GEOMETRY, PROPORTION

AND THE
ART OF L U T H E R I E
A study of the use and aesthetic significance of geometry and

numerical proportion in the design of European bowed and plucked string

Instruments in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and

eighteenth centuries

KEVIN COATES

OXFORD • A T T H E C L A R E N D O N PRESS
 Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 A mathematical background 3

3 Geometry, a short history D

15
4 Proportion
15
Types of P r o p o r t i o n

Rational and Irrational Numbers 1 6

Golden Section, a n d the Fibonacci N u m b e r s 16

The Root Proportionals 1 8

The Vesica Piscis 1 8

The Ionie V o l u t e i n the Geometry of the Head 19

Systems of Measurement 22

5 The instruments 23
The D r a w i n g s (Plates I - X X X I ) 23

The Analyses 25

Categorization 26

Selection of Examples 27

6 Analysis of instrument examples 29

VIOLS 31

Ex. I . Bass v i o l , Pelegrino d i Zanetto ( c i 5 5 0 ) 31

Ex. I I . Treble v i o l , G i o v a n n i M a r i a da Brescia ( c . 1 5 7 5 ) 35
Ex. D I . Bass v i o l , Battista Ciciliano ( c i 5 9 0 ) 39
Ex. I V . Tenor v i o l , H e n r y Jaye ( 1 6 6 7 ) 44
Ex. V. Bass v i o l , I o a c h i m Tielke ( c i 7 0 0 ) 48
Ex. V I . Pardessus de viole, Louis Guersan ( 1 7 5 9 ) 52

LIRAS DA BRACCIO 55
Ex. V I I . L i r a da braccio, G i o v a n n i M a r i a da Brescia ( c i 5 7 5 ) 55
Ex. V I I I . L i r a da braccio, Gasparo da Salò ( c i 5 8 5 ) 59
Ex. I X . L i r a da braccio (maker u n k n o w n ) ( c i 5 7 0 ) 62

VIOLINS (VIOLA, VIOLONCELLO) 65

Ex. X. V i o l i n (small m o d e l ) , A n d r e a A m a t i ( 1 5 6 4 ) 66
Ex. X I . V i o l i n , Nicola A m a t i ( c i 6 7 0 ) 7!
Ex. X I I . V i o l i n , A n t o n i o Stradivari ( 1 6 6 6 ) 75
Ex. XIII. Violin, Antonio Stradivari ( 1 7 0 3 ) 79
 CONTENTS

Ex. X I V . V i o l a , G i o v a n n i Paolo M a g g i n i ( c i 6 1 0 ) 82
Ex. X V . Violoncello, Barak N o r m a n ( 1 7 1 8 ) 86

VIOLAS D'AMORE 90
Ex. X V I . Viola d'amore (maker u n k n o w n ) ( c i 7 5 0 ) 91
Ex. X V I I . English Violet, Paulus Alletsee ( 1 7 2 4 ) 95

KITS OR P O C H E T T E S 100

Ex. X V I I I . Pochette, Gaspar B o r b o n ( 1 6 8 6 ) 100

Ex. X I X . Pochette d ' a m o u r , Battista Genova ( c i 7 6 0 ) 103

LUTES 106

Ex. X X . Lute ( d r a w i n g ) , Henricus A r n a u l t ( c l 4 6 0 ) 107

Ex. X X I . Tenor l u t e , Hans Frei ( c i 5 5 0 ) 110
Ex. X X I I . A l t o l u t e , G i o v a n n i Hieber ( c i 5 8 0 ) 114
Ex. X X I I I . C h i t a r r o n e , Matteo Buechenberg ( 1 6 1 4 ) 118
Ex. X X I V . Theorbo, lacobus Henricus Goldt ( 1 7 3 4 ) 122
Ex. X X V . Theorbo, Michael Rauche ( 1 7 6 2 ) 122

MANDORE AND MANDOLINES 127

Ex. X X V I . Mandore (maker u n k n o w n ) ( c i 6 4 0 ) 128

Ex. X X V I I . Milanese m a n d o l i n e , attr. A n t o n i o Stradivari ( c l 7 1 0 ) 132
Ex. X X V I I I . Neapolitan m a n d o l i n e , lohannes Vinaccia ( 1 7 5 3 ) 136

CITTERNS 141

Ex. X X I X . Cittern (maker u n k n o w n ) ( c l 6 5 0 ? ) 141

Ex. X X X . Bell c i t t e r n , I o a c h i m Tielke ( 1 6 7 6 ) 144

GUITARS 147

Ex. X X X I . G u i t a r , Belchior Diaz ( 1 5 8 2 ) 148

Ex. X X X I I . G u i t a r , Christopho Cocho ( 1 6 0 2 ) 150
Ex. X X X I I I . C h i t a r r a battente/Guitar, M a n g o Longo ( 1 6 2 4 ) 153

7 Summary of analyses 157

8 Observations 164

9 Conclusions 167

Appendix A 171
Some early sources of geometrical a n d p r o p o r t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n

Appendix B 172
The v i o l i n moulds of A n t o n i o Stradivari w i t h reference to Exx. X I I
and X I I I

Appendix C 174

Body-outline chart of s u m m a r y for development of four Cremonese violins

Bibliography 175

Index 177
1 Introduction

Beauty will result from the form and correspondence of the whole, with respect to the
several parts, of the parts with regard to each other, and of these again to the whole ; that
the structure may appear an entire and complete body, wherein each member agrees
with the other, and ali necessary to compose what you intend to form.

This is one of 'the several particulars that ought to be considered' w i t h

w h i c h Andrea Palladio, w i t h ' V i t r u v i u s for master and guide', begins the
first chapter of his First Book of Architecture (Venice, 1 5 7 0 ) . I n fact, this
particular 'particular' provides us w i t h a good w o r k i n g idea of w h a t artists
mean w h e n they talk of ' p r o p o r t i o n ' , for a l t h o u g h he himself does not
here use the w o r d , Palladio is really saying that where there is design-
interrelatedness—where there is proportion—there, also, w i l l be Beauty.
Such is Palladio's v i e w , a n o p i n i o n shared by countless practitioners
and theorists of ali epochs, b u t one also hotly contended by m a n y others,
d r a w n m a i n l y from more recent ages. I n wrìting the study w h i c h follows,
I a m , of course, declaring m y allegiance to the former group of 'believers' ;
certainly I could never have undertaken the rigours of the w o r k w h i c h
follows w i t h o u t the fundamental conviction of m y belief that the luthiers
of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, like so m a n y of
their contemporary confederates, the architects and painters, did indeed
make conscious use of numerical proportion i n their designs. I imagine
that this has long been suspected by m a n y 'instrumentophiles' w ho, like 7

myself, have found just such a 'beauty' as Palladio's i n the m y r i a d forms of

stringed musical instruments, and wondered at the strength and integrity
of their shapes.
These are designs w h i c h I , for one, have f o u n d difficult to reconcile w i t h
the widely held c h a i n of ideas that the luthier w^as an early Craftsman, and
the Craftsman was a m o r t a i b o r n half-way between the Artist and the
W o r k m a n , by the wisdom of providence lacking the undisciplined
i m a g i n a t i o n of the one, but compensated by the humble diligence of the
other, enabling h i m to develop Special Understanding as he became a
Master Craftsman. This, clearly, is a wearisome, lazy-minded, apriorist
v i e w , w h i c h , w h i l s t well-meaningly acknowledging the craftsman as a
m e d i u m of intuitive forces, simultaneously castrates h i m of any objective,
directive intellect, as t h o u g h it were plainly impossible t h a t t w o such
diverse processes could w o r k together, and least of ali t h r o u g h the m i n d
and products of a ' m a n u a l ' worker.
I n the case of musical instruments, w h i c h , since the Lute or Lyre of
Orpheus, have often been regarded as possessors of a particular sympa-
thetic magic of their o w n , there is a further reluctance, seen especially i n
the conservative nature of the player, w h o has an active, rather t h a n a
contemplative, relationship w i t h an i n s t r u m e n t — a reluctance to accept
the idea that an object as w a r m and 'feeling' as a musical i n s t r u m e n t may
be the result, if only i n part, of a n agency as cold and mechanical, as
2 INTRODUCTION

positively I N H U M A N , as mathematics. I r o n i c a l l y , i n view of the supportive

evidence to follow, the power of this subjective rejection is a measure of
exactly h o w successful the creators of these artefacts were, i n reconciling
w h a t are c o m m o n l y held to be t w o opposing design polarities: the
calculated, numerically structured approach, and the personal i n t u i t i v e
vision. A n d it is, of course, not t h r o u g h the agency of craft, but of art, t h a t
this alchemical fusion is consummated.
I n recent years, some excellent works have been w r i t t e n w h i c h have
sought to establish historical precedence for the principle of n u m e r i c a l
proportion i n art and design, most particularly i n architecture, where
perhaps its use can be more easily apprehended. Even the best of these
studies, such as the significant Architectural Phnciples of Rudolf W i t t k o w e r , 1

the fruit of considerable research and a profound scholarly insight,

a l t h o u g h widely acclaimed, have also not been w i t h o u t their critics, w h i l e
lesser, weaker offerings become w e i g h t y missiles h u r l e d back against the
very movement of t h o u g h t their authors had felt they were supporting. I t
is therefore w i t h more t h a n a little diffidence that I make m y o w n small
c o n t r i b u t i o n to the field o n the behalf of stringed musical instruments and
their makers.
A l t h o u g h m y aims are not dissimilar to W i t t k o w e r ' s , that is, the
establishment of the principle of governing proportion w i t h i n a given
discipline, the problems encountered i n a like study of musical i n s t r u -
ments are of a very different n a t u r e , engendering a different approach. N o t
least of these problems, as we have already had cause to examine, is the
popular image of the instrument-maker as 'mere' craftsman.
The architectural theorist is also more fortunate i n his researches i n
being able to consult, besides the existing buildings themselves, a
considerable body of historical documents, often w r i t t e n by architects
themselves, about architects and the use of n u m e r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n i n the
f o r m u l a t i o n of their w o r k . To m y knowledge, no equivalent archival
material has ever come to light concerning the use of such design
processes by the luthiers of the same period, and yet the evidence t h a t their
designs were conceived w i t h a h i g h degree of dependence o n formalized
geometry and proportional knowledge is o v e r w h e l m i n g , as we shall come
to see. W h y no such ' w r i t t e n ' records have emerged, despite some
exhaustive localized researches, is a mystery w h i c h w e w i l l need to
consider later i n our discussions.
Given this s i t u a t i o n , t h e n , this study w i l l concern itself w i t h historical
documents of a different, b u t no less valid, k i n d . I t w i l l be a n e x a m i n a t i o n ,
by careful measurement and design analysis, of a relevant cross-section
of historical stringed musical instruments, by w h i c h means I hope to
establish finally the ' p r o p o r t i o n a l design approach' of early l u t h i e r s , and
perhaps to reveal a few design principles w h i c h I should like to t h i n k w i l l
be of use to m o d e m luthiers seeking to re-create such instruments today.
Above a l i , i t is essential to understand t h a t i t w i l l be a study of the
aesthetics of proportion i n musical i n s t r u m e n t design, a n d , as such,
acousticaì considerations will not arise. I t w o u l d be true to say t h a t the
acoustic success of a n i n s t r u m e n t relies far more o n the correct
thicknessing (and, where applicable, arching) of the most suitable w o o d ,
w h i c h w i l l contain the proper resonant volume of air, t h a n it does o n an
aesthetically satisfying planar disposition of t w o of the three dimensions
» Rudolf Wittkower, Architectural Principles o f t h a
v o l u m e . Where the t w o combine, however, we have the art of the
t

in the Age ofHumanism (first published 1949). luthier.

2 A mathematica! background

Musical instruments have, for me, always been objects of a very special
eloquence, either as a player and listener to w h o m their mystic voices
have sometimes been entrusted, or simply as a beholder to w h o m
something of the unique richness of their personalities has been unfolded.
As historical documents, they are objects, too, of particular significance,
revealing the technological resources of the art of the innovative designer
i n service to the art of music, expressed t h r o u g h a decorative art
influenced by social convention. I n this w a y , they are a l i v i n g reflection of
the Muses, of art and society, their makers, and the generations of players
w h o preserved and cherished t h e m as intimates, leaving w i t h t h e m
something of their presence and their communicated thoughts and
feelings. T h r o u g h o u t this study, the instruments themselves have been
a never-fading source of inspiration, w o n d e r , and curiosity, and i n a
relationship of t r u s t , have disclosed to me some of the more secret aspects
of their design make-up. I n a very real sense I have thus been privileged to
share some of the previously lost thoughts and considerations of their
makers.
These t h o u g h t s , like the language of a past age, were shaped by
previous custom and contemporary a t t i t u d e ; they w i l l therefore be
appreciated and understood better if, before e x a m i n i n g the evidence of
geometrie and proportional t h i n k i n g i n the i n s t r u m e n t examples, we
consider the mathematical outlook of the age w h i c h created t h e m . To do
this, however, we must first understand our o w n present-day relationship
w i t h mathematics, w h i c h is of a very different nature f r o m t h a t of our
early luthier and his contemporaries. Indeed, so removed are the t w o
p o l a r i t i e s of mathematical approach, that perhaps the greatest obstacle to
proving m y thesis, that geometry and proportional p l a n n i n g were used
by the early l u t h i e r , lies not i n demonstrating that such was the case, but
i n flnding acceptance from twentieth-century readers that such could be
the case.
To be fair, it is not a failing peculiar to our o w n age alone t h a t , w h e n
v i e w i n g the achievements of a previous t i m e , one should do so t h r o u g h
the w r o n g e n d of a m e t a p h o r i c a l t e l e s c o p e ; a n d w i t h o u r o w n opinion
of ourselves as unsurpassed technocrats and w i t h o u r comprehension of
mathematics as a tool of technology, it is understandable t h a t w e should
be a l i t t l e u n w i l l i n g to credit the artisans of the technologically less
e n l i g h t e n e d past w i t h a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h , a n d knowledge of, m a t h e m a t i c s ,
seemingly superior to our o w n . I t is a n understandable viewpoint, but one
betraying a little anxiety and m u c h prejudice. Here we have a problem of
belief, b u t one whose solution is only a short w a y beyond the prejudices
of our twentieth-century education. If we can dispel our o w n school-
engendered concept of mathematics as a lifeless bag of tools and tricks, of
use to engineers and accountants, b u t an unheeded mystery to refìned
people of c u l t u r e , then we shall have come at least as far as h a v i n g an open
 A M A T H E M A T I C A L B A C K G R O U N D

m i n d before the problem of understanding the mathematical beliefs of an

earlier age.
For the Renaissance, mathematics was a universal language i n w h i c h
was expressed the s u m total of its ideas. The abstract expression of these
ideas exists stili i n o u r m o d e m culture i n the f o r m of structures of t h o u g h t
a n d behaviour, w h i l s t we have inherited their concrete expression i n the
f o r m of artefacts, such as some of the musical instruments w h i c h we shall
here discuss. AH were u n i t e d by the language of mathematics, and i n
o r d e r t o c o m p r e h e n d any of these p a r t s , or the whole itself, it is essential to
understand that language as did the culture w h i c h engendered i t .
As society has altered over half a m i l l e n n i u m , so too have the role and
f u n c t i o n of mathematics changed to serve m a n k i n d ' s needs. Those needs
are n o w o v e r w h e l m i n g , w i t h the very future of our existence threatened
by increasing demands o n ever-diminishing physical resources. Caught
up i n this giddy race, m a n sees his only hope as hypertechnology. For this
technology (perhaps as often m a s t e r as s a v i o u r ) , the c h a m e l e o n mathe-
matics is once again the language—but it is a language of quantity: a
terrifying measure of the finite, and not just of h o w m u c h , b u t of h o w little
there remains.
Renaissance m a n , however, a l t h o u g h eagerly setting off u p o n the t r a i l
towards a higher technology, was, of course, blessedly free and u n a w a r e
of its dire responsibilities. The soul of mathematics had n o t as yet been
offered u p to technology, b u t w o r k e d i n h a r m o n y w i t h , and qualifìed, the
works of m a n . Just as the universe for Pythagoras and Plato was t u n e d
to a heavenly h a r m o n y that could be 'heard' w i t h the divine sense of
mathematics, so for the Neoplatonists of the sixteenth century the w o r l d
and its phenomena were infused w i t h , and u n i t e d by, the mystic thread of
number. The ancient q u a d r i v i u m itself was a doctrine of this faith ; its
articles—arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music—were gospels to
the eternai order of number i n its different modes, t h a t is, as pure,
stationary, m o v i n g , and applied number. Thus, the study and knowledge
of mathematics inspired the devotion due to a universal t r u t h , and its
application was a n act of faith t h a t qualifìed the w o r k w i t h the grace of
2
Morris Kline, Mathematics in Western Cul-
universality. I n short, i t was a language of quality*
ture (Pelican Books, 1972, first published in This m u c h has our relationship w i t h the immutable reality of number
USA, 1953). For Professor Kline, 'mathematics changed f r o m its role as a p r o f o u n d means of expression i n the art and
is more than a method, an art, and a language.
It is a body of knowledge w i t h content that
life of the Renaissance to its prime use i n present-day technology as an
serves the physical and social scientist, the expression of means.
philosopher, the logician, and the artist ; con-
tent that influences the doctrines of statesmen
It m a y be helpful at this stage to consider h o w this climate of t h o u g h t
and theologians; content that satisfies the was b r o u g h t about, by e x a m i n i n g , albeit briefly, the influence wielded by
curiosity of the man who surveys the heavens mathematics i n the history of our culture. I n this respect, I have been
and the man who muses on the sweetness
of musical sounds ; and content that has un-
guided by the s t i m u l a t i n g w o r k of Professor Morris K l i n e , whose lucid
deniably, if sometimes imperceptibly, shaped study Mathematics in Western Culture I w o u l d recommend to anyone
2

the course of modem history.' w i s h i n g to pursue t h i s e x c i t i n g s u b j e c t .

3 Geometry, a short history

Herodotus, t h a t ancient 'father of h i s t o r y ' , relates a story w h i c h accounts

for the b i r t h of geometry t h r o u g h the seasonal invasions of the Nile.
Following the division of l a n d amongst the people by K i n g Sesostris
(fourteenth century BC), a method of calculating the a m o u n t of land taken
by the Nile's overflow had to be contrived i n order that the owner's
land-tax could be adjusted proportionately. This led to a formularized
system of land measurement—'geo' m e a n i n g e a r t h , and ' m e t r o n '
meaning measure—and thus, geometra was a 'gift of the Nile'.
A l t h o u g h this is a somewhat fable-like explanation of the origins of our
subject, m u c h t r u t h lies i n the spati of Herodotus' tale, for it is generally
believed t h a t the civihzations of the Near East, those of Egypt and
Babylonia, were the first fully to develop numeracy, and it is fairly easy to
imagine that the next step t o w a r d arithmetic and geometry should have
been made by t h e m , i n order to satisfy just such a practical need as the one
described by Herodotus.
The Nile and its cultures, however, do not provide the source of our o w n
particular study ; its fountain-head lies i n Classical Greece w i t h Pytha-
goras and his followers, w h o , by their philosophical approach, trans-
formed the elements of the mathematics w h i c h they had inherited from
the Egyptians and Babylonians. Aristotle tells us t h a t the Pythagoreans
'applied themselves to the study of mathematics and were the first to
advance t h a t science'; accordingly, they are credited w i t h giving the
subject a special and independent status. Pythagoras did m u c h to
determine the nature and philosophy of Greek mathematics, raising
arithmetic and geometry to their liberal-art r a n k , as pursuits of the
intellect, freed of any material or commercial u t i l i t y .
For our purpose, perhaps Pythagoras' most i m p o r t a n t revelation was
not his traditionally attributed theorem of the square o n the hypotenuse of
a right-angled triangle, or the consequent, deeply disturbing discovery of
t h e i r r a t i o n a l i t y of the s q u a r e r o o t of t w o , but that of t h e a n a l o g y between
music and arithmetic. Pythagoras discovered that the musical con-
sonances—the prime musical intervals of a n octave, a fifth, and a
f o u r t h — w e r e produced by strings of the same thickness and tension but o f
lengths i n simple arithmetical proportion. T h u s , strings i n 2 : 1 ratio give
an octave, or diapason ; i n 3 : 2 ratio, a fifth, or sesquialtera ; whilst those i n
4 : 3 ratio give a f o u r t h , or sesquitertia. This was also f o u n d to apply to
strings of similar l e n g t h , b u t of tensions i n ' h a r m o n i c ' p r o p o r t i o n , and to
the mass of the v i b r a t i n g membrane, w h e t h e r it be of strings, anvils,
bells, glasses of water, or the speaking length of pipes. Such diversity of
examples is illustrated i n the c h a r m i n g woodcut f r o m Gafurio's Theorica
Musice o f 1 4 9 2 , a n d s h o w n here i n Fig. 1 . This discovery is p r i m a r i l y
i m p o r t a n t to us because i t marks the emergence of a 'philosophy of
numbers', w h i c h was to be a corner-stone of Greek belief and an
inspiration to Renaissance thinkers.
FIG. 1 . Mathematics and musical
h a r m o n y , F r a n c h i n o G a f u r i o , Theorica
Musive, 1492

To the Pythagoreans, numbers were the elements of nature and the

essence of ali things ; the whole of heaven was a musical scale i n w h i c h the
planets glided i n divine h a r m o n y , m a k i n g 'music of the spheres'. Fig. 2
shows a later graphic realization of this vision, f r o m Robert Fludd's
( 1 5 7 4 - 1 6 3 7 ) Utriusque Cosmi Historia. A famous follower of Pythagoras,
Philolaos, s h o w n w i t h his master i n Fig. 1 demonstrating flutes of different
ratio, distilled their belief i n the universality of number i n the lines :

Were i t n o t for n u m b e r a n d its n a t u r e , n o t h i n g t h a t exists w o u l d be clear to

anybody e i t h e r i n itself, or i n its r e l a t i o n to other t h i n g s . . . . Y o u can observe the
power of n u m b e r exercising itself n o t o n l y i n the affairs of demons and gods, b u t i n
ali the acts a n d the t h o u g h t s of m e n i n ali handicrafts and music.

