffe live.

egg live birth

Type of birth Egg In three words, list how the giraffe and Emperor penguin have babies.

cared for in kindergartens

Adapted from Marinak, B. & Gambrell, L. (2008). Elementary informational text: A research review. The . „ , . .
International Journal of Learning, 75(9), 75-83. In four words. describe how giraffes and Emperor penguin

www.reading.org ®u

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 DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

Figure
Figure 4 Compare
4 Compare
and Contrast
and Contrast
Question Guide
Question
for Wild Babiesfor Wild Babies ■ Look carefully at your formative
Guide
data to determine each student's
Animals | How many babies does the animal have?
strengths and needs relative to the
more than one
one
desired outcome. Mrs. Manley used a
Giraffe X
collection of rubric-scored constructed
Penguin X
responses housed in her students'
literacy portfolios to guide her decision
Giraffes and penguins are:
different making.
How?
■ Carefully describe the range of student
Both giraffes and penguins have one baby at a time. needs. Mrs. Manley jotted notes about
each student as she reviewed their

portfolios. She paid careful attention

| Compare and Contrast Signal Words: but, similar, both to the scaffolds used during previous
Adapted from Marinak, B. (2008). Teaching the predictable nature of informational text. Education for a Changing World, 15-26., Corpus Christi, Texas: constructed responding.
Texas & M University.
■ Consider the array of differentiation
strategies you might use to scaffold
job-embedded professional each student with the graphic organizer
your students toward the outcome.
development. As a result, she and that is the best match for his or her
Mrs. Manley collaborated with her
her colleagues, including the school's needs.
colleagues to design the continuum of
reading specialist, have the time and
Focus on Text Structures. Mrs. Manley graphic organizers used for writing.
space to work collaboratively on a
■ Offer differentiation that is consistent
regular basis. Preceding the lesson selected her graphic organizers based on
with individual student needs. In
described earlier, the collaborative her understanding of the importance of
teaching informational text structures other words, Mrs. Manley carefully
conversations among the teachers and
(Williams et al., 2005; Williams, matched the graphic organizer scaffold
specialists on the intermediate-grade
team had been focused on effective Stafford, Lauer, Hall, & Pollini, 2009). to each student based on her analysis
Consistent with her state's standards of need. The graphic organizers were
instruction using informational text.
and the Common Core Standards (2010), discussed with students individually
Conversations with the reading
she chose to focus on the four most during reading/writing conferencing.
specialist enhanced Mrs. Manley's
understanding of the importance frequently used structures in elementary
informational text (i.e., enumeration, Common Characteristics
of sharing a wide variety of
informational text with her students, time order, compare and contrast, cause of Effective Differentiation
as well as her understanding of and effect) (Neufeld, 2005; Richgels et We have shared examples of successful

the ways in which many students al., 1987) and used graphic organizers differentiation in two settings, along
to support student learning of these with a look at the research and teacher
struggle to comprehend nonfiction
(Dymock, 1998; Williams et al., 2005). structures. Specifically, the preceding decision making that enabled this

The group of educators listened as example illustrates differentiation for success. As you think about the ideas

Ms. Manley described the range of one of these structures—compare and presented in relation to your own
contrast. instruction, it may be useful to consider
needs of her students, and together
some of the common characteristics
they came up with the arrangement
of the continuum of organizers used Ideas to Apply of effective differentiation. In our

to graphically represent text ranging The following ideas from Mrs. Manleyexperience, successful differentiation is

from affording students minimal can be applied in other classrooms. characterized by:

support to providing a more explicit ■ Clearly define the outcome students ■ In-depth knowledge of students'
and sequenced scaffold. As a team, should accomplish. In this case, literacy needs—both reading and oral
they have become much more adept Mrs. Manley's outcome was the language—as well as their strengths
and efficient in reviewing formative construction of a compare-contrast and interests. This includes valid,
data and helping each other to provide paragraph. reliable, and instructionally useful

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 DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

TAKE ACTION!
1. Select one intriguing idea discussed in this article to try out with some of your students. It may be Ms. C

text to support learning of a specific strategy or the idea of using a continuum of learning guides to suppor
demonstrated.

