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Understanding Nutrition 13th Edition Whitney Solutions Manual Download
Understanding Nutrition 13th Edition Whitney Solutions Manual Download
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• Worksheet 6-3: Quick Protein Intake Assessment2
• New! Worksheet 6-4: Chapter 6 Crossword Puzzle3
• Worksheet 6-5: Proteins from Foods (Internet Exercise)
• New! Critical thinking questions with answers
Other instructional materials in this chapter of the instructor’s manual include:
• Answer key for How To (p. 185) activity and study card questions
• Classroom activities, featuring a New! meal comparison activity (6-3)
• Worksheet answer keys (as appropriate)
Visit the book’s instructor companion website to download:
• Handout 6-1: Plant Proteins in Human Nutrition—Myths and Realities
• Handout 6-2: How to Use the Exchange System to Estimate Protein
• Handout 6-3: An Example of Enzyme Action
2 Worksheet 6-3 and Handouts 6-2 and 6-3 contributed by Sharon Rady Rolfes
3 Contributed by Carrie King.
4 Contributed by Melissa Langone.
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a. Protein is denatured by hydrochloric acid
b. Pepsinogen
c. Pepsin
2. In the Small Intestine
a. Proteases
b. Peptidases
B. Protein Absorption
1. Used by intestinal cells for energy or synthesis of necessary compounds
2. Transported to the liver
3. Taking enzyme supplements or consuming predigested proteins is unnecessary
III. Proteins in the Body
A. Protein Synthesis – Explain the process of protein synthesis (Figure 6-7) 10e TRA 61
1. Synthesis is unique for each human being
2. Delivering the Instructions
a. Transcription
b. Translation
3. Lining Up the Amino Acids – Transfer RNA lines up the amino acids
4. Sequencing Errors – Can cause altered proteins (e.g., sickle-cell anemia; Figure 6-8)
5. Gene Expression
a. Cells regulate gene expression to make the type of protein needed for that cell
b. Diet influences gene expression
B. Roles of Proteins – Discuss the roles of proteins, including:
1. As Structural Materials
a. Matrix
b. Collagen
c. Tissue replacement.
2. As Enzymes (Figure 6-9) 10e TRA 62; Website HN 6-3, CA 6-1
3. As Hormones (e.g., insulin)
4. As Regulators of Fluid Balance
a. Within cells and blood plasma
b. Edema
5. As Acid-Base Regulators
a. Acids
b. Bases
c. Buffers
d. Acidosis
e. Alkalosis
6. As Transporters 10e TRA 63; IM CA 6-2
a. Carry lipids, vitamins, minerals, and oxygen in the body
b. Act as pumps in cell membranes (Figure 6-10)
7. As Antibodies
a. Fight antigens
b. Provide immunity
8. As a Source of Energy and Glucose – If needed
9. Other Roles
a. Blood clotting (fibrin)
b. Vision (opsin)
C. A Preview of Protein Metabolism
1. Protein Turnover and the Amino Acid Pool
a. Protein turnover
b. Amino acid pool
2. Nitrogen Balance IM WS 6-2
a. Zero nitrogen balance
b. Positive nitrogen balance.