A n o t h e r Pythagorean 'discovery' w h i c h concerns us is t h a t of the

theory of p r o p o r t i o n — t h e three means: arithmetic, geometrie, and
h a r m o n i c . These are fully explained i n Chapter 4 under 'Types of
P r o p o r t i o n ' , b u t for the present can be understood as 'modes' of
proportion. The Pythagorean theory of p r o p o r t i o n , however, did n o t
 GEOMETRY, A SHORT HISTORY 7

F I G . 2. T h e Cosmic M o n o c h o r d , Robert
F l u d d , Utriusque Cosmi Historia, 1617

account for, or apply t o , incommensurable magnitudes (amounts w h i c h

could n o t be rationalized by w h o l e numbers), and yet, as we have seen,
the Pythagoreans did recognize their existence ; one supposes, therefore,
that they regarded such phenomena as ' a n t i - n u m b e r ' , belonging to a
primitive and incomprehensible chaos, and mathematically 'beyond the
pale', i n v o l v i n g , as they do, the terrifying concept of the infinite.
The n a t u r a i heir to Pythagorean mathematics was Plato, w h o ,
a l t h o u g h n a t u r a l l y more i m p o r t a n t to us for his philosophical w r i t i n g s ,
was also the founder ( ? 3 8 7 B C ) of the renowned Academy, the recognized
a u t h o r i t y i n m a t h e m a t i c s , and a connecting l i n k between Pythagoras and
the later geometers of the University of A l e x a n d r i a , and thence eventually
to the scientists of the Renaissance, as can be seen by the Academy's
famous m o t t o , w h i c h reads 'Let no one i g n o r a n t of mathematics enter
8 GEOMETRY, A SHORT HISTORY

here'—a principle later adopted and disseminated i n stern prefaces by

b o t h Copernicus (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 1543) and
Leonardo {Trattato della Pittura).
It could be said t h a t i n his mathematical beliefs Plato was more
Pythagorean t h a n Pythagoras, for the conviction t h a t nature is precisely
ordered to a mathematical rationale was given greater significance by the
Platonic belief i n the supreme power of h u m a n intelligence ; this led Plato
to seek beyond observable n a t u r e , to ideal n a t u r e — t h e true reality, 'the
most real existence'. Whereas Pythagoras was concerned w i t h the
n u m b e r found i n the h a r m o n y of music, Plato, believing knowledge to be
removed f r o m sensation, sought, t h r o u g h a ' c h a i n of causation', the
harmonies of numbers themselves, harmonies heard only by the m i n d .
For Plato,

. . . the t h i n g s of this w o r l d are ali imperfect copies of Forms w h i c h exist externally

somewhere ; w h i c h are the t r u e and o n l y objects of k n o w l e d g e , b u t can o n l y be
apprehended by direct c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the m i n d , freed as far as possible f r o m the
confusing imperfections of the physical w o r l d . 3

W i t h o u t question, the greatest c o n t r i b u t i o n made by Plato to the

mainstream of our subject was his study the Timaeus, for us one of the t w o
most i m p o r t a n t literary works of ancient times, a book t h a t was available,
i n L a t i n , to European t h o u g h t even t h r o u g h the Dark and early Middle
A g e s , w h e n its ' G o d ' , as c r e a t o r , w a s seen b y C h r i s t i a n s as a n a l o g o u s w i t h
the Creator i n Genesis.
The Timaeus is a f o r m a i embodiment of m u c h of the Pythagorean/
Platonic number-cosmology, the spirit of w h i c h we have already glimpsed
above. I n describing the material and structure of the W o r l d - S o u l , Plato
explains its constituent divisions according to the h a r m o n y of the
numbers 1 , 2, 3 , 4 , 9, 8, and 2 7 , w h i c h is the combination of the squares
and cubes of the doublé and triple p r o p o r t i o n , starting f r o m u n i t y , that is,
the t w o geometrical progressions 1 , 2, 4 , 8, and 1 , 3, 9, 27. These
F I G . 3. T h e L a m b d a numbers, often d r a w n i n the Lambda arrangement (Fig. 3), c o n t a i n i n
their ratios ali the actual musical consonances as w e l l as the divine
h a r m o n y of proportion. The square, 4 and 9, and cube, 8 and 2 7 , are
numbers of two-dimensional planes, and three-dimensional solids. Plato
further demonstrates h o w 'God eternally geometrizes' by assigning, i n a
mystical atomic theory, to each of the four elements one of the four regular
solids, i n w h i c h f o r m take the particles of t h a t element. The fifth 'Platonic'
solid is the d o d e c a h e d r o n — w h i c h , incidentally, cannot be constructed
f r o m Plato's ' t w o basic types of t r i a n g l e ' — t h i s 'God used for a r r a n g i n g the
constellations o n the w h o l e heaven'. These familiar, t r u l y d e m e n t a i ,
figures are given here i n Fig. 4 .
The other i m p o r t a n t book f r o m Classical Greece relevant to our study,
and one h a v i n g a most profound influence i n the shaping of our c u l t u r e ,
is the renowned Elements of Euclid (c.325 BC). This m a s t e r - w o r k — t h e
standard textbook of geometry for over t w o thousand years—was a
u n i f i c a t i o n of Greek m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e , collected and presented i n
an arrangement so coherent and logicai t h a t its great a n d e n d u r i n g
influence o n civilization has been as m u c h for its r a t i o n a l systematization
as for its content. I n fact, it contained thirteen books, the first six a n d last
3
H u g h T r e d e n n i c k , introduction to The Last
Days of Socrates (a collection of Plato's Dia- three of w h i c h were devoted to geometry (piane and solid), the seventh,
logues) (Penguin, 1967). e i g h t h , a n d n i n t h to arithmetic, and the t e n t h to irrationals. The title
Proclus.
Elements, according to one ancient c o m m e n t a t o r , means 'beginning at
4
4
 G E O M E T R Y , A S H O R T H I S T O R Y 9

the b e g i n n i n g ' ; Euclid does so by giving a number of definitions or

Axioms. These set out properties of points, lines, surfaces, and figures, and
are carefully formulated to be accepted as unarguable t r u t h s — t h e materia
f r o m w h i c h the succeeding Propositions are logically built to f o r m the
entire system of geometry. This included, i n book five, the theory of
proportion, b o t h commensurable and incommensurable, attributed to
Eudoxus of Cnidus ( 4 0 8 - 3 55 BC), a master mathematician/astronomer
w h o had also originated several theorems of the golden section of a line.
The achievement of the Elements was threefold : nrstly, i t presented i n EARTH
concise and accessible f o r m the corporate Greek understanding of CUBE
geometry, a body of knowledge w h i c h — p h i l o s o p h y and 'liberal' educa-
t i o n aside—was also to p r o v e of inestimable p r a c t i c a l v a l u e to m a n y of its
students. Secondly, it demonstrated, w i t h ali the irrefutability of its o w n
proofs, the supreme power of h u m a n reason, and its ability to deduce AIR
and formulate according to systematic laws of t h o u g h t . T h i r d l y , by its OCTAHEDfcDN
universal acclaim as a model of pure and elegant logie, the Elements fìnally
elevated the study of mathematics f r o m the merely useful to the
definitively aesthetic.
Euclid himself was educated i n Athens, it is t h o u g h t by the pupils of
FIRt
Plato, b u t w i t h the conquering of Egypt by Alexander, and the consequent PYRAM1D
endowment of the city of Alexandria, Euclid was to become one of the
founders of the great ' m u s e u m ' and library established there under
the c u l t u r a l l y enlightened rule of Ptolemy I ( 3 0 6 - 2 8 3 BC). W i t h the
magnetism of an early Diaghilev (further aided by some Bilanciai
inducement) Ptolemy assembled the greatest minds and talents of the WATER
ancient w o r l d around a new intellectual h u b , its spokes radiating o u t IGOSAHEDRON
t h r o u g h A r a b i a , Greece, Asia, Europe, and Africa.
Culturally the true nombril du monde, Alexandria achieved one of the
first cosmopolitan societies, a centre not only of Hellenism, b u t also of
Semitism. Its s i n g u l a r l y d i v e r s e peoples m i x e d a n d f r e e l y exchanged b o t h COSM0S
culture and commerce—the great explosion of trade m a k i n g the practical DODECAHEDR0N
demands of geography, n a v i g a t i o n , and engineering o n the previously
aloof and abstract art of mathematics. I n this w a y , H e l l e n i s t i c mathe- FIG. 4 . The d e m e n t a i p o l y h e d r a . Plato,
matics became a very different study f r o m the removed idealistic Timaeus

philosophy of the Classical scholars; instead, it embraced practical

application by measurement, s u r v e y i n g , and construction.
The science of mechanics, p a r t i c u l a r l y , burgeoned i n a n atmosphere
h u n g r y for the wondrous and the astonishing. Water-clocks, water-
organs, pumps, and ali manner of pneumatically and hydrostatically
powered automata appeared, to advance knowledge, expand the eco-
n o m y , and dazzle the populace. For the Alexandrians, mathematics was a
powerful but obedient servant, and one of its greatest masters was a m a n
whose intellect and whose fate symbolize those of his age—Archimedes
(c.28 7 - 2 1 2 B C ) . He was bora i n , and returned t o , Syracuse i n Sicily, b u t
studied at Alexandria. A l t h o u g h his most i m p o r t a n t w o r k was i n the field
of geometry—extending the w o r k of Eudoxus and Euclid, determining a
v a l u e for TT, discovering the proportional relationship between a cylinder
and its inscribed sphere, w o r k i n g o n conoids and spheroids, o n spirals and
parabolas—his contemporary fame was founded neither on mathematics
nor o n the celebrated hydrostatic principle t h a t b e a r s h i s n a m e , b u t o n t h e
ingenious mechanical devices'that so fìred the popular i m a g i n a t i o n ,
contrivances w h i c h , incidentally, his lofty Greek m i n d disdainfully
dismissed as so m a n y gewgaws and beneath the dignity of true
GEOMETRY, A SHORT HISTORY

intellectual pursuit. Amongst these inventions were engines of w a r , built

to defend Syracuse against the R o m a n advance ; one such was a giant
concave m i r r o r used to b u r n the R o m a n ships as they carne w i t h i n
bow-shot. Archimedes, it is well k n o w n , died beneath the sword of a
Roman soldier w h i l e i n rapt contemplation of a mathematical figure—a
grievous incident, and one w h i c h sadly symbolizes the fate w h i c h was to
befall the Greek spirit of learning before the b r u t a l indifference of R o m a n
ignorance.
Other R o m a n conquests i n the Mediterranean included that of Alex-
andria itself. Here, fire was used by Caesar to destroy the Egyptian fleet as it
lay at anchor i n the h a r b o u r ; disastrously, the flames sweeping i n w a r d
f r o m the sea engulfed the Great Library, a n n i h i l a t i n g the most precious
archives the w o r l d had e ver k n o w n . Roman suppression follo wed R o m a n
persecution, and the stifled people inevitably t u r n e d to the hope offered
by the n e w Christian ethic, an appeal lodged i n simple f a i t h , and one
r e n o u n c i n g the amassed abstract knowledge of the Greek culture as
pagan. The scholars of the M u s e u m of Alexandria had to flee the city,
scattering w i t h t h e m the d o r m a n t seeds of their b r i g h t Greek culture.
W h a t remained of the M u s e u m was callously put to the t o r c h by the
M u s l i m invasion of 6 4 0 , the r e m a i n i n g books and manuscipts, according
to legend, supplying the furnaces of the public baths w i t h six m o n t h s of
hot water and steam.
Before following our summarized mathematical history into the bleak
wastelands of the Dark Ages, there is perhaps one exceptional R o m a n to
w h o m we should be introduced, and he is Marcus V i t r u v i u s Pollio, an
architect w o r k i n g for the Emperor Augustus. V i t r u v i u s ' De Architectura
Libri Decerti (The Ten Books of A r c h i t e c t u r e ) , are a rare and w o n d e r f u l
marriage of Greek theory, w h i c h he profoundly respected, and his o w n
R o m a n practical application, c o n t a i n i n g ali the Emperor of Rome should
desire to k n o w concerning engineering and architecture. I n fact, V i t r u -
v i u s ' greatest readership was probably not i n his o w n Imperiai Rome, but
i n the Italy of the Renaissance, w h e n his w o r k was to become the bible,
the locus classicus, of architects and architectural theorists. He lists some
basic requirements t h a t the architect should fulfil, such as h a v i n g a
knowledge of history, of philosophy, of medicine, and of astronomy ; he
should also be instructed i n geometry and have a n understanding of
music. This last is explained away to any puzzled Roman reader i n suit-
ably prosaic terms concerning not only the acoustics of a theatre b u t ,
perhaps more acceptably, the correct ' t u n i n g ' of the stretched strings of
the ballista, or w a r - c a t a p u l t — R o m a n music indeed.
Nevertheless, V i t r u v i u s did introduce, if to the more receptive ears of a
later audience, some concepts of profound and far-reaching influence. N o t
least of these was the idea, of Greek o r i g i n , t h a t the h u m a n body itself was
the repository of the most i m p o r t a n t canon of proportion to be found.
These proportions, w h i c h are s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d commensurable ratios
symmetrically deployed, he records, before explaining i n a h i g h l y
significant passage h o w a m a n w i t h limbs outstretched describes b o t h a
circle and a square. (Effectively, m a n is b o r n of these t w o prime figures of
perfection, by the juxtaposition of their centres at his u m b i l i c u s , the p o i n t
of his birth.) M a n y d r a w i n g s , and indeed design philosophies, arose o u t of
this passage f r o m the hands and minds of Renaissance artists ; t w o of the
most beautiful drawings are included here, the n o w quite familiar image
f r o m L e o n a r d o (Fig. 5), and a second, by the i m p o r t a n t a r c h i t e c t u r a l
theorist Francesco d i Giorgio (Fig. 6).
 GEOMETRY, A SHORT HISTORY 11

O n l y one incommensurable p r o p o r t i o n is used or mentioned by

V i t r u v i u s — a n d that only i n passing—the diagonal of the square (Fig. 7 ) ,
whose i r r a t i o n a l i t y had so disturbed earlier Greek authors. V i t r u v i u s '
didactic approach embraces the fundamental principles of architecture
w h i c h he sees i n terms whose exact meaning we have a little difficulty
i n f u l l y c o m p r e h e n d i n g , or a c c u r a t e l y t r a n s l a t i n g : ordinatio, dispostilo,
eurythmia, symmetria, decor, distributio; that is, order, arrangement,
h a r m o n y , symmetry, p r o p r i e t y , and economy. M a n y of these are,
however, founded axiomatically, o n the proportional basis of beauty i n
design, and therefore were also of great relevance to arts and disciplines
other t h a n architecture. V i t r u v i u s ' 'order' is one giving due measure to
the members of a w o r k considered separately, w h i l s t his symmetry gives
balance to the proportions of the w h o l e , by using ratios based o n the size of
those members—the m o d u l u s , or u n i t of measurement. This, as we shall
see, is a n i m p o r t a n t design process, evident i n m a n y of the i n s t r u m e n t
outlines to be discussed later i n this study. E u r y t h m y , incidentally, is
a beauty of disposition ; according to one sixteenth-century V i t r u v i a n
c o m m e n t a t o r , Daniele Barbaro : 'This beautiful manner i n music as well
 GEOMETRY, A SHORT HISTORY
12

as i n architecture is called E u r y t h m i a ( h a r m o n y ) , mother of grace and

delight.' Before their redisco very i n the flfteenth century at St Gali, the Ten
Books had been lost for a long t i m e , a barren period i n o u r c u l t u r a l history
i n w h i c h E u r y t h m i a herself w i t h d r e w unseen into the darkness.
The eclipse of Greek culture and the collapse of Rome left a v a c u u m of
mathematical t h o u g h t i n the West. The fragments of Greek knowlege
were scattered i n the Eastern w o r l d , b u t w o u l d eventually be driven to
Europe to re-emerge and re-form i n t o a structure of powerful influence.
U n t i l t h e n , m a n y such fragments were preserved and explicated o n by a
h i g h l y organized A r a b culture. Indeed, the science of mathematics owes a
great deal to Arabie scholarship, as do our systems of economics, flnance,
commerce, and i n d u s t r y , not only for the i n v e n t i o n of the algebraic
approach, b u t also for our very number system and n o t a t i o n , w h i c h itself
is H i n d u - A r a b i a n i n origin.
The b r i g h t t o r c h of Greek learning was passed o n to medieval Europe by
the Arabs, b o t h directly and indirectly. The Elements of Euclid were first
translated i n t o L a t i n (c. 1120) f r o m an Arabie version obtained i n Spain by
t h a t brave scholar A t h e l h a r d , or Adelard, of B a t h , amongst whose other
Arabie translations was the Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum, a study of
the H i n d u numerals w r i t t e n i n about 825 by a l - K h o w a r i z m i . A more
oblique p a t h for Neoplatonic t h o u g h t carne t h r o u g h the m a n y w o r k s of A l
K i n d i (?c.873). Sometimes called 'the Philosopher of the Arabs', his f u l l ,
glorious, name was A b u Yusuf Ya Qub I b n Ishaq u l - K i n d i . He was one of
FIG. 7 the earliest translators and commentators of Aristotle, and was i n t u r n
 GEOMETRY, A SHORT HISTORY 13

translated into Latin by Gherard of C r e m o n a ( 1 1 1 4 - 8 7 ) . A l K i n d i wrote

5

o n a wide range of topics i n w h i c h mathematics can be seen as the

connecting t h e m e ; his Libellum sex quantitatwn was a p p a r e n t l y referred 6

to by Ghiberti, and was probably used by Leonardo, as well as by Daniele

Barbaro.
Never i n our c u l t u r a l history has the study of mathematics been held
i n lower esteem t h a n it was d u r i n g the Dark and Middle Ages. A t first
it seemed that practically its sole f u n c t i o n was to make astrological
forecasts, a n d , as a n understanding of astrology was a n essential part of
medieval 'medicine', i t was largely the physicians w h o received the most
complete mathematical education of their day. One of the earliest
universities offering this teaching was the t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y University of
B o l o g n a . Such mathematics was comparatively elementary, and no
doubt the basic geometry w h i c h was t a u g h t i n this atmosphere of dry
scholasticism achieved a metaphysical significance w h i c h was perhaps
rather nearer a superstitious n u m b e r - m y t h o l o g y t h a n a t r u l y Neoplatonic
philosophy. Neoplatonism did endure, however, and was tolerated, and
even embraced, by the C h u r c h , a l t h o u g h n a t u r a l l y w i t h certain theo-
logical reservations. A t the time of the miraculous t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y surge
7

of b u i l d i n g , Neoplatonic mathematical ideas were circulated, and were to

provide mystic food for the h u n g r y imaginations of the great Gothic
builders ; Chartres was an early centre of Neoplatonist l e a r n i n g , and her
most marvellous treasure, the Cathedral, the subject of m a n y interesting
p r o p o r t i o n a l analyses, shelters b e n e a t h h e r e x q u i s i t e s t o n e p o r t a l s , i n t h e
8

company of earthly kings and queens and heavenly saints, prophets, and
angels, the images of the Greek philosophers, i n c l u d i n g Pythagoras
himself, complete w i t h the bells of mathematical h a r m o n y . Europe was
a w a k e n i n g , and a w a k e n i n g to a distant Greek cali. F o l l o w i n g the first
contacts w i t h Classical works t h r o u g h the A r a b w o r l d carne further
exchange, n o w directly f r o m Greek sources, i n the manuscripts b r o u g h t
to Italy by scholars m i g r a t i n g f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , and f r o m T u r k i s h
tyranny.

