ELECTORAL SYSTEM

1. First-past-the-post' (FPTP)

Advantages:

 Accountable representatives: As there is only one MP per constituent, constituents know who to
hold accountable for their representation in the House of Commons.
 Simplicity: FPTP is a simple method of voting that takes seconds to vote and an easy way of
tallying up the votes. The method of counting votes is also quicker than other systems that use a
formula e.g. for European Parliamentary elections, the UK uses the d’Hondt formula which takes
considerably more time than FPTP to tally up the results.

Disadvantaged:

 Under-represents minor parties: Support for minor parties tend to be thinly spread with no real
concentration, this means that they are less likely to be victorious.
 Questions legitimacy: A party doesn’t have to receive a majority of votes in order for them to win,
which poses the question whether or not it has the right to govern.
 Can encourage apathy and low turnout: As you need strong concentrated support in order to elect
a winning candidate under FPTP, voters who live in safe seats (constituencies which usually elect
MPs from the same party every election) are arguably less likely to vote if they wish to vote for
another party.
 Limited choice: As FPTP requires concentrated and broad support; it usually produces a two-party
system in which each party take turns over enjoying a majority of votes and governance. This
limited vote also encourages tactical voting, in which a voter votes for another party (usually one of
the main parties in the two-party system) in order to defeat the voter’s unflavoured candidate who
may still win.

2. Second Ballot Majority Runoff/ Absolute Majority

Advantages:

 Allow voters to contemplate on their vote. Allows voters to have a second choice for their chosen
candidate, or even to change their minds on their favoured choice between the first and the second
rounds.
 Encourage bargains and trade-offs between parties and candidates. It encourages diverse
interests to coalesce behind the successful candidates from the first round in the lead-up to the
second round of voting, thus encouraging bargains and trade-offs between parties and candidates.
 Lessen the problems of “vote splitting”. Lessen the problems of 'vote splitting', the common
situation under First Past the Post (FPTP) elections where two similar parties 'split' their combined
vote between them, thus allowing a less popular candidate to win the seat.

Disadvantages:

 Pressure on the electoral administration. The system places considerable pressure on the electoral
administration to run a second election soon after the first, significantly increasing the cost of the
overall election process and the time between the holding of an election and the declaration of a
result; this can lead to instability and uncertainty.
 Burden to voters. It places an additional burden on the voter, and sometimes there is a sharp drop-
off in turnout between the first round and the second.
 3. Alternative Vote

Advantages:

 Collating aligned candidates. It enables the votes of several aligned candidates to accumulate, so
that diverse but related interests can be combined to win representation.
 Enables underdog candidates to be elected. The Alternative Vote (AV) also enables supporters of
candidates who have little hope of being elected to influence, via their second and later
preferences, the election of a major candidate. For this reason, it is sometimes argued that AV is
the best system for dealing with elections in deeply divided societies, as it can compel candidates
to seek not only the votes of their own supporters but also the 'second preferences' of others.

Disadvantages:

 Requires reasonable degree of literacy and numeracy. It requires a reasonable degree of literacy
and numeracy to be used effectively, and because it operates in single-member districts it
produces results that are disproportional when compared to PR systems.
 Doesn’t work well to larger, multi-member districts. It is doubtful if AV would promote
accommodatory behaviour in deeply divided societies where ethnic groups are concentrated in
particular geographic regions. It has been found that AV does not work well when applied to larger,
multi-member districts.

Single Transferable Vote:

Example:

To understand how the transfer process works, it may be best to start out with a simple analogy. Imagine a
school where a class is trying to elect a committee. Any student who wishes to run stands at the front of the
class and the other students vote for their favourite candidates by standing beside them. Students standing
almost alone next to their candidate will soon discover that this person has no chance of being elected and
move to another candidate of their choice to help him or her get elected. Some of the students standing
next to a very popular candidate may realize that this person has more than enough support to win, and
decide to go stand next to another student that they would also like to see on the committee. In the end,
after all of this shuffling around, most students would be standing next to candidates that will be elected,
which is the ultimate point of this process.