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c. Negative nitrogen balance
3. Using Amino Acids to Make Other Compounds
a. Neurotransmitters
b. Tyrosine
c. Tryptophan
4. Using Amino Acids for Energy and Glucose
a. No readily available storage form of protein
b. Body breaks down tissue protein for energy
5. Using Amino Acids to Make Fat
a. Excess protein is deaminated and converted into fat
b. Nitrogen is excreted
6. Deaminating Amino Acids (Figure 6-11)
a. Nitrogen-containing amino groups are removed
b. Ammonia and keto acids
7. Using Amino Acids to Make Proteins or Nonessential Amino Acids
a. Cells can assemble amino acids into the protein needed
b. Transamination (Figure 6-12)
8. Converting Ammonia to Urea – Ammonia and carbon dioxide are combined in the liver to make urea
(Figure 6-13) 10e TRA 78
9. Excreting Urea (Figure 6-14) 10e TRA 79
a. Ammonia is converted to urea in the liver
b. The kidneys filter urea
c. Increased water intake is necessary with a high-protein diet
IV. Protein in Foods
A. Protein Quality
1. Digestibility – Depends on protein’s food source
a. Animal proteins 90%-99% absorbed
b. Plant proteins 70%-90% absorbed
c. Soy and legumes 90% absorbed
2. Amino Acid Composition
a. The liver can produce nonessential amino acids
b. Limiting amino acids
3. Reference Protein – The standard by which other proteins are measured
4. High-Quality Proteins
a. Contain all the essential amino acids
b. Animal foods contain all the essential amino acids
c. Plant foods tend to be missing one or more essential amino acids
B. Complementary Proteins 10e TRA 64; IM HN 6-1
1. Combining plant foods that together contain all the essential amino acids
2. Used by vegetarians
V. Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Protein IM CS 6-1, WS 6-5
A. Health Effects of Protein
1. Protein Deficiency 10e TRA 65
a. Lack of essential amino acids
b. Explain the health implications of a lack of protein
2. Heart Disease
a. Foods high in animal protein also tend to be high in saturated fat
b. Homocysteine levels increase cardiac risks
c. Arginine may protect against cardiac risks
3. Cancer – A high intake of animal protein is associated with some cancers
4. Adult Bone Loss (Osteoporosis)
a. High protein intake associated with increased calcium excretion
b. Inadequate protein intake affects bone health also
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c. Ratio of calcium intake to protein intake may determine whether Ca loss is significant
5. Weight Control
a. High-protein foods are often high-fat foods
b. Protein at each meal provides satiety
c. Adequate protein, moderate fat, and sufficient carbohydrate better support weight loss
6. Kidney Disease
a. High protein intake increases the work of the kidneys
b. Does not seem to cause kidney disease
B. Recommended Intakes of Protein IM WS 6-3; Website HN 6-2
1. 10%-35% energy intake
2. Protein RDA
a. 0.8 g/kg/day for most adults
b. 1.2-1.7 g/kg/day for athletes
3. Adequate Energy
a. Must consider energy intake
b. Must consider total grams of protein
C. From Guidelines to Groceries IM CA 6-3
1. Protein Foods
a. One ounce of protein food equals 7 grams of protein
b. 20% seafood
c. 70% meat, poultry, and eggs
d. 10% nuts, seeds, and legumes
2. Milk and Milk Products – 1 cup = ~8 g
3. Fruits, Vegetables, and Grains – Small amounts in vegetables and grains
D. Read Food Labels
1. Explain how to read the protein content on a food label
2. %DV represents quantity and quality
E. Protein and Amino Acid Supplements IM CS 6-2, CA 6-4
1. Many reasons for supplements
2. Protein Powders – Protein powders have not been found to improve athletic performance
a. Whey protein
b. Purified protein preparations
3. Amino Acid Supplements – Amino acid supplements have no proven benefits for healthy people and
may be harmful
a. Branched-chain amino acids
b. Lysine
c. Tryptophan
VI. Highlight: Nutritional Genomics (Figure H6-1)
A. A Genomics Primer – Define and explain: 12e TRA 12, 13; 11e TRA 15
1. DNA (Figure H6-2)
2. Chromosomes
3. Nucleotide bases
4. RNA
5. Nucleotide
6. Gene expression
7. Microarray technology
8. Epigenetics – Nutrients are involved in activating or suppressing genes without altering the gene itself
B. Genetic Variation and Disease (Figure H6-3)
1. Small differences in individual genomes
2. May affect the results of dietary modifications intended to manage/treat a disease
3. Personalization of recommendations
4. Single-Gene Disorders
a. Mutations cause alterations in single genes
b. Phenylketonuria
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5.Multigene Disorders
a. Multiple genes are responsible for the disease
b. Heart disease
c. Genomic research
d. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
C. Clinical Concerns
1. An increased understanding of the human genome may impact health care by:
a. Increasing knowledge of individual disease risks
b. Individualizing treatment
c. Individualizing medications
d. Increasing knowledge of nongenetic causes of disease
2. Some question the benefit of identifying individual genetic markers
3. Even if specific recommendation can be made based on genes, some may choose not to follow
recommendations
Case Studies5
Case Study 6-1: Protein Adequacy
Erin is a 28-year-old professional woman who is 5 feet 8 inches tall and vigilantly maintains her weight at 118
pounds by following a lacto-ovo (non-fat milk and egg whites only) vegetarian diet that supplies approximately
1200 calories a day. With her understanding that protein should provide between 10 and 35 percent of her daily
calories, she reasons that her daily intake of 40 grams of protein from milk, eggs, legumes, and nuts is adequate for
her needs. She is concerned, however, that she has been sick more than usual and has experienced two stress
fractures in her leg over the past three years while exercising.