Exactly h o w the m i g h t y explosion of intellectual and creative energy

that w e cali the Renaissance carne about is too broad a subject for any but
the most sketchy and economie of annotations i n o u r short history of
mathematics. W e can at least say that the i g n i t i n g spark for this explosion
was the rebirth of the power of h u m a n reason, and that m u c h of the tinder
w a s p r o v i d e d by the influx of ' n e w ' knowledge and the new possibilities
that it suggested. Commerce and industry, and the new class of free labour
w h i c h gave power to t h e m , liberated the artisan i m a g i n a t i o n and
5
Also one of the earliest translators of
engendered the independent incentive to improve w o r k i n g processes. Euclid.
These included an i n v e n t i o n of previously unimaginable p o w e r — t h a t of 6
R. Wittkower, Architectural Principles,
p r i n t i n g , a process w h i c h amplified and spread the t u r b u l e n t intellectual p. 138 n . 1 .
7
'The doctrines of the incarnation, the
forces w h i c h had led to its b i r t h . 9
resurrection of the flesh and the creation of the
M u c h of the renewed belief i n man's reason was ' b o r r o w e d f a i t h ' world i n time marked the boundary line be-
transferred f r o m the increasingly disputed tenets of Christian theology. tween the c h u r c h ' s dogmatic a n d Neoplaton-
ism; i n every other respect, theologians and
Divided, and falling, the C h u r c h was robbed by the Catholic-Protestant Neoplatonists drew so closely together that
schism of m u c h of the unquestioned confidence it h a d previously enjoyed, many of them are completely at one.' (Essay on
forcing the new intellectual energy to make a new approach towards 'Neoplatonism' by Adolf Harnack and John
Malcolm Mitchell, Encylopaedia Britannica,
man's position i n the universe. A n d logically, like a c h i l d , it placed m a n at 14th edn.)
its centre. The V i t r u v i a n figures (Figs. 5 a n d 6) examined earlier are thus 8
See L. Charpentier, The Mysteries of Chartres
not o n l y academic commentaries o n a n ancient text, b u t contemporary Cathedral (1972).
The first book traditionally accepted as
philosophical declarations of an u n m a t c h e d eloquence and economy
9

having been printed from movable type was

Mathematics was again hailed as a universal t r u t h , and a universal the Gutenberg Bible, issued at Mainz i n Ger-
language, i n w h i c h ali was w r i t t e n and t h r o u g h w h i c h ali m i g h t be many i n about 1454.
14 GEOMETRY, A SHORT HISTORY

understood and—such was the new confldence—be controlled. This

regard for the certitude of n u m b e r is reflected i n the words of Leonardo:

The u t m o s t joyance to the body is bestowed upon it by the iight of the sun ; the
utmost joyance to the spirit is bestowed upon i t by the c l a r i t y of m a t h e m a t i c a l
verity.

Mathematical verity was even reconcilable w i t h Mother C h u r c h , provid-

i n g its application was restricted to the nature of God's earth and did not
seek to reorder His heavens as Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo did. God
created the w o r l d according to rational mathematical principles (the
Creator is often depicted w i t h dividers i n hand) and He created m a n so that
he m i g h t understand a n d , as 'love is the daughter of understanding',
m i g h t love His creation. Thus could a scientifìc study of nature's
mathematically defined processes be sanctified as a n act of w o r s h i p , as
Galileo confirms :

Nor does God less a d m i r a b l y discover Himself to us i n Nature's actions, t h a n

i n the Scriptures' sacred dictions.

We have established, t h e n , t h a t the climate of the Renaissance was

mathematical. I t was mathematical, t h o u g h , not only i n its beliefs, b u t i n
the u t i l i t a r i a n aspects of its everyday affairs. W i t h i n this c o m m u n i t y , the
artist, if not a geometrical t h a u m a t u r g i s t , was at the very least a h i g h l y
accomplished practitioner of mathematics. He had to be : frequently he
was n o t o n l y painter and sculptor, but also architect, engineer, ballisticist,
and general designer. Indeed, for A l b e r t i , the first requirement of the
10

painter was knowledge of geometry.

The impact o n this society of the n e w l y translated Greek works was not
only one of content, b u t also one of f o r m . As we mentioned earlier, a w o r k
like Euclid's Elements—it was first printed i n Latin i n Venice i n 1 4 8 2 — h a d
a profound influence o n its readers, i n part because of its elegant and lucid
methodology. The r e b i r t h of the spirit of Greek learning cleared the w a y
for a flood of pedagogy ; the desire to communicate research and expound
philosophies of w o r k was given further s t i m u l a t i o n by the societies,
academies, and guilds w h i c h grouped themselves a r o u n d their subjects,
and further o p p o r t u n i t y for dissemination by the n e w wonders of
publication. As a result, 'instructionaP treatises abounded, and w i t h t h e m
carne a comparatively easy access to proportional knowledge. Appendix A
(page 171) gives a general list of early works dealing either directly w i t h
geometry and p r o p o r t i o n , or w i t h specific applications, such as architec-
t u r e , p a i n t i n g and sculpture, or music itself. A t least some of these were
sources of i n f o r m a t i o n available to the early instrument-maker or to any
guild society to w h i c h he m a y have belonged. Most of the treatises quoted
are I t a l i a n , b u t the belief i n the importance of n u m b e r as a universal
harmonic i n s t r u m e n t of creativity, w h i c h is their c o m m o n l i n k , was one
held i n other parts of Europe, i n c l u d i n g France, England, and S p a i n . 11

Indeed, we m a y leave this account of the mathematical climate i n w h i c h

the art of the luthier established itself w i t h a voice not f r o m Italy, b u t f r o m
the n o r t h — A l b r e c h t Durer w riting to his friend W i l i b a l d Pirkheimer
r

about the wider applications of his w o r k o n h u m a n proportions :

. . . as this book deals with nothing but proportion, I desired to keep ali references
to painting for the book which I intend to write upon that subject. For this
doctrine of p r o p o r t i o n s , if r i g h t l y understood, w i l l n o t be of use to painters alone,
1 0
della Pittura (1435).
11
R. Wittkower, Architectural Principles, but also to sculptors i n wood a n d stone, goldsmiths, metal-founders, and potters
pp. 119, 1 2 1 , 143, 144 ff. w h o fashion things o u t of clay, as w e l l as to ali those w h o desire to make figures.
4 Proportion

Palladio's remarks o n Beauty, w h i c h opened this study, give, as we have

said, a sound idea of w h a t proportion i n art implies ; they suggest a quest
for a ' n a t u r a i ' , reposeful beauty t h r o u g h the virtues of u n i t y and
simplicity. Sanctified by the faith of the artist, this quest becomes the
fulfìlment of a sacred, timeless pledge between forma and materia, a
homage to the originai creation of Order o u t of Chaos, and of H a r m o n y
maintained by the divine economy of N a t u r e .
But if the consequences of proportion m a y be seen as profound, its
application is usually simple. Simplicity is one of the prime directives
of proportionalità, and for ali their significance and effectiveness, the
geometries and proportional schemes used i n the following i n s t r u m e n t -
designs are, o n the w h o l e , accordingly easy to follow, the mathematics
involved being of an elementary nature.
Before embarking o n our o w n quest of p r o p o r t i o n , however, i t w o u l d be
as well at this stage to acquaint ourselves w i t h the principia of our subject,
the r u d i m e n t a r y laws and processes of proportion w h i c h we shall meet
d u r i n g the course of our specific analyses.

Types of Proportion
I n mathematics, proportion is order i n relationship ; it is Constant ratio
between three or more terms. This constancy can operate i n three distinct
modes of p r o p o r t i o n , w h i c h are called 'means'. These are the arithmetic,
the geometrie, and the harmonic means, and their origins are t r a d i t i o n -
ally held to be Pythagorean.
M e a n , of course, denotes the intermediate t e r m i n a series, or
progression, of three terms, and the above types of proportion describe the
different relationships, each of t h e m Constant, w h i c h the t w o outer, or
extreme, terms have w i t h their 'means'. To explain h o w each of t h e m
w o r k s , I shall need to employ some simple algebra.
The arithmetic proportion applies w h e n the second t e r m exceeds the
first by the same a m o u n t as the t h i r d exceeds the second (that is,
b — a = c — b). This is an additive progression, where the terms are
increased by the addition of a Constant factor, so t h a t the arithmetic m e a n ,
b, is quite simply an 'average' of the t w o extremes, a and c, or

a+ c

The geometrie proportion applies w h e n the first t e r m is to the second as

the second is to the t h i r d (that is,a:b = b:c). This is a multiplicative
progression, where the terms are increased by m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by a
Constant factor, so t h a t the geometrie m e a n w i l l be the square root of the
product of the t w o extremes, or

b = y/(ac).
 PROPORTION
16

Both these types of progression arise i n the designs analysed later i n this
study.
The t h i r d type of progression, the harmonic p r o p o r t i o n , was not i o u n u .
It is a good deal more complex t h a n the other t w o ; Plato t h o u g h t it
a gift from the blessed choir of the Muses to which mankind owes the boon of
the play of consonance and measure, with ali they contribute to rhythm and
melody. 12

It can be said to apply w h e n the first t e r m is to the t h i r d t e r m as the

difference between the first and second terms is to the difference between
the second and t h i r d terms. Algebraically t h a t is

a _ b—a
c c—b

w h i c h is to say the h a r m o n i c mean

2ac
b = .
a+ c

Expressed i n numbers, w i t h a Constant mean b of 4 , the respective

arithmetic, geometrie, and harmonic series w o u l d t h e n be

3:4:5
2:4:8
3:4:6.

Rational and Irrational Numbers

A progression, or series, t h e n , is a succession of three or more numbers

related by a Constant ratio. Ratio itself is the relationship between t w o
comparable magnitudes, such as 3 : 4 . We shall be encountering m a n y
ratios w h i c h can sometimes be expressed commensurably, that is, i n
whole numbers, or, according to the scheme or i n d i v i d u a i r a t i o , m a y
alternatively be expressed as a decimai r a t i o — a single a m o u n t , obtained
by dividing the larger t e r m by the smaller. I n decimal-ratio terms 3 : 4
w o u l d be, to the customary three places, 1.333.
) To be able thus to express a relationship by one t e r m is extremely
convenient, and i n this w a y the proportions of rectangles m a y be perfectly
described by one figure—a 1.333 rectangle, for example, w o u l d be one
whose sides were i n 3 : 4 proportion. Here, however, the decimai system
has introduced us to another puzzling aspect of numbers. Whereas we
' k n o w ' t h a t 1.333 is really the straightforward fraction of f or 1 ^ , i n
decimai terms it is irresolvable or incommensurable, the repeating or
r e c u r r i n g figure stretching i n t o a n i n f i n i t y of decimai places, coming
nearer and nearer to the ' t r u e ' value of 1 ^ , but ne ver being able to
achieve i t — a sort of mathematical tantalism. Where a decimai a m o u n t
not o n l y cannot be resolved, b u t also exhibits no repeating sequence of
numbers, i t is called an irrational n u m b e r , and is i n effect a special case
of incommensurability. A familiar example of the infinite i r r a t i o n a l i t y of
w h a t has to be a finite q u a n t i t y is TT, the f o r m u l a w h i c h haunts the
geometry of the circle, the sphere, and their relatives.

Golden Section, and the Fibonacci Numbers

A n o t h e r w e l l - k n o w n and inexhaustibly i n t r i g u i n g i r r a t i o n a l q u a n t i t y
1 2
Piato, Epinomis. w h i c h we shall be meeting is the Divina Proportione of Fra Pacioli's treatise,
 P R O P O R T I O N 17

the i r r a t i o n a l 0 , our so-called golden section, w h i c h measures 1.618 to

three places of decimai. As can be seen f r o m its f o r m u l a

1+V5

the i r r a t i o n a l ingredient i n 0 is J5, a p r o p o r t i o n a l factor ( 2 . 2 3 6 ) w h i c h

we shall also encounter separately.
The golden section, according to Kepler one of geometry's ' t w o great
treasures', has been the subject of endless research and study, a n object
both of passion a m o u n t i n g almost to deification, and of derision of the
fìercest anti-proportionist k i n d . Witness the lyrical w a x i n g of Pacioli's
descriptions of its effects—essentiale, singolare, ineffabile, mirabile, inno-
minabile, inextimabile, supremo, excellentissimo, incomprehensibile, dignis-
simo. Despite the fascination felt by writers such as Pacioli and Piero della
Francesca for the remarkable properties of 0, the golden section, it appears
to have been rather neglected by Renaissance architects, a l t h o u g h 13

a c c o r d i n g to the analysis of some p a i n t i n g s a n d a few of the i n s t r u m e n t -

14

designs w h i c h follow, it was utilized elsewhere.

For Pacioli, there was 'insufficient i n k and paper i n existence' to
describe ali the properties of his Divina Proportione ; here, however, we
must be less ambitious and list o n l y a few of its essential peculiarities. The
alternative name, golden ' c u t ' , most probably derives f r o m one unique
characteristic w h i c h accounts for the particular richness of resonance of
the 0 p r o p o r t i o n , and this is the section, or ' c u t ' , at the golden mean point,
b, of a line of any l e n g t h , ac (Fig. 8), so t h a t ab : bc as bc : ac. If distance ab is
quantified as 1 , t h e n bc w i l l be 1.618 and ac w i l l be 2.618 ( w h i c h
incidentally also equals 0 ) . The reciprocai of 0, t h a t is 1/0, is 0 . 6 1 8 ,
2

w h i c h w i t h the equations

0 = 1 + 1/0
02 = = 1 + 1 + 1/0

^ = 0 2
+ 0 = 1+20 = 2+0+1/0 = 75 + 2

etc., etc.,

demonstrates something of the endless proportional consonance encup-

sulated i n the value of 0, and also its fundamental affinity w i t h b o t h u n i t y
and If for example, a square or u n i t y is removed f r o m a 0 rectangle, it
5

leaves a rectangle measuring 0.618 x 1 , w h i c h i n its t u r a therefore has a

ratio of 0, 1.618. This relationship is exploited i n a grid complex i n the
p l a n n i n g of the Alletsee viola d'amore (English Violet) w h i c h is Ex. X V I I
below.
A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t property of the golden ratio seen i n a progression,
e.g. 0 . 6 1 8 , 1 , 1 . 6 1 8 , 2 . 6 1 8 , 4 . 2 3 6 , is t h a t it constitutes a s u m m a t i o n
series, w h i c h is to say that each vector is the s u m of the previous t w o
terms ; this, of course, is perfectly illustrated by Fig. 8, where ac is plainly
the s u m of ab and bc. FIG. 8
I n this w a y , the golden-section progression parallels the w e l l - k n o w n
s u m m a t i o n series c o m m o n l y k n o w n as the Fibonacci numbers, a
whole-number progression w h i c h starts 1 , 1 , 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 2 1 , 3 4 , 5 5 ,
89, 1 4 4 , and so f o r t h . This was first propounded by the m a t h e m a t i c i a n
Leonardo of Pisa, called F i b o n a c c i , i n connection w i t h the b r e e d i n g output
of rabbits, and set d o w n by h i m i n 1202 i n his Liber Abaci, w h i c h has R. Wittkower, Architects' Year Book, v
1 3

s u r v i v e d i n its s e c o n d v e r s i o n of 1 2 2 8 . (It w a s also t h r o u g h this book t h a t (London, 1953).

See C Bouleau, The Painter's Secret Geo-
1 4

the spread of H i n d u - A r a b i e numerals was encouraged.) metry ; also M . Holt, Mathematics in Art.
18 PROPORTION

I t m a y seem strange t h a t a breeding pattern should follow a Fibonacci,

o r w h o l e - n u m b e r , golden-section series, b u t i n fact very m a n y n a t u r a i
phenomena clearly follow geometrie progressions i n their g r o w t h or
activity patterns. The n u m b e r of 'nodes' i n the contra-spirals of a
pineapple or a fìr-cone, or the seeds i n sunflower heads or artichoke
hearts, ali coincide w i t h the above series, as does the distribution of leaves
a r o u n d the stems of plants ; this is the ' l a w ' of phyllotaxis. Similarly, the
exquisite geometries found i n m a n y sea shells reflect the n a t u r a i economy
of f o r m e n g e n d e r e d b y t h i s a n d o t h e r ' p l e a s i n g ' g e o m e t r i e p r o g r e s s i o n s .

The Root Proportionals

I n the geometrical discussions to follow, i r r a t i o n a l proportional systems

other t h a n (f> w i l l be encountered, as w e l l as s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d ratios of
whole numbers found i n the commensurable schemes. Specifìcally, these
are yj5 (to w h i c h w e have previously been introduced by its golden-
section cousin), and also the 7 3 r a t i o , w h i c h appears b u t once as a major
proportional element.
The root proportions, w h i c h each possess their o w n i n d i v i d u a i
characteristics, are best explained first i n diagrammatic f o r m . Fig. 9 shows
the simple geometrie generation of the root rectangles and
7 5 ) f r o m the originai u n i t y of the square. W e have already met the value
of yj2, as produced by the diagonal of a square, as V i t r u v i u s ' on ly
i r r a t i o n a l proportion (Fig. 7 ) ; by dropping this diagonal d o w n a n d
retaining a short side of 1 , o u r new rectangle w i l l have a ratio of y/2
(1.4142). The diagonal of this rectangle w i l l promote a J 3 (1.732)
rectangle, w h i c h i n t u r a promotes a (2) rectangle (the doublé square),
whose diagonal w i l l give us a y/5 (2.236) rectangle i n the same w a y , and
so o n .
I n Fig. 9 these ratios are expressed as rectangles, a n d as such,
7 4 , a n d 7 5 appear i n some of the grid schemes w h i c h occur i n the
i n s t r u m e n t s , w h i l e ^JS is also o c c a s i o n a l l y u t i l i z e d i n g o v e r n i n g series, o r
progressions.
A simple rule-and-compasses method of generating b o t h the <f> and 7 5
rectangles directly f r o m a square is given i n Lesson 2 of Hambidge's
Elements of Dynamic Symmetry. Hambidge explores the s t r u c t u r e a n d
15

characteristics of various f u n d a m e n t a l rectangles i n a w a y w h i c h ,

a l t h o u g h not totally relevant to the particular applications w h i c h here
follow, m a y g i v e the r e a d e r a fuller understanding of rectilinear propor-
t i o n t h a n I have r o o m to give.

The Vesica Piscis

A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t geometrical device, one w h i c h has consistently

1 5
Jay Hambidge, The Elements of Dynamic
Symmetry (Yale University Press, 1948 edn.).
appeared i n the analysed designs, is the figure c o m m o n l y called the Vesica
Piscis, the vessel o r bladder of a fish. I t is formed (Fig. 10) by d r a w i n g ,
w i t h compasses of a fixed radius, first one circle, centre A , t h e n a second of
the same radius, centre B, o n the circumference of circle o n e , whose
centre, A , i t w i l l intersect. The t w o circles cross at points V a n d P, and i t is
this described shape w h i c h has earned the figure its name. The eye of the
fish is situated at point C, the eye of the 7 3 rectangle DEFG w h i c h
contains the vesica. The w h o l e - n u m b e r and 7 3 resonances of this figure
are discussed f u r t h e r i n the design of Ex. XXX. VBPA is a r h o m b u s of t w o
 PROPORTION 19

F I G . 1 0 . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e vesica
piscis

equilateral triangles ; from these can be derived a hexagon, a n d , following

a method published by Dùrer i n his Course in the Art of Measurement with
Compasses and Rider, 16
by the addition of a further circle, a pentagon (see
Fig. 11). This was a quick m e t h o d for d r a w i n g a pentagon, w h i c h was also
included i n the Geometria deutsch ( c . 1 4 8 4 ) ; i t is, however, n o t totally
accurate, i n that the t w o base angles of the pentagon come o u t at about
one-third of a degree too obtuse. For m a n y practical purposes, of course,
this w o u l d be quite adequate, as w o u l d the m y r i a d other constructions
w h i c h c a n be generated from the vesica mother-figure. I n fact, f r o m this
i n i t i a l molecular collision of t w o equal circles, the equilateral triangle, the
square, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, decagon, dodecagon, as w e l l as the
7 3 a n d golden-section rectangles, can ali be extracted.
It is hardly surprising, t h e n , t h a t a device so simple to d r a w , b u t h a v i n g
such profound potentiality, should have been adopted as a sacred w o m b
of geometrical generation by the ancient builders of b o t h Eastern a n d
Western (particularly Gothic) religious a r c h i t e c t u r e . I n fact, '. . . i t
17

constituted the great and e n d u r i n g secret of o u r ancient b r e t h r e n ' . The 18

vesica is also to be found as the geometrical basis of the mandala, w h i c h is

so m u c h a part of the iconography of Christian A r t (Fig. 12 shows the
vesica throne of Christ in Majesty f r o m the Psalter of Westminster Abbey,
c i 2 0 0 ) . I n his City of Revelation John Micheli gives the m e a n i n g of its
Greek name, 6 ayios ràn> àyitov, as 'The Holiest of Holies', and w r i t e s :

A l t h o u g h the vesica was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n t i a l at the beginning of Christianity,

as i t is at ali such periods i n h i s t o r y , i t has been respected f r o m the earlist times as
a symbol of the sacred m a r r i a g e , w i t h the s p i r i t u a l w o r l d of essences as t h e circle F I G . 1 1 . Practical m e t h o d for d r a w i n g a
o n t h e r i g h t penetrating t h e w o r l d of m a t e r i a l p h e n o m e n a o n t h e left. pentagon

W h e n used i n the design of musical instruments, however, i t is more

usually not the mandala f o r m of the vesica itself w h i c h is signifìcant, b u t
the 'vesica relationship', as it were, of the parent circles. Most c o m m o n l y
these w i l l coincide w i t h the a n c h o r i n g lower-bout corner arcs of a n
outline whose relationship, left and r i g h t sides, is thus geometrically
defìned and secured i n its symmetry, w h i l e i n other schemes the vesica
arrangement of circles is used only as a n 'invisible' p l a n n i n g agent. I n
1 6
Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel
practically ali cases, however, the vesica radius proves to be proportion- und Richtscheyt, in Linien, Ebnen und ganzen
ally signifìcant to the scheme i n w h i c h i t features. Corporen (Nuremberg, 1525, 1533, 1 5 3 8 ;
Latin translation: Paris, 1532 and Arnheim,
1605).
The Ionie Volute in the Geometry of the Head 1 7
Keith Critchlow, Glastonbury. A Study in
Patterns (RILKO, 1970); John Micheli, The
The heads of the instruments w h i c h follow, a l t h o u g h ali serving the same View Over Atlantis (Abacus, 1975); T. C
Stewart, The City as an Image of Man.
practical, mechanical, f u n c t i o n , display a n enormous variation i n 18
Dr Oliver i n The Canon, ed. W . Stirling
f o r m — a diversity w h i c h echoes the m u l t i f o r m i t y of the body outlines. (1974).
20 PROPORTION

FIG. 12. I l l u m i n a t i o n : Christ in Majesty,

f r o m Psalter of Westminster Abbey,
c i 2 0 0 . (British Library)

They m a y be straightforward, like the simple, straight-sided, trapezoidal,

open frame for pegs, found o n m a n y lutes ; the leaf-shaped, rear-mounted
peg-box of the lira ; the fiat, fanned-out peg-board of the guitars ; or they
m a y be the more sculptured affairs found o n the viols, the violins, and the
few other instruments w h i c h have lateral pegs m o u n t e d i n a peg-box of
flowing curves, t e r m i n a t i n g i n either a carved head or a volute.
This latter type of head, w h e t h e r it terminates i n a carved head ( h u m a n
or a n i m a i ) or a scroll, affords the l u t h i e r m o r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for aesthetic
expression freed of acoustic strictures t h a n almost any other part of the
i n s t r u m e n t . I t is i n the conception and execution of the 'head' t h a t we not
only observe the c o n t i n u a t i o n of the maker's skills seen elsewhere i n
the i n s t r u m e n t , b u t , more p a r t i c u l a r l y , gain a g r e a t e r insight into his
personality and aesthetic vision. The same can be said of the design and
 PROPORTION 21

c u t t i n g of the sound-holes. Even i n the case of scroll-heads, where a

particular volute f o r m is the established model, as i n the case of ali b u t
o n e of the scroll-heads covered by this study, there is a seemingly infinite
19

capacity for its aesthetic interpretation.