Mixed Member Proportional system (MMP)

Example:

For example, if one party wins 10% of the national votes but no district seats, then they would be awarded
enough seats from the PR lists to bring their representation up to approximately 10% of the parliament".
Political Thought

1. Liberalism:

a. Pro-individualist – it is the beating heart of liberal ideology and nowhere is this more apparent
than in the relationship between the individual and the state. To be called as liberal, you must instinctively
curious on how various offices, personalities, and officials in the government use their power. It seeks to
empower individuals with as much freedom as is practically possible.

b. Pro-statist/ social democracy - Social democracy is a government system that has similar values
to socialism, but within a capitalist framework. The ideology, named from democracy where people have a
say in government actions, supports a competitive economy with money while also helping people whose
jobs don't pay a lot.

Classical vs Modern Liberalism

For example, classical liberals believe in 'negative freedom' while modern liberals support 'positive
freedom'. 'Negative freedom' is the belief that individuals are free when they are free from
oppression, whereas 'positive freedom' is the belief that 'negative freedom' is an insufficient
measurement of freedom, because individuals are only free when they are enabled to achieve their
hopes and goals.

Classical Liberalism

 Looks at State as a “nightwatchman” – considers state as somebody who will make sure that
everything is all right as we sleep.

 Minimal state intervention - for big states are believed to impose negative freedom to individual.

 All individuals have to be treated equally by the law (because they are all equally morally worthy,
despite their wealth/race/sex etc.)

Modern Liberalism

 Looks at State as an enabling state. – considers state as an institution that can help people reach
their maximum potential

 High regards with large scale state intervention - argue that the state is obligated to intervene in
society enough to promote equality of opportunity.

 Modern liberals argue that society is only equal when individuals all have equal opportunity to work
and live at a high standard. This is called equality of opportunity.

Elements Liberalism

 Individualism- human individual is given the most importance, emphasis is placed not on social groups
or collective bodies.
 Freedom -it is the principal attribute of liberal ideology where faith is placed on the individual, who can
act according to his desires.
 Reason- individuals have the capacity to correctly decide matters concerning their interest. Underlying
this thought that critical analysis and reason can unravel the rational structure of the world and debate
and arguments can be utilize to settle differences and misunderstandings.
 Equality - political equality which is “ one person, one vote, one vote, one value” and legal equality
which means equality before the law. All humans are born on equal footing. Thus, liberals advocate
equal opportunities so that individuals can harness their full potential.
 Toleration - it assures individual liberty and social enrichment that guarantee both. Opposing views
balance each other where there is harmony between them.
 Consent - it forms the basis of social relationships and authority.
 Constitutionalism - that a government's authority is determined by a body of laws or constitution
 Conservatism:

Kinds of conservatism

 Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that combines conservative values and policies
with classical liberal stances. Historically, the term referred to combination of economic liberalism,
which champions laissez-faire markets, with the classical conservatism concern for established
tradition, respect for authority, and religious values. It contrasted itself with classical liberalism,
which supported freedom for the individual in both the economic and social spheres.

 Libertarian conservatism describes certain political ideologies within the United States and Canada
which combine libertarian economic issues with aspects of conservatism. Libertarian conservatives
generally support strict laissez-faire policies such as free trade and oppose any national bank,
regulations on businesses, environmental regulation, corporate subsidies, and other areas of
economic intervention.

 Fiscal conservatism is the economic philosophy of prudence in government spending and debt.
Edmund Burke, in particular, argued that a government does not have the right to run up large
debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer.

 National conservatism concentrates more on national interests than standard conservatism, and it
upholds cultural and ethnic identity. It is heavily oriented towards the traditional family and social
stability, and it is in favour of limiting immigration. As such, national conservatives can be
distinguished from economic conservatives, for whom free market economic policies, deregulation,
and fiscal conservatism are the main priorities.