1. Explain why Erin’s assumptions about her protein needs are unrealistic based on her current weight.
2. Assuming a healthy weight for Erin is 141 pounds, use the information from the “How to” feature (p. 187) in
this chapter to calculate her recommended daily protein requirement. Show your calculations.
3. What percentage of Erin’s current energy intake comes from protein? Remember that protein provides
approximately 4 kcalories per gram.) Is this adequate? Why or why not?
4. Erin’s energy needs for a healthy weight are closer to 1600 calories a day. How might her low calorie intake
influence her protein status and possibly contribute to her current health issues?
5. How would you explain to Erin how her low intake of calories and protein contribute to her risk for
osteoporosis?
6. Assuming Erin consumes 20 grams of protein from whole grains, vegetables, and legumes each day, calculate
how she can meet the remainder of her protein needs with dairy foods and egg whites.
Answer Key
1. Protein needs are based on “healthy body weight.” Erin is underweight so her actual weight is not a good
parameter for calculating her protein needs. In addition, her total kcal intake is so low that a protein intake near
the low end of the 10-35% range is less than her protein requirement based on her current weight.
2. RDA for protein = healthy weight of 141 pounds/2.2 = weight in kg = 64 kg 0.8 grams per kg = 51 grams
protein per day.
3. 40 grams protein 4 kcal per gram = 160 kcalories divided by 1200 kcalories per day 100 = 13.3% of her
daily calories from protein. No; although this falls into the recommended percentage of calories from protein, it
is not adequate because the requirement for protein assumes that adequate calories to meet dietary needs are
consumed. Erin is consuming inadequate calories to maintain a healthy body weight so some of the protein she
eats is being used for energy needs and is not available to replace lost stores of body protein.
4. An inadequate intake of calories forces the body to use protein to meet energy needs and less is left to meet the
body’s protein needs. Decreased immune function and bone loss are two serious consequences of inadequate
protein, which may help explain her recent sicknesses and stress fractures.
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5. Protein as well as calcium is needed for bone health. When calories are restricted, essential protein is used for
energy needs and less is available for essential functions like synthesis of collagen, the primary protein in bone.
6. 3 cups milk 8 grams protein per cup = 24 grams protein + 1 egg white (7 grams protein) = 31 grams + 20
grams from vegetables, legumes, and vegetables = 51 grams protein per day.
1. Danielle notices that protein is measured differently on the two Nutrition Facts labels. Knowing that 1 gram =
1000 milligrams, what can Danielle learn about the protein quantity of one serving of liquid amino acid as
compared to one whole egg?
2. Approximately how many teaspoons of liquid amino acid would Danielle need to eat every day to receive the
amount of protein in one egg? (Notice that the nutrition information for this product is for a ½ teaspoon
serving.)
3. Looking at the Nutrition Facts label, what other important nutrients besides protein will Danielle find in an egg
that are not present in her amino acid supplement?
4. What is the sodium content of an egg compared to one serving of the liquid amino acid product?
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5. According to information in this chapter, what is the safest way for Danielle to obtain the protein and amino
acids she needs? Why?
6. What precautions should Danielle take regarding the use of amino acid supplements?
Answer Key
1. ½ teaspoon liquid amino acid = 310 milligrams or 0.31 grams protein. 1 egg = 6 grams or 6000 milligrams
protein. The egg provides over 19 times the protein as the supplement.
2. Approximately 10 teaspoons. ½ teaspoon contains 0.31 grams protein × 2 = 0.62 grams protein in 1 teaspoon ×
10 = 6.2 grams protein in 10 teaspoons liquid protein.
3. Answers may include vitamin A, vitamin D, B vitamins, calcium, zinc, and phosphorous.
4. 70 mg for 1 egg versus 160 mg for ½ teaspoon liquid amino acid—the supplement provides over twice the
sodium in a much smaller volume.
5. From food. Fat and carbohydrates in food facilitate the use of protein and amino acids in the body.
6. She should not exceed levels normally found in foods; large doses cause diarrhea; the body is not designed to
handle high concentrations or unusual combinations of amino acids.