The geometrie archetype, w h i c h forms the standard model for the scroll
spirals f o u n d i n the heads of the m a j o r i t y of members of the v i o l i n family,
2 0

is the volute of the Ionie order of classical architecture. I n practice, only

the centre t w o t u r n s of the t w o and three-quarter turns of the classic
volute are most usually adopted by the l u t h i e r , w h o could have originally
acquired the necessary d r a w i n g knowledge either f r o m architects,
masons, or carpenters, or directly f r o m the editions of V i t r u v i u s , or writers
and commentators after V i t r u v i u s .
For those w i s h i n g to follow its geometry, I reproduce here the text
(below) a n d diagram (Fig. 13) given by Joseph G w i l t , Encyclopedia of
Architecture (London, 1 8 9 4 ) , describing the construction of the Ionie
volute according to V i t r u v i u s :

. . . the volute, the centre of whose eye, as it is called, is found by the intersection of
an horizontal line from E, the bottom of the echinus, with a vertical from D, the
e x t r e m i t y of the c y m a reversa. On the p o i n t of intersection, w i t h a radius equal to
one part, describe a circle. Its vertical diameter is called the cathetus, and forms
the diagonal of a square, whose sides are to be bisected, and through the points of
bisection the axes 1 , 3 and 2, 4 are to be drawn, each being divided i n t o 6 equal
parts. The points thus found will serve for drawing the exterior part of the volute.
Thus, placing the point of the compasses i n the point 1 , w i t h the radius 1D, 1 9
Ex. I V , tenor viol by Henry Jaye (1667).
the quadrant DA is descrìbed. With the radius 2 A another quadrant m a y be 2 0
Certain makers of the Brescian school,
described, a n d so on. S i m i l a r l y , t h e subdivisions below t h e points used for the notably Maggini, the Venetian, Sanctus Sera-
phim, and some later Saxon copyists occasion-
outer lines of the volute serve for the inner lines. The total height of the volute is ally made scrolis hearing half-turns more or
16 parts of a module, whereof 9 are above the horizontal from E, and 7 below it. less than the accepted 'standard' pattern.
PROPORTION

Systems of Measurement

I n discussing the mathematics of instrument-designs spanning a period

of over three centuries, and seven or eight European countries, we are
fortunate i n being able to unite our fìndings by one system of measure-
ment served by one method of proportional calculation—the metric
system and the decimai ratio. Neither of these, however, was employed by
the early designers whose w o r k we are e x a m i n i n g . For t h e m the whole
number was an i m p o r t a n t concept and one w h i c h was retained, i n
dealing w i t h quantities less t h a n u n i t y , by the use of fractions, w h i c h are
themselves the expressions of w h o l e - n u m b e r ratios of u n i t y — t h i s made
calculation a rather complex affair. But w h e n we come to consider the
units of m e a s u r e m e n t s w h i c h were used, we are faced w i t h even f u r t h e r
complications.
I n Italy alone, practically each major t o w n had its o w n system of
measurements, set o u t i n a public place for the consultation of the different
trades a n d occupations, w h i c h , often i n the same t o w n , w o u l d be using
individuai specialized units w h i c h differed according to their w o r k , so that
a c l o t h merchant could be c u t t i n g to a different braccio f r o m his neighbour,
a mason or carpenter. Moreover, m a n y of these craftsmen were n o t
necessarily native to their t o w n , or even c o u n t r y , of w o r k , and w i t h the
possible existence of specifìc guild traditions of measurement n o w lost to
us, a k n o w n origin of a n i n s t r u m e n t is no guarantee of the application of a
particular standard of measurement i n its m a n u f a c t u r e — a state of affairs
confìrmed by more t h a n one analysis.
The w h o l e question of units of measurement is a field w h i c h is
particularly poorly served by w r i t t e n study. Such little knowledge as can
be gleaned is often confusing and contradictory, w h i l e even the direct
measurement of the surviving public 'standards' has proven a n unsatis-
factory source of i n f o r m a t i o n . Therefore, as above ali we are seeking by
this study to establish the conscious use of geometrical and proportional
systems by early luthiers, and as, by defìnition, these considerations are
independent of specifìc units of measurement, particular systems are only
referred to w h e n their use has seemed obvious, directly relevant to a
proportional u n i t , or sufficiently unexpected to have signiflcance. This
was t h o u g h t to be the safest course, particularly as i n most cases only a
certain proportion of vectors appear to correspond to a suggested u n i t . (It
w o u l d appear, however, t h a t the Brunswick system, the Brunswick i n c h ,
w h i c h can be transcribed as 2 3 . 7 8 m m , was used by very m a n y makers,
not only those w o r k i n g i n the n o r t h . I t can be found directly governing
overall measurements i n units of commensurability, as i n Ex. I I I , a
Venetian i n s t r u m e n t , or merely as an intangible resonance o c c u r r i n g i n
an instrument's proportional scheme.)
This is perhaps too contentious a question about w h i c h to make definite
statements, even i n Ex. I l i , where B r u n s w i c k inches seem clearly
present—their apparent d o m i n a t i o n could be accounted for simply by
their coincidence w i t h a pervading u n i t of commensurability. As levels of
proof v a r y so considerably between individuals, i t is probably best left to
the reader to make his o w n decisions o n the matter of originai units of
measurement a n d , if he so wishes, to ignore any conclusions suggested i n
the text regarding such systems.
5 The instruments

The next chapter comprises the i n s t r u m e n t examples themselves, w h i c h

are discusseci individually w i t h m a i n d r a w i n g or piate, text, a n d
supportive figures. They are preceded here, however, by a few paragraphs
i n explanation of d r a w i n g a n d analysis procedure, categorization, a n d
criteria governing their selection.

The Drawings (Plates I-XXXI)

Faced w i t h the problem of recording i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m three-dimensional
objects for two-dimensional geometrical analysis, the i n i t i a l choice of
m e d i u m lay between the use of photographic or d r a w i n g techniques. I t
was a n easy choice, made easier by l o n g f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h the d r a w i n g
process, a n d a n almost equally long personal record of photographic
incompetence. B u t the real reason, apart f r o m this quite valid practical
one of controlied a n d relaxed e x a m i n a t i o n , is the element of distortion
w h i c h is introduced by a camera recording a n image f r o m a single
viewpoint at v a r y i n g distance f r o m the different parts of the i n s t r u m e n t .
Added to this, there are very special problems to be overcome i n
photographing the r o u n d e d edges a n d modelled plates of instruments
often covered by shiny v a r n i s h , as w e l l as the practically insurmountable
difficulty of c o n t r o l l i n g conditions of light and e n v i r o n m e n t ' i n the fìeld',
i n such places as m u s e u m w o r k r o o m s . By using d r a w i n g , however, I have
been able to m a i n t a i n a Constant relationship of v i e w p o i n t to each part o f
the i n s t r u m e n t , whether it be large or small, and have been able to control
aspects of light and reflection to express the f o r m and modelling of three
dimensions w i t h i n a rigidly accurate t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l o u t l i n e . I n this
w a y , t o o , the diversity of the conditions of light (and c o m f o r t ! ) under
w h i c h these drawings were made has been minimized by adopting fairly
standard light sources a n d the w h i t e void of the paper as background.
D r a w i n g was necessarily restricted to parts of the i n s t r u m e n t that were
analysable a n d likely to yield i n f o r m a t i o n , w h i c h meant p r i m a r i l y body
outlines and head-plan and/or elevation. Where, for instance, a peg-box
was of extremely s h a l l o w curve, w h i c h w o u l d probably n o t be propor-
tionally planned by radius, and exceptionally difficult to analyse if it were,
its elevation has been omitted f r o m the m a i n d r a w i n g . I n the case of
instruments h a v i n g a w a l l of ribs separating table f r o m back, r i b depth (a
measurement constantly v a r y i n g w i t h i n each example, i n a v i o l i n usually
presenting the slightest of tapers t o w a r d the top block) w o u l d be recorded
for later reference, b u t was never f o u n d to have a n y proportional
significance. The measurement of the v a u l t type of sound-box, f o u n d i n
members and relatives of the lute f a m i l y , is discussed i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to
the lute family section.
The method of measurement fìnally adopted was a n established one,
consisting of m a k i n g card-patterns covering the outlines (cut away i n the
centre, i n the case of modelled or arched plates, to avoid distortion) o n to
T H E I N S T R U M E N T S

w h i c h the contours were carefully d r a w n , symmetrical accuracy being

m a i n t a i n e d by l i n k i n g the patterns. A ' t r a c i n g ' m e t h o d , linked w i t h the
m a i n p a t t e r n , was used to record the sound-holes i n an arched piate, their
correct orientation being confirmed, as were ali body and head outlines,
by exhaustive m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l , perpendicular calliper checks. Accuracy
was o f the essence, there being no p o i n t i n proceeding w i t h a n a l y s i s o f a
faulty d r a w i n g .
Musical instruments are another reflection, a m o n g h u m a n artefacts, of
the deep-seated c r a v i n g of m a n to c r e a t e s y m m e t r i e s analogous to his
o w n . Symmetry brings w i t h i t its o w n balance and h a r m o n y w h i c h ,
probably, we subconsciously recognize as being present i n our o w n
image, and therefore posing no visual disturbance or threat. N o t ali
instruments, for practical reasons, can be symmetrical, b u t , wherever
possible, symmetry dominates, even to the adoption, i n m a n y viols,
violins, and like instruments, of the two-piece back, where a piece of
timber w i t h strong horizontal g r a i n c o n f i g u r a t i o n , or 'flames', is split,
t u r n e d inside o u t , and joined to present a perfect (or near-perfect)
symmetry of pattern flaring outwards f r o m the centrai seam.
The axial demarcation of a symmetrical design becomes i n this w a y a
p o w e r f u l yet invisible agent, a line of duality as inscrutable as a m i r r o r , a
line denoting a piane, i n w h i c h is seated the very spirit of the i n s t r u m e n t ,
just as for Leonardo the h u m a n soul was situated w i t h i n the axial piane of
symmetry of the b r a i n .
This particular design idiosyncracy proved to be extremely convenient
i n the compilation of the d r a w i n g s , the vertical axis of symmetry
suggesting itself as a n ideal division i n the graphic presentation of the
duality of the i n s t r u m e n t , as plastic reality and as geometrie design.
Where feasible, instruments are s h o w n i n the left-hand side of the m a i n
plates, w i t h the customary fittings of bridge and tailpiece, any chin-rests
being removed. Peg-shafts are indicated, b u t as o r i g i n a i pegs rarely
survive, and as their ' c y l i n d r i c a l ' position is, by f u n c t i o n , not fixed, the
visually distracting peg-heads are not. Strings are also not d r a w n i n (even
where their originai number and disposition remains), o w i n g to the danger
of visual confusion i n a d r a w i n g where such linear forms perform a more
i m p o r t a n t geometrical f u n c t i o n . This, perhaps, w i l l explain the physical
impossibility, apparent i n the d r a w i n g s , of tables seemingly devoid of
sound-boxes (the sound-holes are left w h i t e , rather t h a n shadowed, for
greater clarity of form) fìrmly fìxed to necks, and hearing bridges and
tailpieces secured ' i n suspension' w i t h o u t the agency of strings.
T h r o u g h o u t the m a k i n g of the d r a w i n g s , the major criterion was
t h a t of visual clarity. A n unforeseen pitfall, b u t one once identifìed soon
rectifìed, was the remarkable degree to w h i c h h u m i d i t y can affect the
dimensions of paper, a n d therefore of recorded image.
The inevitable restrictions of format size m a y have caused s o m e
disorientation of scale i n the m a i n drawings (the plates), the images
presented depicting instruments of overall lengths v a r y i n g f r o m approxi-
mately 5 0 0 m m to nearly 1 3 0 0 m m . To provide a point of scale
reference, a small, square-centimetre-based scale key is included i n each
piate, a n d is s h o w n here actual size i n Fig. 14.
 THE INSTRUMENTS

The Analyses

N o t surprisingly, the practical analysis of the i n s t r u m e n t designs soon

suggested the most suitable o r d e r and method for so doing a n d , a l t h o u g h a
universal approach to proportioning is certainly not attributable to the
m a n y luthiers whose w o r k is here discussed, a universal investigative
procedure did prove to be the most effective.
H a v i n g recorded the necessary outlines and checking measurements
(and h a v i n g rendered the left-hand side of the d r a w i n g ) , analysis was
begun by first e x a m i n i n g the overall measurements—body l e n g t h , string
l e n g t h , upper-, middle-, and lower-bout w i d t h s , e t c — f o r proportional
relationship; this w o u l d also entail estimating major ratios like the
body-containing rectangle(s), and checking for possible g r i d - p l a n n i n g .
Next, the body outline itself was broken d o w n i n t o its constituent
single-radius arcs. The centres of these arcs were located by a simple
device, made by engraving a series of concentric circles o n a clear perspex
sheet of suitable size, and d r i l l i n g a small hole at their centre ; this was
laid against the contour i n question and moved u n t i l the t w o curves
coincided; the centre was t h e n marked. I n this m a n n e r , any m u l t i -
centred curve, or pseudo-ellipse, can be simply resolved i n t o its com-
ponent arcs. These separate v e c t o r s w ould be r e c o r d e d , revealing any
7

geometrical design processes such as grids, p l a n n i n g arcs or circles,

vesicas, e t c , w h i l e their arithmetical values, u p o n generation, m i g h t
disclose the presence of a proportional scheme.
The w h o l e procedure is a slow but not unexciting one, particularly
w h e n vectors derived by measurement f r o m an instrument's geometry
are arithmetically confirmed by calculation f r o m its emerging system of
proportion. T h r o u g h o u t the analyses, a general m a r g i n of error of 0.5 m m
was employed, a l t h o u g h where larger specimens exhibited measurements
l y i n g outside this tolerance, yet seemingly related by obvious i n t e n t i o n to
an overall scheme of proportions, they were so declared, together w i t h the
difference of their deviation.
I n this w a y , the design make-up of each of thirty-three examples
(thirty-one instruments and t w o instrument-drawings) was broken d o w n
into its component geometrical and proportional processes. To facilitate a
general view of this necessarily lengthy exposition, a s u m m a r y chart of
the combined analyses follows the instruments themselves; i t is fully
explained t h e n , b u t makes use of certain symbols to represent propor-
tional and geometrical flndings, a n d , as these are included as a n
additional s u m m a r y i n the individuai i n s t r u m e n t texts, it w o u l d be as well
to give explanation of t h e m here.
I n order, they follow, more or less, the investigative procedure outlined
above. There are thirteen symbols, w h i c h w i l l fall into four m a i n
categories :

(i) signifìcant linear and rectilinear ratios ;

(ii) arc-based geometries ;

(iii) p r o p o r t i o n a l s y s t e m s :
(a) r a t i o n a l ;
(b) i r r a t i o n a l ;

(iv) spirai geometry of head.

THE INSTRUMENTS

These are:

(i) v vertical linear r a t i o ,

i ] horizontal linear r a t i o ,

signifìcant c o n t a i n i n g rectangle,

j grid or p l a n n i n g rectangle ;

(ii) 'great circle' geometry,

vesica piscis,

^\ p l a n n i n g arcs ;

(iii) {a) commensurable proportions ;

(b) 0 golden-section proportions,

v/5 root-fìve proportions,

/3
> root-three proportions ; 2 1

(iv) (S~"c) Ionie volute,

pseudo-spiral. 21

The use of dotted parentheses a r o u n d a symbol indicates t h a t , a l t h o u g h

present, the particular geometrical or proportional device is not of major
signifìcance w i t h i n the scheme.

Categorization

The instruments, w h i c h technically speaking are ali chordophones, are

first simply organized into t w o groups—bowed and plucked—then
subdivided into families following a generally accepted organological
pecking order, t h a t is :

Bowed
(i) Viols (Exx. I - V I )
(ii) Liras da Braccio (Exx. V I I - I X )
(iii) Violins (Viola, Violoncello) (Exx. X - X V )
(iv) Violas d ' A m o r e (Exx. X V I - X V I I )
(v) Kits or Pochettes (Exx. X V I I I - X I X )

Plucked
(vi) Lutes ( E x x . X X - X X V )
(vii) Mandore and Mandolines (Exx. X X V I - X X V I I I )
(viii) Citterns ( E x x . X X I X - X X X )
(ix) Guitars (Exx. X X X I - X X X I I I )

The instruments are arranged chronologically w i t h i n each section.

A l t h o u g h the subtitle claims this to be a study of bowed and plucked
 THE INSTRUMENTS 27

string instruments, the reader m a y have noticed the absence of one or t w o

stringed-instrument types covered by the above headings. This is because
such instruments either were considered too difficult to analyse (as i n
the case of the h a r p , w h i c h , like the keyboard instruments and (dare I
include?) the h u r d y - g u r d y , belongs to different traditions of design and
manufacture from the one I hope to explore), or were just of too formidable
a scale, or too delicate construction, for safe and/or practical h a n d l i n g and
d r a w i n g ( i n w h i c h category I have had to place the violone, double-bass,
and, regrettably, the b a r y t o n ) , or they were musicological variants of no
great design significance or body-outline variance (e.g. the colascione), or
quite simply are instruments w h i c h survive i n only one example, w h i c h
itself m a y not be typical (such as the o r p h a r i o n and vihuela). Frequently
far more t h a n just one of these reservations have applied to an i n d i v i d u a i
category, i n addition to a further problem w h i c h , of course, has affected
m y selection of examples i n ali categories : that of accessibility.