2. Think of a specific skill or strategy you are currently teaching and analyze your instruction for elements of

In what ways do you begin to meet your students where they are and then gradually, and systematically, releas

their responsibility so that they become independent and strategic in their use of that skill or strategy? Depend

you are teaching (especially if it is a strategy), this process may take weeks or months and may require coordin

staff (e.g., reading specialist, paraprofessional) or classroom volunteers. How can you harness all resources
responsibility model in your teaching?

3. Make a list of the types of data you typically use to make instructional decisions. How much of these d
you with a direction for your instruction (as opposed to simply indicating a need for further or different instru

need to make better instructional decisions for your students? How can you, or you and other instructional pro

efficiently gather those data on a regular basis?

4. Take the time to design an instructional schedule that allows you to visit with each of your students one
each week. If this is too daunting, begin by aiming for once every two weeks. What elements of the school
available? How can you adjust the structure of your classroom to support this valuable time?

5. Develop a plan to use in evaluating the extent to which students' cultural and linguistic differences are int

instruction. To what extent might grade-level differences and classroom demographics influence the develo

6. Put the topic of differentiation on the next agenda of your professional learning community or team plan
to read this article and come prepared to talk about what it means for instruction in your school. Then make a
this area.

assessments of all children, as well as ■ Use the core literacy curriculum is used to support all students in the
assessments of how children respond more flexibly and creatively than acquisition of the highest levels of
to instruction. the publisher recommends. For literacy.

■ Methods to monitor students' progress
so that groupings and instructional
strategies can be modified as students
gain important skills and knowledge.
■ In-depth knowledge of the reading
process and evidence/research-based
practices associated with instruction
and assessment. This includes design
and appropriation of materials,
including those from your core literacy
curriculum, that can accommodate the
varying learning needs of individual
students and gradually releasing
responsibility for learning back to
students.
example, select reading materials
from different parts of the core—
for example, materials designed for
the beginning of the year may not
be challenging enough for some
students and too difficult for others;
for them, more time in basic skills
might be warranted. The anthologies
frequently offer text that follows
similar themes but offer different
reading challenges. These can be
useful for differentiating instruction
when using small groups.
■ Emphasis on teaching components
of strategic reading. Differentiation
■ Development of "systems" or
routines to support differentiation.
This includes developing classroom
routines and systems that allow
children to work in small peer groups
and independently while the teacher
provides targeted instruction to a
small group of students.
Although there are many ways to
differentiate instruction, the needs,
interests, and strengths of students
within specific instructional contexts
guide decisions about how best to
differentiate at a given point in time.

www.reading.org EH

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314

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION: MAKING INFORMED TEACHER DECISIONS

practice, and guided reading on reading

We hope the examples of differentiation Richgels, D., McGee, L., Lomax, R., & Sheard,
comprehension. In T. Shanahan & F.V. C. (1987). Awareness of four text structures:
examined in this article serve as a cata
Rodriguez-Brown (Eds.) 47th Yearbook of the Effects of recall on expository text.
lyst both for classroom teachers, who are National Reading Conference (pp. 90-102). Reading Research
Reading Research Quarterly,
Quarterly,22(1),
22(1),177-196.
177-1%.
Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference. doi:10.2307/747664
called upon to make informed decisions
Elleman, A.M., Compton, D.L., Fuchs, D., Tatum, A.W. (2011). Diversity and literacy. In
about differentiation in their daily work Fuchs, L.S., & Bouton, B. (2011). Exploring S.J. Samuels & A.E. Farstrup (Eds.), What
dynamic assessment as a means of research has to say about reading instruction
with students, and for literacy coaches,
identifying children at-risk of developing (4th ed., pp. 424-447). Newark, DE:
professional development facilitators, comprehension difficulties. Journal of International Reading Association.
and administrators, who are called upon Learning Disabilities, 44(4), 348-357. MedlineTerry, N.P., & Connor, C.M. (2012). Changing
doi:10.1177/0022219411407865 nonmainstream American English use
to support classroom teachers in this Hall, K„ Sabey, B„ & McClellan, M. (2005). and early reading achievement from
critical endeavor. Expository text comprehension: Helping kindergarten to first grade. American Journal
primary-grade teachers use expository text of Speech-Language Pathology, 22(1/2), 78-86.
to full advantage. Reading Psychology, 26(3), doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0093)
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