Suggested Classroom Activities
Newcomers to nutrition too often think that improving nutritional status is simply a matter of introducing more
nutrients into the body. Some people think it is like dropping pennies into a jar—the more you put in, the more will
be there. They need to appreciate the enormous compensating ability of the body before they can understand how
little (or how much) nutrients affect nutritional status.
6 Activity provided by: Robin S. Bagby, M. Ed., R.D., Penn State Nutrition Center
7 Activity provided by: Dorothy G. Herron, Orangeburg-Calhoun Technical College
8
Contributed by Carrie King
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Discussion questions:
1. Calculate the protein needs for a 25-year-old female who weighs 110 pounds using the RDA of 0.8 g/kg. Which
of the dinner meal plans would provide at least 50% of her daily need for protein? How does this illustrate how
easy it is to consume excess protein?
2. Which of the meal plans is primarily high-quality protein? Low-quality protein?
3. How can you modify the meal plans for vegetarians so that they fit the vegetarian meal plans reviewed in
Chapter 1?
4. Does the protein content of any of the foods surprise you?
Answer key:
1. 0.8 g/kg × 50 kg = 40 grams protein. Each meal provides greater than 50% of her daily need for protein. It is
relatively common to consume more protein than is needed.
2. Dinners #1 and #2 are high-quality protein (primarily animal-based), dinner #3 is lower-quality protein
(primarily plant-based).
3. Answers will vary. Possible examples: Dinner #3: replace the cow’s milk with soy milk and remove the cheese
from the burrito to make it a vegan meal; dinners #2 and #3 would be appropriate for lacto-ovo-vegetarian meal
plans.
4. Discuss the protein content of the various foods in the meal plan.
Nutrient composition of meals for instructor reference:
Dinner #1 Menu Item Cal Pro CB Fe
Pot roast, beef, 3 oz 262 24 0 2.4
Mashed potatoes, ½ cup 120 2 15 0.027
Corn, ½ cup 72 2.5 16 0.33
Dinner roll, whole-wheat, 1 item 74 2.4 14 0.68
Kiwi, sliced, ½ cup 55 1 13 0.28
1% milk, 1 cup 102 8 12 0.07
Totals 685 39.9 70 4.03
Key: Cal = kcalories, Pro = protein (grams), CB = carbohydrate (grams), Fe = iron (milligrams)
Classroom Activity 6-4: Protein Content of Over-the-Counter Protein and Amino Acid Supplements
Key concepts: Protein sources; protein/amino acid supplements Class size: Any
Instructions: Protein powder supplements are marketed as providing substantial amounts of protein and enhancing
athletic performance. Instruct students to go to the grocery or drug store and record the following regarding the
protein powder supplements they locate: name of supplement, cost of supplement, recommended daily dose, protein
content of suggested dose, and the percent of the DV for protein per serving/dose. Discuss in class and generate
suggestions for more safe, effective, enjoyable, and economical choices through food intake.
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How To “Try It” Activities Answer Key
How to Calculate Recommended Protein Intakes
The student should first determine the weight to use: her or his weight in kg if within the healthy BMI range, or if
not, then the weight at the midpoint of the healthy BMI range for a person of her/his height. The student should then
multiply her or his weight in kg by 0.8 g/kg (or 0.85 g/kg if only 17 or 18 years old) to determine the protein RDA.
For example, a 19-year-old student who is 5’6” and weighs 115 lb. (BMI = 18.6) would use his/her current weight
and calculate an RDA of 42 g protein per day.
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protein may improve blood pressure and blood lipids and decrease heart disease mortality. Research suggests
that elevated levels of the amino acid homocysteine may be an independent risk factor for heart disease, heart
attacks, and sudden death in patients with heart disease, but researchers do not yet fully understand the many
factors that can raise homocysteine in the blood or whether elevated levels are a cause or an effect of heart
disease. The amino acid arginine may help protect against heart disease by lowering blood pressure and
homocysteine levels. Evidence suggests a strong correlation between high intakes of red meat and processed
meats with cancer of the colon. When protein intake is high, calcium excretion increases, but whether excess
protein depletes bone calcium may depend upon the ratio of calcium intake to protein intake. Some (but not all)
research suggests that animal protein may be more detrimental to calcium metabolism and bone health than
vegetable protein. A high protein intake may also accelerate kidney deterioration in people with chronic kidney
disease.