Selection of Examples

For the l u t h i e r , the designing of a musical i n s t r u m e n t is only p a r t , t h o u g h

undeniably a v i t a l part, of the complex task of actually producing enough
instruments to keep himself. A design is c o n c e i v e d and d r a w n , and
w o r k i n g patterns and moulds are made f r o m i t , to produce, if the design is
successful, numerous versions, each of w h i c h w i l l have, i n addition to the
originai matter of the archetypal design, an i n d i v i d u a i spirit of its o w n ,
created by the spontaneous and unique fusion of t w o variables: the
particular characteristics of the material and the particular mood of
the maker. Depending o n the w o r k i n g methods and the nature of the
i n d i v i d u a i maker, these v a r i a b l e s can evolve considerably a w a y f r o m the
originai design, leading to the f o r m a t i o n of ' n e w ' archetypes, or they can
r e m a i n fairly static, u n t i l the model itself is superseded in toto.
W h e t h e r or n o t a d e s i g n is given o p p o r t u n i t y to e v o l v e , our chief
concern must be w i t h the luthier's conceptual design-thinking, and that is
going to be at its purest, or most evident, i n an i n s t r u m e n t nearer to the
'archetype'—a point confìrmed by the analysis of m a n y of the i n s t r u -
ments w h i c h follow.
The selection of suitable examples has therefore been influenced by the
following considerations :

(i) to cover as wide a fìeld of the multifarious 'classic' body outlines as

possible ;
(ii) to study the earliest suitable f o r m of each type or v a r i a n t , i n a n
approach to its archetype;
(iii) to cover as wide a geographical spread as permitted by (i) and (ii),
Very few European stringed instruments
hearing i n m i n d t h a t m a n y instruments had either their origins or best
2 2

survive from before the date of our earliest

manufacture i n I t a l y , w h i c h is consequently well represented ; examples—c. 1550 (Exx. I and XXI)—although
(iv) to offer as wide a chronological spread as (ii) allowed w i t h i n the a design for a lute (c.1460) (Ex. XX) does. From
the sixteenth century to the end of the eigh-
chosen period ; 2 2
teenth (our last examples are from the 1750s
(v) to include the w o r k of renowned and influential luthiers, especially and '60s), the working/thinking processes of
the luthier probably did not alter a great deal.
where they are associated w i t h a particular f o r m or v a r i a n t ; The enormous social and technological turbu-
(vi) to represent as m a n y different piteh-size members w i t h i n each lence which occurred at the end of this period,
' f a m i l y ' of instruments as possible ; however, could be said to mark the end of a
certain tradition of lutherie, and the beginning
(vii) to select only examples i n o r i g i n a i constructional c o n d i t i o n , of a familiar division into either 'studio-' or
a l t h o u g h , where necessity dictates, to include those w i t h k n o w n m i n o r factory-based manufacture, each governed by
its own methodology.
alteration to be identified and explained i n the text.
6 Analysis of instrument examples
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 31

VIOLS

It is generally accepted that the viol f a m i l y , as we k n o w i t , first appeared

o n the musical scene i n the latter half of the fifteenth century, a n d ,
together w i t h its plucked counterparts, the lutes, thereafter maintained a
considerable influence o n musical t h o u g h t over a n extensive period of
time. Indeed, f r o m their first i n t r o d u c t i o n , viols, i n one f o r m or another,
have been actively m a k i n g music—as viols, u n t i l about the t h i r d quarter
of the eighteenth century, a n d , if y o u accept the double-bass w i t h i n the
viol genealogy (a view w h i c h has been challenged), then the instrument's
record of service could be said to be u n b r o k e n .
Early examples come mostly f r o m I t a l y , and the three I t a l i a n viols
w h i c h are discussed i n detail below immediately illustrate the surprising
variety of shape and f o r m that marked the early development of the
i n s t r u m e n t , a characteristic w h i c h no doubt led to Gerald Hayes's
oft-quoted description of the viol as 'a very Proteus among i n s t r u -
ments'. 23

Ex. I
Figs. 1 5 - 1 8 , PI. I
VIOL, BASS. ITALY, B R E S C I A , C.1550

PELEGRINO DI ZANETTO

MUSÉE DU CONSERVATOIRE ROYAL DE MUSIOUE, BRUSSELS

Acc. N o . : not k n o w n

The first of the six viols examined is a bass, of the cornerless, guitar-
shaped, fiedel f o r m w i t h sloping shoulders and alla gobba back (literally
' h u n c h b a c k ' , referring to the i n w a r d slope of the upper p o r t i o n of the
back). Despite this misleading description of 'sloping shoulders' and
' h u n c h b a c k ' , the instrument is of handsome aspect, and n o w forms part
of the extensive collection of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique i n F I G . 1 5 . P h o t o g r a p h of label, n o w
Brussels. I t was made i n Brescia by Pelegrino di Zanetto da Michelis
# missing, from Zanetto bass viol (Ex. I)
( 1 5 2 0 - ?) and probably dates f r o m a r o u n d 15 50 ; the originai label, sadly,
has been lost, a l t h o u g h a photograph of it does survive, w h i c h I have been
able to reproduce here (Fig. 15).
Its geometry, an analysis of w h i c h follows, reveals commensurable
vectors governing the are radii of the body outline, the string l e n g t h , and
b r i d g e and n u t positions. T h e value of the c o m m o n factor, the u n i t w, is
calculated as 32.75 m m , a n a m o u n t w h i c h does not appear to c o n f o r m ,
i n either whole or simple p a r t , to any likely system of measurement
then used. This could be due either to a straightforward i r r a t i o n a l i t y
of the designer, or to the enlargement of a previously designed tenor or 2 3
This delightful mythological analogy
treble v i o l , the relative p i t c h , or the string l e n g t h , itself generating the seems first to have been applied to a keyboard
instrument offering plucked string, organ, and
u n i t of commensurable proportion used i n the rest of the instrument's
regal timbres listed in the inventory (1664) of
design. the collection of Manfredo Settala, where it is
described, 'ne proteus inter instrumenta desit'.
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
32

The overall proportions are examined i n Fig. 16. AH the brackets are
multiples of the basic u n i t u. The string length AC is 655 m m or 2 0 u ;
divided i n half (at the octave), i t coincides w i t h the top of the body, B, thus
a l l o w i n g an octave fret to be tied a r o u n d the finger-board, w h i c h at this
point leaves the support of the neck. BD, the body l e n g t h , is i n fact a Utile
(3.5 m m ) over 1 9 U , and the distance f r o m bridge-line, C, to t a i l , D, is
24

therefore 1 9 u - 1 0 u , or 9u (295 m m ) . The widths of upper and lower

bouts are also commensurable: I T measures 262 m m (8u), w h i l e QQ' is
327.5 m m ( l O u ) ; they are therefore i n 4 : 5 ratio.
No proportional significance was demonstrated i n either the positioning
of the fold i n the instrument's back, or the depth (slightly v a r y i n g ) of the
instrument's r i b s . The analysis of the body outline can be seen i n Fig. 17.
25

For the sake of c l a r i t y , o n l y the r i g h t side of the symmetrical pian is

discussed ; this w i l l be the usuai procedure for ali the f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u m e n t
analyses, and renders the dissection of the m a i n i n s t r u m e n t - d r a w i n g ,
t h r o u g h the small textual fìgures, more comprehensible.
The outline curves are initiated i n Fig. 17 by are G ' H ' , centred at I ' ,
radius measured as 33 m m . I t can be assumed t h a t this must be the
c o m m o n u n i t u ( 3 2 . 7 5 m m ) , w h i c h here makes its only appearance as a
single factor. This small are is t h e n joined by straight line H ' J ' to the m a i n
upper-bout are J'L' whose centre, K, lies o n the centre line (BD). I t is here
that the true beauty of economy of the outline starts to become apparent,
for the radius of this are, 1 3 1 m m or 4 u , is c o m m o n to upper, middle, and
lower bouts. Thus the upper bouts are joined by the short straight line
L ' M ' to middle-bout are M ' O ' , centre N ' , whose radius, as we have
already mentioned, is 4 u , or 1 3 1 m m . The counter-curve of the lower
bouts is directly connected to the are of the middle bouts at 0 ' , are O'Q'
being centred at P , o n the horizontal Q Q ' , the level of greatest w i d t h
indicated i n Fig. 16. The radius of this are is 196.5 m m , or 6u. The curve is
continued by are Q'JR', centre P ' (the counterpart of P , P P ' thus being 2u
i n length) and of the c o m m o n bout-arc radius, 1 3 1 m m (4u). The lower
bouts are completed by are J R ' D , centre C o n the centre line, the bridge
26

position. The radius, 295 m m , is equal to 9 u , and therefore gives a

lower-bout arc-radius ratio sequence of 6 : 4 : 9 .
The dashed circle, whose centre o n the centre line is at F, passes
t h r o u g h the four centrings of the /-holes. Its radius, 98 m m , equals 3u.
(3 x 3 2 . 7 5 m m actually equals 9 8 . 2 5 m m . I n practice, however,
FIG. 16
a n y t h i n g less t h a n 0.5 m m is scarcely measurable; any difference of
0.5 m m or less w i l l therefore be regarded as acceptable m a r g i n of
error.)

Although much in excess of the 0.5 m m

2 4
The arcs employed i n the curves of the peg-box are, perhaps, not quite
margin of error, or difference, which will as carefully considered. The head is of slightly unexpected design—
generaily be adhered to i n this study, the a l t h o u g h t h o r o u g h l y Brescian i n character. I t lacks a heel, and the
difference here was proportionally small
enough (0.56 per cent) to mention the' I9u abutment of head and n e c k is consequently somewhat weak, belying the
division as the most likely rationalization of otherwise decisive vigour and clear design of the head itself. The scroll is
body length, particularly in view of the rest of
very w e l l conceived, b u t deeply cut—so deep, i n fact, that its resolution
the instrument's proportional scheme.
2 5
A s w e h a v e said, this last seems to be a w i t h the fiat c h e e k of the peg-box relies n o t o n the gentle ' i r o n i n g o u t ' of
factor common to ali the viols and violins the angled p i t c h of the scroll i n t o the planes of the cheek, as we fìnd i n the
subsequently analysed.
standard head of the v i o l i n f a m i l y , but rather o n a f r a n k contrast between
I n later analyses the equivalent are is
2 6

referred to as the 'are of origin' of the lower the planes of the peg-box and those of the scroll, w h i c h meet i n an incised,
bouts. c u r v e d V , t e r m i n a t i n g at point V i n Fig. 1 8 . Indeed, this solution involves
For geometrical construction, see p. 21
2 7

above. a nice adaptation of the classical Ionie volute—as we shall see, the most
Confusingly also called the 'ear' of the c o m m o n l y used spirai for the design of scroll-heads. The outer w h o r l of
27

scroll.
this spirai c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e edge of t h e s c r o l l ( F i g . 1 8 ) f r o m the e y e , 28
 33
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

unfolding to point B. I n this head, however, the inner w h o r l , w h i c h ,

a l t h o u g h staying closer to the outer line t h a n i n the classical example,
corresponds to i t , and forms the bevelled edge, c o n t i n u i n g beyond point B,
not deviating f r o m the spirai, but ceasing at point V. The i m p o r t a n t outer
edge is continued f r o m point B by are BC, centre A , radius 56 m m , w h i c h ,
like some of the other vectors i n the peg-box, was not proportionally
signifìcant. The curve is continued by are CD, centre N , o n line FNG of the
c o n t a i n i n g rectangle FGHI, its radius therefore equal to this rectangle's
short side, i.e. 95 m m . W i t h a long side of 190 m m a n d a short side of
9 5 m m , FGHI is a ^ 4 rectangle, or doublé square. Its values, however, do
not individually relate to the m a i n scheme. The curve of the peg-box
underside is continued by are DE, centre 0 , radius 1 3 1 m m ; this, of
course, is a vector c o m m o n to the m a i n commensurable scheme,
a l t h o u g h its isolated appearance i n the head is probably a coincidence. E is
extended by a straight line u n t i l the counter-curve of the head/neck j o i n is
met. The top curve of the peg-box is initiated by are F/, centre R (on line
FRI of head-containing rectangle FGHI) ; its radius is 78 m m . The straight
line/Kjoins this are to are K L , centre M , radius 95 m m (equal to F I and to
the radius of are CD, whose centre, N , lies o n radius KM). The curve is
completed by are LO, centre P, radius 2 4 m m , and concludes the analysis
of this bass viol by Pelegrino di Zanetto.
PLATE I
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 35

EX. II
Figs. 1 9 - 2 2 , PI. I I
VIOL, TREBLE. ITALY, VENICE, C.1575
GIOVANNI M A R I A DA BRESCIA
HILL COLLECTION, ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM, OXFORD
Acc. N o . : 1

This treble v i o l , f o r m i n g part of the H i l l Collection of instruments at the

Ashmolean M u s e u m , is of the early, c o r n e r l e s s , fiedel variety w i t h
'squared' shoulders. I t was most probably made i n Venice by Giovanni
Maria of Brescia a r o u n d 1 5 7 5 , and not, as previously stated by Boyden,
between 1 5 2 0 and 1525. Nevertheless it is one of the earliest treble viols
29

to survive. A n identical copy of this i n s t r u m e n t by the luthier Leandro

Bisiach, a former o w n e r , can be found i n the collection at the Castello
Sforzesco i n M i l a n , differing only i n details of fittings.
The Ashmolean viol is fully described i n the Boyden catalogue,
a l t h o u g h the measurements given are, for our purpose, grossly mislead-
i n g , i n that they include the curvature of modelled plates, and i n this
particular example a considerable error was made i n the measurement of
the middle bouts, w h i c h are given some 8 m m short.
Analysis of this treble revealed a very beautiful geometry, governed by
an arithmetic series relating to y/5 symmetry. The terms i n this series
express the ratios of the radii of the arcs used i n the design of the outline. I
shall cali the terms, i n ascending o r d e r o f v a l u e , « , b, e, d, a n d e, w h e r e
a = 55 m m , b = 72 m m , c = 89 m m , d = 106 m m , and e = 123 m m ,
and the u n i t of difference between each, u, = 17 m m . Their relationships
and their ^/5 partiality are clearly s h o w n i n the following table:
Radii i n
whole-no.
mm

123
Extremes of series 2.236 = V5
~55~

55
Divisions of terms by u n i t - = 3.23(5)
17
b 72
4.23(5) = V + 5 2
17
89
5.23(5) = /5 + 3
%
17
106
6.23(5)
T7
123
7.23(5) = V +
~17~
5 5

T h e d o s e s y m p a t h y t h a t ^ 5 s y m m e t r y h a s w i t h t h e g o l d e n p r o p o r t i o n (<f>)
can be s h o w n w h e n the t h i r d t e r m is divided by the first:
c /89\
- = ( - ] = 1.618 W .

Before demonstrating the use of these arithmetically proportioned radii 2 9

Giovanni Maria was stili living in Venice
i n the i n s t r u m e n t , i t should be noted t h a t the ' u n i t of difference', u in 1 5 9 1 , as his witnessing to a document lately
( = 1 7 mm), °divides the body length by 2 1 , the string length by 18.5, the
3 discovered in Venetian archives testifies.
1 7 m m approximately equals ^ Venetian
head length by 7, and the head ' d e p t h ' ( i n Fig. 2 2 , GH) by 3
3 0

foot.
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

The overall proportions of length and w i d t h are s h o w n i n Fig. 19. Here

the head l e n g t h , EA of 7u can be seen to divide the body l e n g t h , BD, by 3.
3

T h i s l e n g t h ( B D = 3 5 6 m m ) i s t w i c e t h e u p p e r - b o u t w i d t h X X (178 m m ) ,
,

so t h a t rectangle QRST is a doublé square, or figure. The middle- and

lower-bout w i d t h s are also i n whole-number relationship :
ZZ' _ 216 m m _ _ ^
YY 7
" 144 mm ~ ' ~
The body-outline geometry is d r a w n here i n Fig. 2 0 , where we see a
most beautiful scheme. Here, for the first t i m e , is w h a t we shall cali a
'great circle' geometry. The d r a w i n g is largely self-explanatory ; the
outline is constructed inside a circumscribed circle, w h i c h forms part of
the outline (its centre, C, being also at the centre of the body-piane, BD)
and w h i c h , i n addition, acts as a p l a n n i n g circle for certain are centres.
The M a r i a scheme is further enriched by the use of a vesica piscis
arrangement w h i c h combines w i t h the great circle to determine the
lower-bout configuration. The vesica piscis emerges as one of the most
i m p o r t a n t , and constantly r e c u r r i n g , p l a n n i n g devices employed i n
musical-instrument design, as is revealed by the geometrical analysis of
m a n y of the f o l l o w i n g examples, and as such i t has, of course, been
examined i n closer detail i n an earlier chapter (p. 18) of this study.

FIG. 20

To r e t u r n to the M a r i a viol and the outline d r a w n i n Fig. 20 : the are of

o r i g i n D H ' , as w e h a v e s e e n , f o r m s p a r t o f t h e g r e a t c i r c l e c e n t r e d at C; its
radius is therefore 178 m m , w h i c h we can also express as 2 x 89 m m , or
2c, t h a t is, 2u( /5 + 3), where J5 represents the ratio of the extremes of
%

the arithmetic series : 12 3 m m and 5 5 m m (e/a). The curve is continued by

an are, H T , f o r m i n g part of the vesica piscis arrangement, centred at G
and G'. Its radius, w h i c h is therefore one-third of the lower-bout w i d t h ,
measures 72 m m — f a c t o r b i n the five-term series. A short straight line,
l'J's c o n n e e t s l o w e r t o m i d d l e b o u t s (as a s i m i l a r l i n e j o i n e d t h e m i d d l e -
and upper-bout curvature of the Zanetto viol), their curve delineated
by are J'K', centre P ' o n the great circle, and of radius 106 m m , or
d ( " [ V + 4]).
5

The upper-bout section is formed by one sweeping are, K ' U ' , centred at
L o n the centre line, its radius measuring 89 m m , or c (u[^5 + 3 ] ) .
Fig. 2 1 gives the curves and positioning of the C-holes. As we have seen,
the are radius d that gave the middle-bout curve was centred at point P' o n
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

the great circle; a line d r a w n f r o m this point t h r o u g h the notches of the

C's and meeting the centre Une at F forms the axis of the C-hole. C-hole
centring is achieved by means of a circle, centre C, radius 72 m m (b),
w h i c h touches the inner curve of the middle bouts and pierces the lower
centring, and also by means of an intersecting are, centre P', and radius
123 m m , or e {u[yj5 + 5 ] ). The m a i n inner and outer curves of the C-holes
themselves are formed by arcs whose centres, V and W , lie o n the F P '
axis and whose principal radii measure 55 m m (a) and 72 m m (b)
respectively.

FIG. 21

A t first sight, the head of this v i o l , s h o w n i n outline elevation i n Fig. 2 2 ,

is perhaps a little disappointing, particularly to eyes more accustomed to
the exquisitely conceived and executed scrolls of the later Cremonese
school of v i o l i n - m a k i n g . Indeed, f o l l o w i n g the bold three-dimensionality
of the Zanetto's scroll, the design of the 'Venetian head', f o u n d here and i n
the f o l l o w i n g example, appears to be fiat and lifeless. Seen to advantage
only f r o m the side, the Ionie spirai of the scroll is carved i n relief into the
fiat piane of the cheeks (see m a i n d r a w i n g ) . This type of head is, of course,
economical i n b o t h material and making-time.
Despite these i n i t i a l reservations, w h i c h i n any case should be t h o u g h t
of as generic idiosyncrasies, the analysis of the head-design of the M a r i a
viol proved to be quite r e w a r d i n g .
The arcs of the peg-box are given i n Fig. 2 2 , where the elevation is
s h o w n superimposed w i t h its containing grid of 3 x 7 squares of side
17 m m , w h i c h , as the reader w i l l recali, was the cruciai ' u n i t of
difference', u, between the i m p o r t a n t vectors of the body geometry. The
are BC, centre A , moves o u t f r o m the Ionie spirai and is continued by are
CD, centre N , radius 85 m m , or 5 units of 17 m m . The lower peg-box
curve is completed by counter-curve are DE, centre P, radius 59.5 m m ,
3 | units of 17 m m . The upper peg-box curve is initiated by are FJ, centre
O (on FI produced), radius 102 m m , or 6 units of 17 m m . A straight line,
/K, links this are w i t h final are K L , centre M , radius 5 1 m m , or 3 units
of 17 m m .
PLATE I I
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 39

Ex. I l i
Figs. 2 3 - 2 9 , PI. n i
VIOL, BASS. ITALY, VENICE, C.1590
BATTISTA CICILIANO

MUSÉE DU CONSERVATOIRE ROYAL DE MUSIQUE, BRUSSELS

Acc. N o . : 1426

The C i c i l i a n o family were luthiers w o r k i n g i n Venice t h r o u g h o u t the

31

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, one of those I t a l i a n family dynasties

whose m a n y members, f a v o u r i n g the same few forenames, cause such
confusion to historians. As we shall see later, i t is interesting to note that a
member of the Ciciliano family, one Gioanbattista, is mentioned by
Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego i n his i m p o r t a n t treatise o n the v i o l , Regola
Rubertina, published i n Venice i n 1543.
The Ciciliano we are meeting here is Battista, as the label of this
i n s t r u m e n t , w i t h its curious abbreviations, tells us : 'Batista fiel d'Ant°
Cicilian i n V . ' a

The i n s t r u m e n t , w h i c h dates from the last quarter of the sixteenth

century, is a bass v i o l , n o w part of the collection at the Brussels
Conservatoire M u s e u m . It is of the early, four-cornered, sloping-shoulder
variety. Perhaps not the most elegant of designs, w i t h its disharmonious
curves, ill-conceived areas, and disturbing imbalance between front and
back p i a t e , its true significance lies i n its position i n the evolution of viol
32

design, hearing as it does so m a n y 'classic' features, albeit somewhat

gracelessly. I should stress that these aesthetic defects are applicable to
this v a r i a n t form i n g e n e r a l , and not only to this p a r t i c u l a r example,
w h i c h , for ali this, does possess a certain vigorous c h a r m of its o w n .
The characteristic Renaissance preference for r a t i o n a l commensurable
ratios is revealed i n the instrument's geometrical scheme, where the
majority of the controlling vectors are reduced to simple multiples of a
basic u n i t . The u n i t itself is of great interest i n t h a t i t w o u l d appear to
originate i n Brunswick inches, despite the fact that the i n s t r u m e n t is f r o m
the Venetian school of m a k i n g , and that its maker, Battista Ciciliano, like
his father A n t o n i o , w o r k e d i n Venice, a centre w i t h its o w n system of
measurement unrelated to the Brunswick u n i t .
This u n i t of measurement, used to bring the design-vectors i n t o
commensurability, consists of 2\ Brunswick inches (59.45 m m , taken
here as 59.5 m m ) . As w i l l be seen by the later examples discussed i n this
study, this desire for r a t i o n a l , whole-number relationships i n design-
vectors seems to be as m u c h a guiding principle for the early luthier
as it was for the architect, indeed, the 'nodal point of Renaissance
aesthetics'. 33

The metaphysical importance of this system lay i n its analogizing visual

proportions, particularly the relationships of the small integers (such as
1 : 2 , 2 : 3 , 3 : 4 , 1 : 4 , etc.) w i t h the audible proportions of musical sound.
(It was a Pythagorean revelation that the basic musical consonances are
deflned by small whole-number ratios.) The ultimate a i m was not the
Sometimes given as Siciliano.
transfìguration of the concrete visual arts by abstract music, b u t rather
3 1