 Cultural conservativism the preservation of the heritage of one nation, or of a shared culture that is
not defined by national boundaries.Cultural conservatives hold fast to traditional ways of thinking
even in the face of monumental change. They believe strongly in traditional values and politics, and
often have an urgent sense of nationalism.

 Social conservatism is distinct from cultural conservatism, although there are some overlaps.
Social conservatives believe that the government has a role in encouraging or enforcing what they
consider traditional values or behaviors. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality
and social mores, often through civil law or regulation. Social change is generally regarded as
suspect.

 Religious conservatives principally seek to apply the teachings of particular religions to politics,
sometimes by merely proclaiming the value of those teachings, and at other times by having those
teachings influence laws.

Elements of Conservatism
Tradition - to conservatives, tradition, and time tested values, practices, and institutions reflects the
accumulated wisdom of the past.” Tradition should be preserved for future generation instead of being
replaced by new ones that could bring uncertainty.
Pragmatism - they place their faith on experience, history, and the belief that practical circumstances and
practical goals should control human actions.
Human Imperfection - human beings are weighed down by Imperfections and are dependent and seek
security in the familiar and known which requires a strong state which will maintain order, enforce strict
laws, and impose harsh penalties on lawbreakers.
Organicism - society is an organic whole which exist as something that is more than the sum of its
individual parts.
Hierarchy - individuals occupy different positions in society because they perform different roles and
responsibilities.
Authority - it produces social cohesion which gives individuals a clear sense of which they are and what is
expected of them.
Property - it is important to conservatives because it provides security to people.
 Socialism

Types of Socialism

1. Democratic socialism

In democratic socialism, factors of production are under the management of an elected administration. Vital
goods and services such as energy, housing, and transit are distributed through centralized planning, while
a free market system is used to distribute consumer products.

2. Revolutionary socialism

The running philosophy of revolutionary socialism is that a socialistic system can’t emerge while capitalism
is still in play. Revolutionaries believe that the road to a purely socialistic system requires a lot of struggle.
In such a system, the factors of production are owned and run by workers through a well-developed and
centralized structure.

3. Libertarian socialism

Libertarian socialism works on the assumption that people are always rational, self-determining, and
autonomous. If capitalism is taken away, people naturally turn to a socialistic system because it is able to
meet their needs.

4. Market socialism

Under market socialism, the production process is under the control of ordinary workers. The workers
decide how resources should be distributed. The workers sell off what is in excess or give it out to
members of the society, who then distribute resources based on a free market system.

5. Green socialism

Green socialism is protective of natural resources. Large corporations in a green socialistic society are
owned and run by the public. In addition, green socialism promotes the development and use of public
transit, as well as the processing and sale of locally grown food. The production process is focused on
ensuring that every member of the community has enough access to basic goods. Moreover, the public is
guaranteed a sustainable wage.

Elements of Socialism

Community- saw human beings as social creatures linked by a common humanity.

Fraternity -human beings are connected by comradeship because they share a common humanity.
Cooperation is important so that people can fully utilize their collective energies for common good.
Social equality - social equality which is equality in outcome as opposed to equality of opportunity, is
important. It encourages empathy among human beings.
Need - basis of distribution of material benefits should be need, rather than merit or work. Karl Marx
principle is “from each according to ability, to each according to his need”
Social Class - eradicate economic and social inequalities.
Common Ownership - it enable resources to be harnessed for the common good because private property
allows selfishness, acquisitiveness, and social division to thrive.

Anarchism
Types:
Anarchist communism. The primary goal of anarchist communism is social equality. But unlike
traditional communism where the state owns the means of production, the collective economy is
self-governed under anarchist communism.
Anarchist socialism. Anarchist socialism seeks to combine the general concepts of anarchism and
socialism. Its goal is a self-governed society that places the needs of the group over those of the
individual.
Green anarchism. Green anarchism extends the basic principles of anarchism to environmental
and animal rights issues. In other words, they believe in the liberation of both humans and of non-
humans.
Crypto-anarchism. By supporting digital currency to sidestep the government's control and taxation
of fiat money, crypto-anarchists believe that governmental authority can be weakened.