14. In setting protein recommendations, the authorities consider the two reasons the body needs dietary protein:
First, dietary protein is the only source of the essential amino acids, and second, it is the only practical source of
nitrogen with which to build the nonessential amino acids and other nitrogen-containing compounds the body
needs. The RDA covers the needs for replacing worn-out tissue, so it increases for larger people; it also covers
the needs for building new tissue during growth, so it increases for infants, children, adolescents, and pregnant
and lactating women. In setting the RDA, the DRI Committee assumes that people are healthy and do not have
unusual metabolic needs for protein, that the protein eaten will be of mixed quality (from both high- and low-
quality sources), and that the body will use the protein efficiently. In addition, the committee assumes that the
protein is consumed along with sufficient carbohydrate and fat to provide adequate energy and that other
nutrients in the diet are also adequate.
15. Branched-chain amino acid supplements may be beneficial for individuals with certain conditions such as liver
disease. Tryptophan may be effective for inducing drowsiness in insomniacs, but caution is still advised. For
other people, supplements do not offer benefits over consuming foods providing the equivalent amounts of
proteins or amino acids. Foods provide many other important nutrients with the protein. Large doses of amino
acids cause diarrhea. An excess of one amino acid can create such a demand for a carrier that it limits the
absorption of another amino acid, presenting the possibility of a deficiency. Amino acids that most successfully
attach to carriers enter in excess, creating the possibility of toxicity. Large doses of branched-chain amino acids
can raise plasma ammonia concentrations, which can be toxic to the brain.
16. b 17. d
Answer Key
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1. Even though the body must break down all macronutrients into constituent parts to facilitate energy metabolism,
proteins are more complex in nature when compared to carbohydrates and lipids. In terms of chemical structure
and composition, proteins contain nitrogen, unlike carbohydrates and lipids. The side group attached to the
central carbon unit of each of the amino acids (the basic building blocks of proteins) is the major contributor to
a protein’s complexity. Each side group is considered to be unique. This is in contrast to complex
polysaccharide molecules such as starch in which each individual unit is the same glucose molecule. Even
though there is a different chemical group arrangement for lipids there are fewer lipid structures as compared to
protein structures. In addition, the sequencing of proteins consists of long amino acid chains based on individual
genetic profiles. The genetic information is delivered through a complex interaction of DNA and RNA
molecules. Errors in translation and transcription are possible and affect delivery of the genetic message.
2. The serum level of protein in the body plays a critical role in the regulation of water balance. If there are protein
deficiencies, fluid is more likely to shift from intravascular into interstitial spaces, resulting in a physiological
mechanism that leads to the cyclical presence of edema. This is because serum proteins such as albumin attract
water and help retain it within blood vessels. Deficiencies in protein can result in decreased colloid osmotic
pressure, leading to fluid shifting. Protein losses due to illness and/or disease processes similarly result in
edema. Additionally, if the liver is compromised through disease, then declined protein synthesis can lead to the
development of edema. Increased capillary permeability as a result of changes in oncotic pressure will lead to
protein leakage and edema development.
3. An adolescent female would be considered to be in a positive nitrogen balance state due to the fact that the
adolescent period is one of growth and development. Positive nitrogen balance favors the retention of nitrogen
(and protein) to promote growth functions. A 45-year-old male adult would be considered, if healthy, to be in
zero nitrogen balance (equilibrium).
4. The ingestion of high-quality proteins in the diet enables the body to effectively utilize all essential amino acids.
High-quality proteins are digested more easily as compared to low-quality proteins. High-quality proteins, by
virtue of containing essential amino acids, facilitate the numerous functions of proteins in the human body.
High-quality proteins are typically of animal content. A complementary protein strategy whereby a combination
of different foods eaten in the same day provides essential amino acids is an additional method that enhances
quality protein consumption. This method is utilized effectively in vegetarian diets to meet protein
requirements.