3 2
The upper part of the back is wider than
a deeper search for a cosmic order of mathematics, as reflected i n ali the table, causing a slight, and rather u n -
phenomena of beauty, giving measure, regulation, and h a r m o n y to ali aesthetic, slope of the upper ribs towards the
front.
c r e a t i o n . The r e s u l t i n g p r o p o r t i o n s were used extensively by R e n a i s s a n c e 3 3
R. Wittkower, Architects' Year Book, v
artists and were often referred to by t h e m i n classical musical t e r m s - a n (London, 1953).
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
40

algebraic convenience w i t h perhaps more metaphysical t h a n acoustical

F I G . 23. Fret-positioning and the
musical proportions, Silvestro Ganassi,
Regola Rubertina, 1543
relevance.
This has been discussed here because small w h o l e - n u m b e r ratios do
occur i n the m a i n proportions of length of this early v i o l , a l t h o u g h , of
course, we have no w a y of k n o w i n g if its designer t h o u g h t of t h e m i n
musico-proportional terms. There is one piece of 'evidence', however,
w h i c h suggests he m a y at least have been acquainted w i t h the musical
significance of these ratios. This is the Ganassi treatise o n viol-playing,
published i n Venice i n 1 5 4 3 , w h i c h I mentioned earlier (p. 39).
This i m p o r t a n t treatise bears a most interesting piate (Fig. 23) i n w h i c h
a few of the ' m u s i c a l ' proportions are named, defined, and applied to the

string length of a v i o l , presumably for the regulation of the frets. I t is

also this treatise w h i c h mentions a member of this maker's f a m i l y —
Gioanbattista Ciciliano—so even as a piece of family history, n o t to
m e n t i o n sound commercial propaganda, this w o r k , w i t h its incidental
proportional knowledge, was probably quite familiar to our designer. I n
the large d r a w i n g , I have consequently estimated the position of the
bridge according to t h a t indicated by Ganassi. This is lower t h a n later
advised by Christopher Simpson for the classical v i o l , b u t o w i n g to the
relative position of the middle bouts, the lower siting of the contemporary
Ganassi w o u l d be more convenient and more likely f r o m the point of view
of b o w i n g . Moreover, this bridge position yields some c o n v i n c i n g
w h o l e - n u m b e r (in B r u n s w i c k inches) magnitudes for b o t h string length
(642 m m = 27 Br. in.) and fret positions, where the second fret, w h i c h is
the tone ('9 a 8', sesquioctava), is 71.3 m m (3 Br. i n . ) , the fifth fret, w h i c h
is the i n t e r v a l of a f o u r t h ( 4 a 3', sesquitertia), is 160.5 m m (6| Br. i n . ) ,
c

and the seventh fret, w h i c h gives a musical fifth ('3 a 2 ' , sesquialtera), is
2 1 4 m m (9 Br. i n . ) .
It should be stated, however, t h a t the use of w h o l e - n u m b e r ratios i n a
design as relatively complex as a musical i n s t r u m e n t cannot possibly have
the same visual immediacy t h a t they w o u l d r e t a i n i n the s t r a i g h t - l i n e
piane and simple v o l u m e experience of Renaissance architecture, where
their use remains more evident.
Fig. 2 4 shows the basic proportions of length of the Ciciliano v i o l ; i t is
these r a t i o s w h i c h could be described as ' m u s i c a l ' i n a P y t h a g o r e o -
Platonic sense. For the sake of demonstration, their musical nomenclature
is here bracketed w i t h t h e m .
A D , n u t to b u t t o n , measures 8 9 2 . 5 m m , w h i c h is 15 units of 2\ Br. i n .
FIG. 24
(59.5 m m ) . This is d i v i d e d i n t o 3 equal 5 - u n i t parts, A B , BC, and CD. The
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 41

ratio of neck- to body-length, AB : BD, is therefore 1 : 2 (diapason or

octave) ; similarly, the ratio of the radius of the are of o r i g i n of the lower
bouts, ED, 1\ units, to overall length A D , 15 units, is also 1 : 2 (diapason),
whereas the same vector ED, l\ units, to body length BD, 10 u n i t s , is
ratio 3 : 4 (diatessaron or f o u r t h — t h e sesquitertia proportion).
The difficulties of a 'musical' interpretation of p r o p o r t i o n i n musical-
instrument design n o w become apparent w i t h i n this analysis. To begin
w i t h , the concept of r a t i o , as I mentioned earlier, cannot have the same
relevance here as i t has for the architect w h o , at this t i m e , was dealing
p r i m a r i l y w i t h the d i s t r i b u t i o n and a p p o r t i o n m e n t of static rectangles,
w h i c h by deflnition are ratios i n themselves. Conversely, the instrument-
designer was dealing principally w i t h the disposition of arcs, w h i c h ,
h a v i n g a single vector of radius, have no such b u i l t - i n relationship of
ratio.
The point of reference i n this commensurably proportioned design, as
m u c h as i n the incommensurably proportioned instruments, inevitably
becomes the smallest c o m m o n factor. Here i t is w, the u n i t of 2\ Br. i n . ; i n
some later instruments it is </>, the smallest t e r m of a golden-section series.
A l i greater terms must t h e n be discussed as generations of this ' m u s t a r d
seed'.
To r e t u r n to the Ciciliano analysis : the are of o r i g i n was s h o w n i n Fig.
2 4 and its relationship w i t h the overall proportions of length discussed i n
'musical' terms. I t is s h o w n again i n Fig. 25 as an are H D H ' , radius 7\u,
centre E. I t is continued by are UT (and are H I ) w h i c h is part of a vesica
piscis arrangement centred at G and G'. This figure is itself a r a t i o n a l ,
commensurable one, containing the ratio 1 : 3 . The radius of the circles
reveals the first of the m i n o r inaccuracies of the instrument's mathe- FIG. 25
matics, their radius being just over 2 m m short of 2 U . This a r e is 34

continued by are I'J'> centred outside the outline at S. I t is of radius

368 m m , w h i c h is more t h a n 6u (357 m m ) b u t equal to a </> division of the
lOu 595 m m
overall body l e n g t h , i.e. = 3 6 7 . 7 m m . This 0 value
<f> 1.618
may or m a y not be a coincidence—at any rate, it is the only appearance
of the i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e golden s e c t i o n i n the scheme of this viol.
A n i m p o r t a n t property of these arcs, JT and JI, is t h a t , w h e n produced
f r o m the lower corners /' and /, they cross o n the centre line at point E, the
centre of are of o r i g i n H D H ' , and half division of A D ( n u t to b u t t o n , see
Fig. 24). This is the position occupied by a rose i n m a n y v i o l designs.
A secondary vesica piscis can be d r a w n (Fig. 26) across the middle bouts
on the centre crossing, piercing the four corners L, L ' , /, and J', the centre
of the t w o circles positioned where the backs of the C-holes cross the
horizontal centre line. Point N' o n the r i g h t - h a n d vesica circle, and N o n
the left-hand circle, are the centres for the m a i n arcs of the simple two-arc
middle bouts. On the r i g h t , this m a i n are is ]'K' and its radius is l ^ i / . The
r e m a i n i n g middle-bout are K'V is centred at M ' (on K'N') and is the only
occurrence, i n this design, of the u n i t u alone. A circle, centre C, the centre
of the model, and of radius 3 u, can be d r a w n , w h i c h , like the second vesica FIG. 26
piscis, pierces the four corners of the i n s t r u m e n t . The m a i n curve of the
C-holes is an are centred at 0 ' , and of radius l^w.
The geometrie construction of the upper bouts is very b e a u t i f u l : the
3 4
Although, as we have said, the general
m a i n vector, 4w, is a n i m p o r t a n t measurement, as we shall see. Here, tolerance of inaccuracy here is 0.5 m m , this
Fig. 2 7, i t forms the radius, VP', of the m a i n are L'P', w i t h its centre at the instrument is large, and not always carefully
opposing upper C-hole centring ( i n Fig. 2 7, point V) and passing t h r o u g h worked. It may well have been 'expanded' from
a smaller design, thus magnifying an originai
key p o i n t E, o n the centre line. The counter-curve, P ' Q ' , is centred at R\ error.
42 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

and is of radius 2 u , w h i c h is, of course, half t h a t of the m a i n 4u upper-bout

are.
The geometrical importance of this 4 u vector (238 m m , or 10 Br. in.) is
s h o w n i n Fig. 28 where the m a i n upper-bout are P'U is produced,
crossing the centre line at point T, the coincident crossing of radius VS
( a n d IS') and p a s s i n g t h r o u g h its c e n t r e point S. This point S can t h e n be
taken as the centre of a hypothetical are, radius 4 u , w h i c h pierces the
upper corner L, the upper C-hole centring V, the centre F o n the centre line
of a circle piercing the four C-hole c e n t r i n g s , and finally t h r o u g h D, the
base-point of the model.
The head of the i n s t r u m e n t is similar i n f o r m , and remarkably similar i n
geometry, to that of the preceding viol. I t , too, is of typical Venetian f o r m ,
w i t h its spirai, again that of the classic I o n i e v o l u t e , c a r v e d i n relief into
the extended piane of the cheek. Here, however, the vectors of the peg-box
arcs, and indeed the overall proportions, bear no direct l i n k w i t h the rest of
the instrument's scheme, the u n i t , w, m a k i n g no appearance.
The head is, however, most deflnitely laid out i n Brunswick inches. Like
FIG. 27 that of the M a r i a viol (Ex. I I ) , the head of this i n s t r u m e n t fits exactly into a
3 x 7 grid rectangle, a n d , i n this case, the grid is of square Brunswick
inches.
Fig. 29 depiets the geometry of the head, contained i n the 3 x 7
rectangle FGHI. The Ionie volute terminates at B, the outer spirai being
t h e n continued by quadrant are BC, centre A , radius 41.5 m m ( l f Br. in.)
w h i c h is a quarter of the overall length of head, FG. This are is continued
by are CD, centre N , radius 166.5 m m (7 Br. i n . ) , again the overall head

FIG. 28

FIG. 29

length. This is counter-curved by DE, centre O, radius 68.5 m m

{21 Br. i n . ) . 0 is also the centre for the i n i t i a t i n g are FJ of the upper, or
front, peg-box c u r v e ; its radius is 4^ Br. i n . This is linked by straight line
JK to t e r m i n a t i n g are KL, centre M (MK being tangential to the scroll)
and radius 2 Br. i n . (full).

} GD C (0)
44 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. IV
Figs. 3 0 - 3 4 , PI. IV
VIOL, SMALL TENOR. ENGLAND, LONDON, 1667

HENRY JAYE

VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM

Acc. N o . : 173-1882

By the beginning o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y , v i o l - m a k i n g i n England had

reached a peak o f reflnement, w i t h the e v o l u t i o n o f a type o f v i o l o f
extremely pure design, and one as yet free f r o m the excesses o f d e c o r a t i o n
found i n m a n y later Continental examples.
Thomas Mace, i n his advice o n the 'Best Provision' o f viols, recom-
mends the w o r k o f fìve English makers, there being ' n o better i n the
w o r l d ' . A m o n g s t this elect was H e n r y Jaye, whose fine tenor v i o l
3 5

f r o m the Victoria and Albert collection is here chosen to represent this

'classic' English t r a d i t i o n i n v i o l design.
This particular i n s t r u m e n t was mentioned by C. Stainer i n his
Dictionary of Violin Makers (1896):
. . . a tenor v i o l was exhibited at the South K e n s i n g t o n M u s e u m , L o n d o n , 1 8 7 2 ,
w i t h the label ' H e n r y Jay i n S o u t h w a r k e , 1 6 6 7 ' . I t has six strings, t u n e d one-fifth
higher t h a n the bass-viol, catgut frets, a n d a beautifully carved scroll.

The date o f 1 6 6 7 makes i t a n extremely late w o r k for Jaye, w h o was

m a k i n g viols ' i n S o u t h w a r k e ' f r o m about 1615 onwards.
The lower back o f this beautiful i n s t r u m e n t has suffered some later
alteration, supposedly to allow i t to be played o n the shoulder ( ! ) — b u t for
our purposes, a t least, the p i a n and geometrical construction o f the
i n s t r u m e n t r e m a i n unspoilt.
One o f the most beautiful features o f the classic f o r m o f the v i o l is the
'sloping shoulder', w h i c h , by means o f small o u t w a r d - t u r n i n g arcs
between the neck and upper bouts, gracefully resolves their differences o f
direction. A less h a r m o n i o u s version o f this counter-curved upper bout
was seen i n the early Venetian v i o l by Ciciliano (Ex. I l i ) , whose outline this
classic model o f Jaye's only superficially resembles. Geometrical analysis
revealed, however, t h a t the more likely design f o u n d a t i o n o f this sloping
shoulder was the older squared shoulder o f the guitar f o r m f o u n d , for
example, i n the M a r i a treble viol (Ex. I I ) . Indeed, i t was n o t u n t i l this
discovery was made t h a t a 'design body-length'—one o f the key
measurements i n i n s t r u m e n t geometry—could be determined. I n this
FIG. 30
case, the Jaye v i o l , the 'design body-length' was shorter t h a n the actual
top p i a t e o f the i n s t r u m e n t , the e x a c t difference being due t o the aesthetic
lengthening of the model by the additional, counter-directioned, curve o f
the upper bouts, as we shall see below. Hence the closer geometrical
kinship between this and the squared-shoulder scheme (Ex. I I ) t h a n w i t h
the superficially more like model o f the Ciciliano (Ex. I l i ) , whose design
body-length does equal the length o f its top p i a t e . 36

The cruciai design body-length o f this v i o l was determined by the

establishment o f a point o f upper l i m i t t o the body, a point later hidden by
Musick's Monument ( l s t edn., London,
3 5
the instrument's developed design. This upper l i m i t , i n Fig. 30 point B,
1676), Part m, chap. i v , p. 245.
was easily located w h e n the upper arcs o f the upper bouts, w h i c h shared a
As indeed did the Zanetto's—an early viol
3 6

(Ex. I) which yet incorporates the sloping- c o m m o n centre o n the centre line o f the i n s t r u m e n t , were extended t o j o i n
shoulder design. i n a continuous are, crossing the centre line a t B. This divided the string
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

l e n g t h , n u t (A) to bridge (C), i n t w o , w h i l s t the bridge itself divided this

n e w , hypothetical, body l e n g t h , BD, exactly i n t w o , thus producing
a tripartite division f r o m n u t to b u t t o n , the u n i t AB = BC = CD
( = 2 0 9 . 5 m m ) being the largest t e r m , fa, i n a <f> series, w h i c h , together
w i t h a related, secondary <f> series, governs practically the whole
construction of the viol's pian.
As i n the geometry of the older, cornerless, M a r i a v i o l , a great circle can
n o w be constructed, radius fa, centre C (the bridge-line), crossing the
centre line at points B and D (the lower extremity of the body), Fig. 3 1 . Its
full significance w i l l be understood w h e n the construction of the middle
bouts is discussed.
The lower bouts are formed by three arcs. The first, the are of origin
D H ' , is centred at C—it therefore also forms part of the great circle, and
has a radius of fa. The next are, H T , centre G ' , is of radius 112 m m ,
the o n l y major vector i n the design w h i c h does not conform to the
golden-section schemes. The final lower-bout are is l ' N ' , w h i c h is centred
at / and has a radius of 2 1 0 m m (allowing 0.5 m m error) ; this, too, is a fa
vector.
The middle bouts are constructed f r o m point P' (and its lateral
inversion) o n the great circle (radius fa). The point is located by crossing
the great circle w i t h a n intersecting are of fa radius centred at E, the
geometrically signifìcant point w h i c h is the centre of the instrument's
rose. Point P', t h e n , is the centre of the m a i n middle-bout are K ' Q ' ; its
radius, 129.5 m m , is <f>i i n the m a i n series. The t w o m i n o r middle-bout
arcs, N ' R ' and Q ' M ' , are of radius 36.5 m m and 26 m m respectively,
neither value of (f> significance.
The radii of the upper-bout scheme conform to the secondary, t h o u g h
related, <f> series previously alluded to. This w i l l be called fa, fa, and <f> . It is
€

related mathematically to the m a i n series </>, <£i, and <f> by its major t e r m
2

fa = 160 m m = 2(f).
The are S'L', w h i c h forms a large part of the upper bouts (and w h i c h
originally gave the body length), is of radius fa, centre 0 , o n the centre
line. Are I / M ' , centre X, and radius 160 m m , fa ( = 2</> of m a i n series),
shallows the curve for the corner, w h i l e the upper curve, the counter-
curve S'U', is of radius 6 1 m m , fa ( 6 1 . 1 m m ) and centred at T .
The position, and indeed the m a i n curve, of the C-holes are plotted by
the single value of (/>. Firstly, a line is d r a w n (Fig. 32) f r o m the centre of the
rose (E) to the lower corner N ' ; this, incidentally, passes directly along
one of the ten segmentai divisions of the rose. The upper C-hole centring
lies o n this line EN at V so t h a t EV = fa
f

A second line, d r a w n f r o m the upper corner M' t h r o u g h the upper

centring V, meets the centre line at point E, so that FV = fa Point E is i n
fact the centre for the circle, radius fa w h i c h pierces b o t h upper and lower
C-hole centrings.
The principle arcs f o r m i n g b o t h the inner and outer curve of the C-holes
are of radius fa the centres offset so t h a t the resulting opening narrows
slightly towards the upper centring (see Fig. 32).
The decorative border of purfling a r o u n d the ovai rose also exhibits
these golden-section values. The four 'pinched' points stationed, as it
were, n o r t h , s o u t h , west, and east, f r o m the centre, yield <f> i n the vertical,
and \<f>i i n the horizontal, piane.
The head of this tenor is of the open-scroll variety, w h e r e , true to
the viol-maker's a x i o m of lightness, b o t h visual and of construction, the
' g r o u n d ' of the spirai is pierced t h r o u g h f r o m one side of the head to the
46 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

other, u n l i k e the scrolls found i n members of the v i o l i n family. Elegant and

airy t h o u g h this is, the result is n o t the strongest use to be made of w o o d ,
as the u n f o r t u n a t e repairs i n this splendid head testify. This late
i n s t r u m e n t of Jaye's shows no d i m i n i s h i n g of his powers as a craftsman.
The scroll, like the root of the neck, is festooned w i t h fine relief carving of
foliage, emerging, i n the case of the cheek panels, f r o m a grotesque i n the
f o r m of a griffin's head.
The overall f o r m of the scroll, however, seems somewhat u n h a p p y ; the
generosity of the spirai as it emerges f r o m the eye is not maintained as
it flows i n t o the curves of the peg-box. Indeed, i t was this effect of
tightening i n the spirai as it uncurled t h a t led me to investigate the
possibility of its being a polygon-based pseudo-spiral, w h i c h i n fact i t
proved to be. These pseudo-spirals are simply made w i t h rule and
compasses, and rely o n the points and angles provided by the regular
polygons as bases of augmentation for the arcs w h i c h shape t h e m . The
effect of ' t i g h t e n i n g ' as the spirai develops is, of course, due to the resultant
d i m i n i s h i n g proportion of its polygonal origin.
Fig. 33 shows the construction of the spirai used by the geometer of this
i n s t r u m e n t to design its scroll. I t is based u p o n the geometry of the
heptagon ; a small heptagon was d r a w n , a n d , w i t h compasses and r u l e , its
sides were produced and used as radii for arcs w h i c h at each s w i n g (of
360°/7) were increased i n radius by the length of one side of the heptagon.
The arcs thus follow one of the rules for obtaining a smooth elliptical, or
quasi-elliptical, curve, t h a t of sharing a part of the coincident radius of the
adjacent are.
This spirai is s h o w n i n Fig. 3 4 , the outline of the head i n elevation, as
the i m p o r t a n t outer volute of the scroll, the dotted line f r o m A to B
coinciding exactly w i t h part of the spirai d r a w n i n Fig. 33. The small
FIG. 33
section f r o m A to the eye of the spirai is another section of the same spirai
reiterated, as i t were, to prevent the spirai of the scroll f r o m closing too
tightly. The inner curve of this spirai is not geometrically related b u t
carved to give a suitable taper to the heptagonal spirai.
The traceable radii t h a t f o r m the curves of the peg-box relate exactly to
the secondary 0 series employed i n the upper bouts of this i n s t r u m e n t ,
a n d , as such, are discussed above.
I n Fig. 34 the are of the spirai flows f r o m A to B, and t h e n curves i n t o an
are BC, radius <f> , centre D, DC being the long side of the rectangle DPOC,.
a

w h i c h encloses the spirai of the scroll. A r e BC then flows into are CE,
radius </>, centre E. This rear curve of the peg-box is t h e n completed by a
b

short straight line, EG, connecting are CE w i t h counter-curved are G H ,

radius <f> , centre I , flowing i n t o the heel of the head. Sharing part of a
a

coincident radius w i t h this are is are N M , again radius <£ , centre 0

fl

(rectangle NPOO enclosing the entire head of the instrument) ; this are
initiates the upper, or f r o n t , curve of the peg-box. Straight line MK leads to
counter-curve are, KJ, w h i c h terminates the upper peg-box line, ' t u c k i n g '
it under the scroll. KJ is centred at L, its radius relating to neither of the
preceding cf> series, b u t equalling the short side of spiral-enclosing
FIG. 34
rectangle DPOC.
PLATE I V
 A N A L Y S I S O F I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
48

Ex. V
Figs. 3 5 - 3 7 , PI. V
VIOL, BASS. GERMANY, HAMBURG, C.1700

JOACHIM TIELKE
VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM
Acc. N o . : 1 6 8 - 1 8 8 2

W i t h i n the history of musical instruments, the name Tielke is synony-

mous w i t h elaborately designer! a n d r i c h l y inlaid decoration. He was the
key member of the H a m b u r g school (becoming a citizen of H a m b u r g i n
1 6 6 9 ) , a n d his seductively lavish instruments soon w o n h i m the
reputation of the most celebrated Iute-maker of his t i m e , his w o r k
achieving phenomenal prices: 'for one single lute 1 0 0 M a r k or 50
Gulden'.
As w e l l as lutes, his workshop produced some magnificent guitars,
citterns (he was seemingly the i n n o v a t o r of the beli c i t t e r n , see Ex. X X X ) ,
and bass viols (by t h e n the most c o m m o n l y used member of the viol
family). A c c o r d i n g to H e l l w i g , some forty-seven bass viols b y Tielke
37

survive, amongst w h i c h , i t could be said, are found some of the most

spectacular examples of the art of lutherie.
Unfortunately, Tielke's decorative facility has quite dazzled the eye of
popular judgement to his equally particular c o n t r i b u t i o n to the f o r m a i
evolution of viol design. His personal vision of the gamba outline is
strikingly graceful, a n d , as w e shall see i n the f o l l o w i n g analysis,
fastidiously planned. Most idiosyncratic is his treatment of the middle
bouts, w h i c h have a notably open aspect, h a r m o n i z i n g the flow of upper-
and lower-bout c u r v a t u r e . Tielke's pattern for the viol was continued by
his f o l l o w e r s for the short time left to gamba m a n u f a c t u r e , a n d the
38

influence of its gentle curves c a n occasionally also be seen i n a few of the

later German violas d'amore.
This particular example, undated b u t t h o u g h t to have been made
c i 7 0 0 , is n o exception to the Tielke policy of lavish decoration ; the back
and sides bear allegorical scenes or ' t r i u m p h s ' of inlaid a n d engraved
sgraffito i v o r y , w h i l e the front is edged w i t h ebony/ivory chequered
p u r f l i n g , and set w i t h a fretted ivory rose, relief-carved w i t h a figure of
Orpheus singing to his harp. The finger-board and tailpiece are also richly
decorated w i t h ivory grotesques and arabesques inlaid into tortoiseshell,
together w i t h some rather strangely positioned rectangular panels of
mother-of-pearl. The tailpiece itself is signed a n d dated ( 1 8 3 5 ) by a
previous o w n e r of the i n s t r u m e n t , the painter John Cawse. I n the 1 9 6 8
V. & A . catalogue, Baines suggests that Cawse m a y have been responsible
for the alterations to the instrument's head. The originai pegs have been
replaced by early brass machines (by Baker of London), w h i l e the t e r m i n a l
itself appears to have been tampered w i t h , for the rather uncomfortable
FIG. 35 scroll the i n s t r u m e n t n o w bears is unlikely to be originai. For this reason,
no separate head elevation is given w i t h this example, the discussion
b e i n g l i m i t e d to body p i a n , n u t p o s i t i o n ( n o t s h o w n i n m a i n d r a w i n g ) , a n d
string length.
3 7
Gùnther Hellwig, 'Joachim Tielke', GS], The geometrical scheme of the Tielke gamba is extremely complex a n d ,
voi. xvii, p. 3 1 .
3 8
See the magnificerà bass viol (with its as w i t h m a n y of the schemes here considered, can, o w i n g to the nature of
originai bow) by Martin Voigt of Hamburg the mathematics involved, be expressed or explained i n more t h a n one
(1726)—V. & A . , acc. no. 1 2 9 8 - 1 8 7 1 .
w a y . This is p a r t i c u l a r l y true of the i r r a t i o n a l system used i n this design,
 49
ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

that is the ' s y m m e t r y ' of ^ 5 , w h i c h , w h e n governing a complex grid, as

5

it does here, also realizes m a n y golden-section and other J 5-variant ratios.

Most of the overall proportions, b o t h horizontal and vertical, are
itemized i n the explanation of the m a i n grid, w h i c h includes the
body-containing rectangle (Fig. 36). The separate ratios of body l e n g t h ,
BD, and string l e n g t h , AG, and the ratios of the bout w i d t h s are, however,
first s h o w n i n Fig. 35.
Firstly, the string length and body length b o t h measure 6 7 1 m m , that
is, AG = BD = 6 7 1 m m ; the neck, A B , measures 300 m m (AD —BD, or
9 7 1 m m - 6 7 1 m m ) w h i c h is the same as the upper-bout w i d t h pp'.

AG
The ratio of string l e n g t h to neck l e n g t h , —
AD

BD
or the ratio of body l e n g t h to neck l e n g t h , ——,
AB
BD
or the ratio of body l e n g t h to upper-bout w i d t h , — - ,
PP
671 m m AG BD
ali equal ^ = 2.2 36 or D (as do ratios ——, etc.).
G D ' GD
o r t r t v

300 m m

A l t h o u g h middle- (qq ) and lower- (IV) bout w i d t h s do n o t relate i n a

f

ir 371 m m
very obvious w a y , —- = —— = 1.710, the other t w o permuta-
qq 217 m m
tions do indicate ^ 5 h a r m o n y :
the ratio of l o w e r - (IV) and upper- (pp') bout w i d t h s
IV 371 m m
= 1.236 = V " 5 1

pp' 300 m m
a n d the r a t i o of upper- (pp') and middle- (qq') b o u t w i d t h s
pp' 300 m m
= — = — = 1.382 = 2 . 6 1 8 - 1 . 2 3 6 = fo + l ) - L / 5 - l ) .
qq 217 m m v

The m a i n grid itself (Fig. 36) is a sophisticated n e t w o r k of squares, ^/5,

^ 5 v a r i a n t , </>, and ^ 4 rectangles. I t is perhaps best explored and
examined by the reader's using the following check-list of the most i m -
portant figures, their measurements i n millimetres, consequent ratios,
and schematic significance. 'Key' or 'parent' rectangles are underscored.

671 m m
aa'b'b = 1.809 = [ T ] + ^ 5 — 1 (body-containing rectangle)
371 m m
or aa'e'e + ee'b'b
371 m m
aa e e = = 1 = [ T ] ( t h r o u g h bridge-line (G))
371 m m

371 m m
ee'b'b = = 1.236 = ^5-1 ( t h r o u g h lower sides and bridge-line (G))
300 m m

971 m m
mm'b'b = — </>+l (overall rectangle, n u t to t a i l AD)
3 7 1 m m = 2.617
FIG. 36

or mm'f'f+ff'b'b
371 m m
ff'b'b =
3 7 1 m m = 1 = \T\ (contains l o w e r bouts, w i t h l o w e r - b o u t are IDI'
produced to f o r m circle, centre H , passing t a n -
gentially t h r o u g h middle bouts)
671 m m
cc'd'd =
3 0 0 m m = 2 . 2 3 6 = ^ 5 ( c o n t a i n i n g body l e n g t h , BD, passing
t h r o u g h upper bouts)
ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

c c T j = 6 Q ( 1
= 2 . ( 0 0 3 ) ^ 7 4 (body-top, cBc', t h r o u g h upper-bout
) m m

300 m m i l o w e r - b o u t c u r v e , the doublé s i c e s t o

a a Yi Ì square bisected by //' at gg\ so t h a t

« 30(0) m m ryj = ^ = are ali squares) T i ? a n d j j V c

Jf 300 m m 1

77 c c J

kk >l>l =
6 0 0 m m
= 1.236 = V 5 - 1
' comprising rectangles:
485.5 m m

l'N'
485.5 m m = i ^ l g = ^ p l o t t i n g c e n t r e s of lower-bout arcs
BkTH\ 300 m m * l I N

ka'Vlì 485.5 mm , r—1 A f l . . fl'N'

l = = 1=1. plotting centres of lower-bout arcs < T x 7

aVVl) 485.5 mm — UN L J F

The body outline, w h i c h fits so snugly into this g r i d , is broken d o w n into

its component arcs i n Fig. 37. Some of the component are radii amounts
we have already encountered by their coincidence w i t h grid lines, and i t is
therefore n o t surprising t h a t the scheme governing the body are radii
should also be 7 based. I n fact, the radii are d r a w n f r o m a geometrie
5

series i n w h i c h the Constant m u l t i p l i c a t i o n factor is ^5 — 1, or 1.236.

This gives a six-term progression, a, b, c, d, e, a n d / , i n millimetre values
measured as :
64.5, 79.5, 98, 122, 150$ a n d 185.5.
Checked by calculation, the series reads :
64.4, 79.6, 98.2, 121.4, 150, a n d 185.5.
The o u t l i n e commences i n Fig. 37 w i t h are of o r i g i n D I ' , I D I ' being a
semicircle centred at grid point H ; its radius, 185.5 m m , is the largest i n
the yJS — 1 series, t h a t is (^5 — 1)/.
The lower bouts are completed by the shallow curve of are l ' N ' , centred
at l o n the opposite side—this centre, too, occurs i n the grid of fig. 36. The
radius of are l ' N ' is 4 8 5 . 5 m m , w h i c h is four times the f o u r t h t e r m ,
{y/5 — l ) d , of 121.4 m m (actually 4 8 5 . 6 m m ) , a n d , w h e n divided by the
previous t e r m ( 4 8 5 . 6 mm/185.5 m m ) , produces 2 . 6 1 8 , or </>+ 1 , or <f> . 2

A l i the remaining radii are single occurrences d r a w n directly f r o m the

y/5 — 1 progression.
The middle bouts compóse three separate arcs: N ' R ' , radius 98 m m ,
QS — l)ci R ' Q ' J radius 122 m m , ( 7 5 — l ) d ; and are Q ' M ' , radius
64.5 m m , the smallest of the terms, {J5 — l)a.
The upper, like the lower, bouts have o n l y t w o constituent arcs : m a i n
are M ' L ' , w h i c h is centred at E , the centre of the ovai sound-board rose,
and of radius 150 m m , Q5- l)e, and are S'U', centre T , radius 79.5 m m
or (^5 - l ) b ; the t w o arcs are connected by short straight line US'.
The ovai rose has a n outer border of p u r f l i n g , w h i c h , measuring
76 m m x 57 m m , yielded the ratio 1 . 3 3 3 , or 4 : 3. This same ratio was
found i n the radii of the C-hole arcs, the shallower outer curve centred at V
h a v i n g a radius of 2 0 1 m m , w h i l e the i n n e r curve, centred at W , a radius
of 150 m m . This measurement, 150 m m , also occurs as t e r m five,
( 7 5 - l ) e , i n the m a i n series. The sound-hole centrings themselves are
centred by a circle d r a w n i n Fig. 37 at E ; its radius, 122.5 m m , m a y also
be considered as Q5 - l)d i n the 7 5 - 1 progression, despite the small
deviation i n measurement.
PLATE V
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. V I
Figs. 3 8 - 4 0 , PI. V I
VIOL, PARDESSUS. FRANCE, PARIS, 1759

LOUIS GUERSAN

DONALDSON COLLECTION, ROYAL COLLEGE OF MUSIC

Acc. N o . : 149

For the last specimen of the v i o l family proper, I have selected an example
of its youngest member, the eighteenth-century French i n n o v a t i o n , the
pardessus de viole ('pardessus' n o t here m e a n i n g 'overcoat', b u t literally an
'over-' or 'higher-'treble viol). N o t generally regarded very seriously by
musicologists, the pardessus had a brief Me, inspiring little music, none of
w h i c h is accounted notable. Like the h u r d y - g u r d y , the pardessus was i n
vogue for a short period i n the eighteenth century, w h e n , irrespective of
its musical value, i t was t h o u g h t to be a suitably bucolic accessory to the
pastoral pose of fashionable ladies. I n these circles it also had a further
cosmetic advantage—unlike the v i o l i n , its nearest musical equivalent, i t is
played ' d o w n w a r d s ' o n the lap, leaving the pretty head and coiffure free,
and not m a r k i n g the delicate w h i t e skin of the neck. N o t surprisingly, i t
was of no further use after the Revolution.
The h i g h social level of its French patrons ensured a n equally h i g h
standard of manufacture and finish for these small instruments. Makers
most noted for their o u t p u t of pardessus were Paul Francois Grosset,
Claude Pierray, and his pupil Louis Guersan. The present example is f r o m
the h a n d of this latter, and was made by h i m i n 1759. I t is of the usuai
five-stringed f o r m , b u t is perhaps a little larger t h a n the usuai size. As can
be seen f r o m the d r a w i n g , it follows the 'classic' pattern encountered here
i n t w o previous examples, the Jaye and Tielke viols, a n d , indeed,
established some 1 5 0 - 2 0 0 years earlier t h a n the date of this Guersan.
I n fact, the late date of this i n s t r u m e n t , c o i n c i d i n g w i t h the final decline
of the viol family, could account for a similar decay i n design-geometry, a
deterioration only fully apparent w h e n viewed comparatively w i t h the
preceding examples.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , n u m e r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n has been carefully considered i n
the outline of this i n s t r u m e n t , a n d , interestingly, the system selected was
not the golden section but the related (and equally irrational) yj5
p r o p o r t i o n , w h i c h , the r e a d e r w i l l remember, was also used i n the M a r i a
v i o l , Ex. I I , and more significantly i n Ex. V , the bass viol by Tielke.
As w i t h the Jaye, the Guersan's actual body l e n g t h , BD, was a
measurement unrelated to any scheme or system used i n the rest of the
i n s t r u m e n t (see Fig. 38). W h i l s t , however, the upper-bout arcs of the Jaye
revealed a cruciai 'design b o d y - l e n g t h , here no such device was to be
5

f o u n d , the equivalent arc-centre i n the Guersan n o t being o n the centre

line. Despite the absence of this 'point of upper l i m i t ' the proportional3 9

principle attached to i t , and s h o w n i n Fig. 3 0 , stili applies. Here, Fig. 3 8 ,

the string length AC ( n u t to bridge), 305 m m , was f o u n d to be twice CD
(bridge to tail), 152.5 m m .
A l t h o u g h here there is n o , indeed can be n o , great-circle geometry as
found i n the M a r i a and i n the Jaye, a circle can be d r a w n , centre C (the
true bridge position), w h i c h describes part of the lower bouts, the are of
origin H D H ' . W h e n produced, H D H ' crosses the centre line at O, dividing
the string length AC i n t w o , thus giving the octave point.
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

A counterpart for the t w o related 0 systems, used respectively for the

upper and lower sections of the Jaye v i o l , can be seen here i n the scheme of
the Guersan. Based o n an alternative J 5 system, their most closely related
terms are s h o w n as the horizontal brackets i n Fig. 3 8 , t h a t is, the w i d t h of
upper and lower bouts. Their relationship, as measured, is n o t a n exact
one, b u t is dose e n o u g h , given the y/5 scheme of the i n s t r u m e n t , t o
m e n t i o n here: their r a t i o , 158 m m : 194.5 m m , is 1 : 1 . 2 3 ( 1 ) , 1.23(6)
being 75 - 1 . Both these vectors (158 and 194.5) are the major terms i n
separate progressions, as we shall see.
Fig. 39 shows the o u t l i n e a n a l y s e d , w i t h its component arcs. The are of
origin of the lower bouts, as we saw i n Fig. 3 8 , is centred at C, the true
bridge position. Its radius is therefore 152.5 m m . The lower bouts are
continued by are H T , centre G ' , radius 87 m m . The c u r v e is c o m p l e t e d
by are l ' N ' , centre I (on the opposite edge), radius 194.5 m m . These t w o
values have a relationship, 87 m m : 194.5 m m being 1 : 2 . 2 3 6 .
The middle bouts are rather more arbitrarily disposed : are N ' R ' , radius
25 m m , is i n 2.24 relationship QS?) w i t h m a i n are R'Q', centre P',
radius 56 m m , b u t the small are Q ' M ' , radius 18 m m , does n o t relate
proportionately to any other vector. The m a i n middle-bout vector of
56 m m is not only the radius of the 'centring circle', w h i c h , centred at C,
the bridge-line p o i n t , can be d r a w n t h r o u g h the C-hole centrings, b u t is
also the m a i n radius of the inner curve of the C-holes themselves. The FIG
outer curve is of radius 76 m m , again an unrelated number.
The three upper-bout arcs are governed by the second y/5 progression.
Are M ' K ' , centre K o n the opposite edge, is of radius 158 m m . The curve is
continued by are K'S' centre /', radius 70.5 m m , and completed by the
9

counter-curve of the shoulder, are S'L/', centre T , radius 31.5 m m .

Thus, the values 1 5 8 , 70.5, and 31.5 can be seen as a ^ 5 progression:

158 :70.5
being 1 :2.2(41)
and 70.5 :31.5
being 1 :2.23(8),
more precise millimetre values not being possible.
The head of this Guersan viol is surmounted by a well-carved female
head w i t h c u r l i n g , flower-topped hair. The peg-box cheeks and back are
also decorated, here w i t h w i n d i n g garlands carved i n relief. N o t as m u c h
care, however, has been taken w i t h the proportional regulation of the
peg-box curves as has been expended o n the decoration. None of the
vectors w h i c h govern these curves or the c o n t a i n i n g rectangle appears to
relate to those used i n the m a i n scheme, or indeed to each other. They are
d r a w n i n Fig. 4 0 , and an account of their values follows.
The carving of the hair ceases, and the curve of the peg-box back
commences, at B, w i t h are BC, radius 48.5 m m ; its centre, L, does
however lie o n Une SP of the c o n t a i n i n g rectangle PORS. A straight line,
CG, links this are to counter-curve GH, centre I , radius 65.5 m m . The
m a i n curve of the top of the peg-box is given by are N M , centre 0 (on I H ) ,
radius 85 m m . This is connected, by straight line M K , to the small FIG
completing are KJ radius 26 m m , w h i c h shares a c o m m o n centre o n SP
3

w i t h are BC at L.
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 55

LIRAS DA BRACCIO

One of the few certain ancestors of the v i o l i n , the lira da braccio, was a
sophisticated Italian instrument w h i c h first appeared at the end of the
fifteenth century, a probable development f r o m the medieval da braccio
violas and fiddles. Few complete liras da braccio survive, w h i c h is
surprising given the importance placed u p o n the i n s t r u m e n t by the
aristocracy and by the Neoplatonists, w h o quite erroneously judged i t to
be a l i n k w i t h the fabled lyre of the ancients. I t was initially for the playing
of this instrument that Leonardo was accepted into the service of Ludovico
Sforza at M i l a n , his lira being one of his o w n manufacture, made of Silver
4 0

(or, more likely, decorated w i t h Silver) and h a v i n g the shape of a horse's

head. Unfortunately, this instrument does not survive, a l t h o u g h another
'cosa bizarra e n u o v a ' , by Giovanni d'Andrea of Verona, a lira of great
anthropomorphic and symbolical extravagance, does, and is n o w i n the
Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m of Vienna.
The first of our examples is of a more sober design. I t is of the fully
developed f o r m , w i t h t w o pairs of corners giving the customary three pairs
of bouts of the v i o l i n family. F r o m iconographical evidence i t has been
established that originally the lira, or ' v i o l a ' , as it was first called, was of a
cornerless guitar f o r m , w h i c h later adopted first the lower and t h e n both
pairs of corners as i n the present example. The bi-lobed lower bouts and
fiat peg-box are b o t h typical features of the l i r a — t h e former being found
only o n the 'braccio' version and not i n the lira da gamba. (One could
therefore suppose that the resulting recess was to facilitate playing w h a t is
a quite sizeable instrument against the neck or shoulder.)

Ex. V I I
Figs. 4 1 - 4 3 , PI. V I I
LIRA DA BRACCIO. ITALY, VENICE, C.1575
GIOVANNI M A R I A DA BRESCIA

HILL COLLECTION, A S H M O L E A N MUSEUM, OXFORD

Acc. N o . : 8

This i n s t r u m e n t is i n the H i l l collection at the Ashmolean M u s e u m — i t is

the smallest of the s u r v i v i n g liras da b r a c c i o and is fully described i n the
41

Boyden catalogue. There appears to be some doubt and mystery as to its

provenance. A t present it bears a label of Giovanni M a r i a da Brescia,
'Gioan m a r i a bresiano i n Venetia', w h i c h , most probably, i t has not 4 0
Giorgio Vasari, The Lives of the Artists (tr.
George Bull, 1965; Penguin, 1978).
always possessed, as i t seems likely that this i n s t r u m e n t and the lira once 4 1
A larger example of the same four-
owned and carefully described by Major Hajdecki i n his i m p o r t a n t s t u d y 42
cornered type as the Ashmolean lira is to be
are one and the same. Hajdecki's l i r a , at that time, bore a false found in the Donaldson collection and is illus-
trated in pls. 5 and 6 of Anthony Baines,
'Duiffopruggar' (Tieffenbrucker) label. I n any event, Boyden's i n f o r m a -
European and American Musical Instruments.
t i o n and consequent conclusions as to Giovanni Maria's dates w o u l d This is now thought to be a nineteenth-century
appear to be incorrect (see p. 35 n . 29 above), and if this, undoubtedly impostor.
Venetian, i n s t r u m e n t was made by h i m , its date w o u l d not be c i 5 2 5 but
4 2
Die italienische Lira da Braccio (Mostar,
Hercegovina, 1892).
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

a good half-century later, w h i c h perhaps w o u l d seem to be a more likely

dating for the Ashmolean l i r a , given its fully developed state.
Handsome t h o u g h this instrument is, i t does n o t , I feel, c o m m a n d the
same aesthetic response as the Giovanni M a r i a treble viol (Ex. I I ) , whose
simpler, more homogeneous, design projects a sense of h a r m o n y w h i c h
I und lacking i n the, albeit more complex, less carefully made lira.
H a r m o n i c a l l y and geometrically the design of b o t h instruments is
interesting; and t h o u g h differing i n proportional system, each makes use
of a 'great circle' to encompass the m a i n middle-bout are centres.
I n practice, this lira proved to be one of the most difficult designs to
analyse, not for any generic reason, b u t simply because the number of
irregularities and asymmetries present i n the outline clouded and
confused m a n y attempts to reveal its u n d e r l y i n g geometry. The nature of
the difflculties involved i n tracing a scheme w i t h i n a given outline is
further discussed i n connection w i t h the fine M a g g i n i viola (Ex. XIV)
below. The chief difficulty i n the present case was the frequent incon-
sistency between 'left-' and ' r i g h t ' - h a n d factors. Despite this, a governing
scheme is apparent and can be described, if somewhat cautiously.
The overall proportions, w h i c h do seem to have been given some con-
sideration, are s h o w n i n Fig. 4 1 . The commensurable scheme, w h i c h we
shall encounter i n the are radii of the outline, is used f r o m the outset, the
c o m m o n u n i t , u , being 15.5 m m . A body-containing rectangle is d r a w n
i n Fig. 4 1 , wxyz, measuring 388 m m (body length BD) by 232 m m (lower-
bout w i d t h IV) ; this, a l l o w i n g a 0.5 m m m a r g i n of e r r o r , gives the ratio

4 388 m m /387.5 m m \ 25u

• = 1.666 or 3 :5.
232 mm \232.5 mm 15u

W Incidentally, BD, 388 m m (387.5 m m ) , is also equivalent to 13^

Venetian inches. The lower-bout w i d t h I I ' also has a harmonic horizontal
>
linear relationship w i t h upper-bout w i d t h WW ( W W measures 187
m m , here indulgently read as 1 2 u ) :
232 m m / 2 3 2 . 5 m m \ 15u ^ ^
187 m m \ 186 m m ) ~ 12u ~ or . ,

W W , 1 8 7 m m , measuring 6 { (6.52) Venetian inches.