5. The genetic expression of protein is a basic requirement of life. Protein assumes various roles in the body that
are critical to life, such as: growth, structure, enzymes, hormones, fluid/electrolyte/acid-base balance, transport,
immune function (antigen/antibodies), and as an energy source. If there are differences in protein sequencing,
various abnormalities can occur. Protein deficiency states throughout the life cycle can result in various
alterations in growth and development patterns. Alterations in immune function can also occur, resulting in an
increase in infections. Inadequate protein levels can lead to altered ability of enzymes to function effectively in
the body. Deficiencies of protein can also affect pH regulation, resulting in altered biochemical reactions in the
body.
Consumption of protein in excess has also been demonstrated to place a burden on the heart when it comes from
animal sources that contain saturated fat. A specific protein that has been linked to heart disease is
homocysteine; however, though a correlation has been observed, it is unknown whether homocysteine is a cause
or an effect of heart disease. There is also an inverse relationship reported between increased homocysteine
levels and decreased B vitamins. Thus, there may be other factors that affect cardiac disposition rather than a
direct protein effect. Therefore, protein can be viewed as being beneficial in terms of supportive functions and
yet potentially detrimental if taken in excess, at least from certain foods.
6. Renal impairment can lead to altered ability to eliminate waste products of metabolism. As protein contains
nitrogen as a unique element, the consumption and breakdown of this nutrient can be affected by the kidney’s
inability to excrete urea. Buildup of nitrogenous end-products of metabolism can affect all body systems,
resulting in complex alterations of fluid and electrolyte balance. However, protein intake is essential to life and
well-being, and thus a protein intake of primarily high-quality proteins based on weight-based standards is
appropriate. Restriction and/or limitation of dietary protein may be prescribed because excess protein can
accelerate the decline in kidney function. Medical nutrition therapy facilitated by a dietician and health care
provider is necessary in order to manage and treat fluid and electrolyte imbalances.
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IM Worksheet Answer Key
Worksheet 6-1: Significance of Amino Acids
Client Essential Non-essential Conditionally Sequencing Error
Required
Newborn baby X X X
diagnosed with ↑ Phenylalanine ↓ Tyrosine Autosomal
PKU recessive disorder
Elderly female X* X* X*
diagnosed with Variable amino Variable amino Variable amino
PEM acids levels seen → acids levels seen → acids levels seen →
usually decreased usually decreased usually decreased
Adult male client X
with partial Branched-chain
thickness burns amino acids
over 20% BSA (leucine, valine &
isoleucine)
Glutamine
*Reference: http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/26/6/457.pdf
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112
For each of the following clinical examples, indicate whether the client is at risk to develop a problem related to
amino acids.
Elderly female
diagnosed with
PEM
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113
1. 45-year-old female, weight 135 lbs., protein intake of 38 grams and UUN = 8 grams
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. 89-year-old male, weight 142 lbs., protein intake of 69 grams and UUN = 6 grams
a.
b.
c.
d.
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Most people in the United States and Canada receive more protein than they need. This is not
surprising considering the abundance of food eaten and the central role meats hold in the North
American diet. Using a 1-day food diary, estimate your protein intake for the day. Multiply the
number of servings you consumed by the estimated protein per serving to guesstimate your total
protein intake.
The protein RDA for young adults (19 to 24 years old) is 46 grams for women and 58 grams for
men. Health experts advise people to maintain moderate protein intakes—between the RDA and
twice the RDA.
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115
3 4
5 6
8 9
10
11
12
Across: Down:
3. Distinguishing feature of the protein chemical 1. The study of how nutrients influence gene activity
structure 2. Body organ where the majority of proteins are
10. DNA contains the _____ that tells the body how to disassembled into amino acids
assemble proteins. 4. Increased dietary protein intake can lead to
11. When dietary protein intake increases the body’s increased excretion of the mineral _____.
production of _____ increases. 5. Amino acids can be used to make glucose if
12. Refers to amino acids that the body is able to insufficient dietary _____ are consumed.
manufacture 6. What the body uses to assemble its own proteins
7. Proteins that act to defend the body from disease
8. Proteins that provide sufficient quantities of
essential amino acids are referred to as _____.
9. What happens when proteins are exposed to heat
or acid such as stomach acid
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1. Complementary proteins, when combined, do not include all of the essential amino acids.
a. True
b. False
2. Research studies have refuted the idea that foods must be eaten at the same meal to achieve the concept of
complementary proteins.
a. True
b. False
5. Proteins can be used interchangeably in the body because they have similar structures.
a. True
b. False
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