The same system was f o u n d to govern the string length or n u t and

!rT bridge positions. String length AV is measured as 325 m m or, a l l o w i n g

0.5 m m error, 2 l u (325.5 m m ) , w h i c h is so arranged that neck l e n g t h ,
A B , is \AV or BV = 2AB. The length below the bridge, V D , is also
Ò

commensurable to the m a i n scheme: VD = 1 7 1 m m (170.5 m m ) = l l u .

The great circle and component-arc radii are d r a w n i n Fig. 4 2 . I n this
J scheme, the great circle is not so well integrated as i t was i n the M a r i a
treble v i o l , where, as well as positioning the middle-bout are c e n t r e s , i t
also formed the lower-bout are of o r i g i n , connecting the t w o vesica piscis
arcs. Of course, the bi-lobed b o t t o m of the lira precludes this particular
arrangement, and the circle, whose radius is measured as 194 m m
( 1 9 3 . 7 5 m m = 12.5w), is centred at C, passing t h r o u g h the body-top B,
middle-bout are centre O, and across the lower-bout lobes to D.
A l l o w i n g for the rather badly fitted tail n u t or 'saddle', the outline
commences at d' w i t h are d'IT, centre E', radius 1 55 m m , o r 10n. I t
continues w i t h quadrant are H ' I ' , centre G ' , radius 62.5 m m (here taken
as 4m), and w i t h are I'J', centre Kon the centre line, radius half lower-bout
w i d t h 116 m m , or 7\u ( 1 1 6 . 2 5 m m ) . The lower bouts are completed by
counter-curve / ' M ' , centre L ' , radius 23 m m , or \\u (23.25 m m ) .
 Here, for the first time i n this study, we meet the violin-type corner ; the
viol-type corners so far encountered are true geometrical points, i n that
the t w o arcs f o r m i n g the corner actually meet, whereas i n the case of the
violin-type, the t w o corner-forming arcs never t o u c h , b u t are separated,
and linked, by a short, theoretically straight, line. T h u s , i n the latter case,
t w o separate points of are t e r m i n a t i o n actually occur at the corners ; for
the sake of clarity, however, i n such cases t h r o u g h o u t this study only one
' c o m m o n ' corner-terminating letter w i l l be given, as i t was i n a more
traditionally correct methodology i n the case of the viol-type corner.
The middle bouts are formed by three arcs: M ' N ' , centre P', radius
16 m m or u (15.5 m m ) ; m a i n are N ' Q ' , centre 0 ' o n the 'great circle' w i t h
a radius measured as 124 m m (or Su) o n one side, b u t as 128 m m o n the
o t h e r ; and finally, are Q'S', centre R', radius 15.5 m m , or u.
The upper bouts, perhaps the most erratic part of the scheme,
commence at S w i t h counter-curve S ' U ' , centre T , radius 32 m m (2w?)
on the r i g h t , but 36.5 m m o n the left. The curve is continued by are U'W
centred at F o n the centre line (echoing the lower-bout construction) w i t h
a radius therefore of half the upper-bout w i d t h , t h a t is, 93.5 m m , or 6u
(93 m m ) , and completed by quadrant are W X ' , centre Z ' and of radius
82 m m o n one side and 83.5 m m o n the other, neither of w h i c h appears to
relate to the emerging proportional scheme.
The circle piercing the f-hoìe centrings is centred at E o n the centre line ;
its radius, 65.5 m m , is too large to be considered a u n i t vector, 62 m m , 4 u ,
being the closest t e r m .
The beautifully decorated head, w i t h its delicately painted Moresques
recalling contemporary I t a l i a n harpsichord decoration, is here p u r i - FIG.
tanically given i n bare o u t l i n e , i n Fig. 4 3 . W h i l s t no proportional
significance was f o u n d i n the ratio of the c o n t a i n i n g rectangle, or its
components, the three arcs w h i c h f o r m the convoluted sides of the
peg-box revealed the same commensurable ratios as the m a i n scheme.
F r o m top to b o t t o m i n Fig. 4 3 : are A ' B ' , centre C , has a radius of
46.5 m m , or 3u; short straight line B ' D ' conneets this are to are D ' F ' ,
centre E o n the opposite side, and of radius 78.5 m m (5u ?—i.e. 77.5 m m ) ;
the r e m a i n i n g are, F ' H ' , is centred at G\and is of radius 4 7 m m , again 3u
(46.5 m m ) . (3 : 5 was the overall body ratio.) The peg-box side is
completed by straight line H T .
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES
59

Ex. V i l i
Fig. 44, PI. V I I I
LIRA DA BRACCIO. IT A L Y, BRESCIA, C.1585?

GASPARO DA SALÒ
HILL COLLECTION, ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM, OXFORD
Acc. N o . : 9

The t w o r e m a i n i n g examples of lira instruments to be considered are b o t h

Brescian, and t h o u g h of radically differing scale, they have similar body
outlines, that is, bi-lobed and t w o - rather t h a n four-cornered.
The first, and smaller of the t w o , is attributed to Gasparo da Salò, and
forms part of the Ashmolean H i l l collection, w h e r e i n i t is catalogued as
l i r a - v i o l a of ' h y b r i d f o r m , f o u n d d u r i n g the early evolution of the v i o l i n
family and c o m b i n i n g elements of the viola and lira da braccio'. Baines,
too, groups this particular example w i t h the m o d e m development of the
' v i o l a ' as 'middle member of the v i o l i n g r o u p ' . I t seems quite as likely,
however, that the present four-stringed state of this i n s t r u m e n t is a later
alteration b r o u g h t about i n the interests of prolonged use (Boyden
vouches for the beauty and power of its tone), and t h a t this Gasparo m a y
equally w e l l have originally functioned as a five- or seven-stringed lira da
braccio. If such is the case, t h e n the i n s t r u m e n t before us w o u l d originally
have possessed the characteristic leaf-shaped head, w i t h a facility for
drones or b o u r d o n strings (see PI. V I I ) , rather t h a n the more familiar
scroll-head w i t h four lateral pegs, w h i c h it n o w bears. The lira group,
despite its importance i n Renaissance music and c u l t u r e , remains a
mysterious, insufficiently researched area of organology ; w i t h o u t further
knowledge, the exact originai state of an i n s t r u m e n t such as this can only
be a matter of conjecture.
Contemporary illustrations of the two-cornered lira f o r m , however, are
n u m e r o u s , and a n excellent analogous study of some of these graphics
and of the few s u r v i v i n g instruments has been made by Laurence
W i t t e n . I n Witten's v i e w , the date claimed by the label of this A s h -
4 3

molean instrument—'Gasparo da Salò, i n Brescia 1561'—is too early (the

first record, or other 'record', of his w o r k i n g i n Brescia being f r o m 1565)
and he prefers to date the i n s t r u m e n t f r o m 1 6 0 0 — w h i c h even by his o w n
presented findings of graphic evidence seems perhaps a little late. The
great r a r i t y , and therefore the doubtful a u t h e n t i c i t y , of dated Gasparo
labels is, of course, a point w e l l heeded.
Whatever its date, there seems little doubt t h a t Gasparo Bertolotti,
called da Salò, was the a u t h o r of this l i r a , whose p o w e r f u l , f o r t h r i g h t
design is upheld by its equally robust w o r k m a n s h i p . The curious w o o d
used i n the belly is cedar of Lebanon, of a vigorous 'cross-hatched' g r o w t h ,
w h i c h no doubt contributes to the instrument's somewhat austere
countenance.
None of the measurements of overall height or w i d t h i n either this or the
following example was f o u n d to have been considered proportionately.
This is u n u s u a l , a l t h o u g h , as a glance at S u m m a r y Chart 1 o n p. 158 w i l l
c o n f i m i , not exceptional. I t is u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t i n b o t h cases no reliable
evidence of o r i g i n a i string l e n g t h , n u t position, or exact bridge position
exists to enlighten their geometries, w h i c h w i l l therefore be considered i n
body outline only. 4 3
Laurence C. Witten I I , 'Apollo, Orpheus,
and David', Journal of the American Musical
The body design of the Gasparo lira was f o u n d to be governed by a Instrument Society, i (1975).
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

commensurable scheme based o n n o t one, b u t t w o u n i t s , giving t w o

scales of aggregation, w h i c h , peculiarly, are not obviously related to one
another, a l t h o u g h each is independently established by the same process.
The smaller u n i t , u , governs the upper-bout area of the i n s t r u m e n t , as
w e l l as the positioning of the /-holes. I t is calculated as 17.75 m m , and is
one-twelfth of the upper-bout w i d t h , w h i c h is constructionally divided
i n t o three equal parts by a vesica piscis arrangement, each radius of w h i c h
therefore measures 4 u , as we shall see.
The larger u n i t , 17, governs the middle and lower bouts of the design; i t
measures 21.5 m m and is i n t u r n one t w e l f t h part of the lower-bout w i d t h ,
w h i c h is similarly divided i n t o three equal parts of 417 by the vesica piscis
de vice w h i c h provides the m a i n arcs of the lower bouts.
Considering the ubiquitous nature of the vesica piscis construction, i t is
surprising t h a t , out of the three examples chosen here, each h a v i n g
bi-lobed lower bouts (a design w h i c h immediately suggests the t w o
interlocked vesica circles), only one, this lira of Gasparo, actually
i n c o r p o r a t e s the d e v i c e . This can be seen i n Fig. 4 4 , c e n t r e d at G and G'.
The outline begins w i t h vesica are d i ' , centre G ' , radius 86 m m or 417; i t
continues w i t h are l ' H ' , centre K o n the centre line, radius therefore 617
(129 m m ) . A short straight line H ' J ' conneets this are w i t h corner
counter-curve J ' M ' , centre L ' , radius 21.5 m m , or 17.
The middle bouts, if such they can be called, begin w i t h are M ' N ' ,
centre P', radius measured as 16 m m , w h i c h , a l l o w i n g a 0.125 m m
' e r r o r ' , proclaims this vector as 0.7517 and therefore a quarter of the next
vector, the radius of are N ' V , centred at 0 ' , measuring 64.5 m m or 317.
The are, as w e l l as h a v i n g obligatory tangentiality w i t h its t w o adjoining
arcs, is also ' t a n g e n t i a l ' to are M ' J ' produced and to are l ' H ' produced, as
can be seen i n the d r a w i n g . Radius O ' P ' N ' produced w i l l also cross the
centre line at point C, the 'theoretical' model centre.
This is the stage where the smaller commensurable u n i t [u =
17.75 m m ) takes over the design. Are V'W is centred at Z o n the opposite
side of the i n s t r u m e n t , at a one-third division of the upper-bout w i d t h (see
implied vesica i n Fig. 44). Its radius therefore measures 8w, or 142 m m ,
w h i c h incidentally is also the distance QO'. These arcs, w h e n produced
d o w n w a r d s , cross the centre line a little below point F, and thence
intersect the opposite lower sound-hole centring, and the opposite corner.
The upper bouts are completed by are W X ' , centre Y ' , radius measured as
89 m m , w h i c h , a l l o w i n g 0.25 m m error, equals Su (88.75 m m ) .
The smaller-unit system is also used i n positioning the/-holes. The circle
piercing the four/-hole centrings is centred at point F ; its radius, 71 m m ,
is 4u. The upper f-hoìe centrings are pierced, too, by the upper,
constructional, vesica circles, radius also 4w. I n addition, F is the point
where the c u r r e n t bridge position crosses the centre line.
The head of this i n s t r u m e n t , as we have already discussed, is a possible
scroll replacement to w h a t m a y have been a leaf f o r m of peg-box. The
present head, however, w o u l d seem not to be a restoration ' i n the old
style' as Boyden suggests, b u t an o r i g i n a i , o l d , Brescian head, perhaps
even f r o m a tenor by Gasparo himself. Handsome t h o u g h this cannibal-
ized scroll is, w i t h its fine Ionie volute, its geometrical scheme is of no
relevance to the lira's originai design, and is therefore not analysed here.
PLATE V i l i
62 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

Ex. IX
Figs. 4 5 - 4 6 , PI. IX
LIRA DA BRACCIO. ITALY, B R E S C I A , C.1570
MAKER UNKNOWN
MUSÉE DU C O N S E R V A T O L E ROYAL DE M U S I O U E , BRUSSELS

Acc. N o . : 1415

There is no adequate reason to doubt t h a t this impressive specimen,

despite its e n o r m i t y , was once strung and played alla spalla as a lira da
braccio. A n idea of just h o w so large a lira was accommodated by a player
can be understood f r o m the figure of Apollo i n Raphael's Parnassus, the
preparatory study for w h i c h is given here as Fig. 4 5 . The head of the lira
('lyre') w h i c h Apollo is playing is also clearly s h o w n as the fiat, leaf-shape
type w i t h seven pegs—both the mystical number of strings for Apollo's

FIG. 4 5 . D r a w i n g for t h e Parnassus

A p o l l o , Raphael. (By courtesy of the
Musée des B e a u x - A r t s , Lille)
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

archaic lyre, a n d , i n consequence, the standard disposition for the

sixteenth-century lira da braccio. The originai head and fittings for this
example have long since passed into l i m b o , along w i t h any proportional
i n f o r m a t i o n they m a y have disclosed, the i n s t r u m e n t consisting of a
body-shell alone w h e n i t was examined for this study.
As w i t h the preceding example, the table has been made f r o m cedar of
L e b a n o n , a rather coarse timber apparently i n plentiful supply i n
sixteenth-century Brescia. This i n s t r u m e n t , like Ex. V i l i , also bears a
Gasparo da Salò label, a l t h o u g h here it is an obvious, h a n d w r i t t e n
counterfeit. The true author of this giant lira is u n k n o w n ; he was
certainly Brescian (the previous a t t r i b u t i o n to Gasparo is, however,
unlikely) and he was undoubtedly a skilled w o r k e r , as the admirable
purfling designs of the back i n l a y demonstrate. A manufacture date
w i t h i n the period 1 5 6 0 - 8 0 is perhaps the most likely.
I n dealing w i t h the geometry of the small Gasparo l i r a , i t was mentioned
apropos t h a t no clear overall proportions of height or w i d t h resolved
themselves i n either that or the present example. Here, i n the absence of
these, or any traceable f o r m of p l a n n i n g circle, rectangle, or other device
such as the vesica piscis, only the commensurable scheme, w h i c h governs
ali b u t one of the component-arc r a d i i , exists to disclose any proportional
considerations of its maker.
The body o u t l i n e , broken d o w n into its constituent arcs, is d r a w n i n
Fig. 4 6 . The lower bouts, w h i c h , as we have previously mentioned, are
not formed by a vesica construction, commence at d, w i t h are di'. This are,
whose centre is at G ' , is of radius 112.5 m m , w h i c h , i n the commen-
surable scheme, measures 5w, where u = 22.5 m m . The curve is
continued by are V]\ centre K', radius 135 m m , or 6 u , and is terminated
by counter-curve J ' M ' , centre I / , radius 22.5 m m or u.
The middle/upper-bout outline is started w i t h are M ' N ' , centre P',
radius also 22.5 m m , w, thus m a k i n g the corner symmetrically curved.
Point O' is the centre of the next are N'V whose radius O'N' is i n line w i t h
point E o n the centre line. This radius (of are N'V) measures 90.5 m m ,
w h i c h , a l l o w i n g a 0.5 m m error, is taken here to be 4 u (90 m m ) .
The upper bouts consist of just t w o arcs: V ' W ' and W'X'. V ' W ' is
centred at Z o n the opposite side, its large radius, 225 m m , being exactly
1 0 I L The last are of the o u t l i n e , the r e m a i n i n g upper-bout are W ' X ' ,
centred at Y ' , is the only are radius w h i c h does n o t relate to the u n i t
scheme governing the rest of the i n s t r u m e n t . Nor does this rogue
measurement of 129 m m respond to any other part of the design, b a r r i n g
t w o m i n o r exceptions : the first is its repetition as the i n t e r v a l GG' (Fig. 46)
between the m a i n lower-bout centres, and the second as the distance S'O'
o n line ES'O', point S'being where EO' interseets the sound-hole centring
circle centred at E. N o c o n v i n c i n g rectangular or other p l a n n i n g rationale
could, however, be justified for these coincident amounts.
The radius of the circle, centre E, piercing the four /-hole centrings was
measured as 69 m m , w h i c h cannot quite be considered part of the
commensurable scheme (3u = 67.5 m m ) . The distance between upper
and lower sound-hole centrings (102 m m ) was found to be the same as
that between the t w o lower centring points.
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

VIOLINS (VIOLA, VIOLONCELLO)

Perhaps no single event i n the history of Western musical instruments has

had greater impact o n subsequent musical t h o u g h t and practice t h a n the
emergence, i n the sixteenth century, of the v i o l i n f a m i l y .
The exact time-and-place circumstances of t h a t appearance are stili n o t
fully established, a l t h o u g h the belief is generally held t h a t the family
evolved f r o m b o t h the l o w l y rebec and the lofty lira da braccio, and t h a t
the first violins were of the ' v i o l a ' range, the other members of the family
developing up and d o w n i n pitch-sizes f r o m these. The first 'small violas'
(the 'violinos') were, i n fact, three-stringed, a l t h o u g h no early v i o l i n i n
three-stringed state is k n o w n to survive.
There were also members of the family other t h a n those w h i c h n o w
f o r m the classic quartet, t h a t is, v i o l i n , v i o l a , and violoncello (the
double-bass is really a modified orchestrai v a r i a n t f r o m the v i o l f a m i l y , 4 4

there being no true contrabass v i o l i n ) . The extension of the t o n a i range of

these three m a i n divisions, however, meant t h a t the intermediary
i n s t r u m e n t sizes, such as the tenor violas, the violoncello piccolo, and
violino piccolos, were i n effect made redundant.
The early v i o l i n s , i n England p a r t i c u l a r l y , suffered t o n a i comparison
w i t h the gentle concord of the viols and v i o l consorts. At first, the violin's
more incisive, vigorous voice was used i n music of the dance, and t h a t ,
according to the lawyer Roger N o r t h ( 1 6 5 3 - 1 7 3 4 ) , at rather a l o w social
level : 'the use of the v i o l i n had b i n litle i n England except by C o m m o n
Fidlers', and even Mersenne ( 1 6 3 6 ) t h o u g h t t h a t 'the v i o l i n is too crude'.
Thomas Mace, whose enthusiasm for the viols we have already encoun-
tered, was equally scathing and reactionary. The 'scoulding v i o l i n s '
w h i c h made his 'Ears G l o w ' and filled his 'brains f u l l of Friskes' were,
however, a good deal less brilliant and penetrating i n sound t h a n the
i n s t r u m e n t we ourselves are used to hearing, a v i o l i n w h i c h i n t u r n lacks
something of the silvery mellowness and w a r m t h of its baroque pre-
decessor. A p a r t f r o m the considerable acoustical developments accom-
plished by the great Cremonese masters, this difference i n sound is, to a
large degree, due to the major s t r u c t u r a l changes imposed u p o n the v i o l i n
by the increasing technical demands, and changing t o n a i criteria a n d
pitch levels, of its later players.
These s t r u c t u r a l modifications, w h i c h had been made by about 1 8 0 0 ,
included the replacement of the old bass-bar w i t h a longer, stouter one,
the lengthening of the finger-board, raising of the height and camber of
the bridge (thus once and for ali stressing the instrument's role as a
melodie one), a n d , most cruciai of ali to the instrument's o u t w a r d design,
the lengthening, re-angling, and r e c o n t o u r i n g of the neck. This last is of
great pertinence here, as such alterations to old instruments inevitably
obscure some of the designerà o r i g i n a i geometrical p i a n
Tonally valued instruments rarely escaped this 'neck surgery', w h i c h
either involved remodelling and re-angling, or, more frequently, complete

n e^w , eextended,
a C
^ n H °H neck.
T ^ " * * " ° M h e a d
* * * * * * * * * ° " ^ the

bymir^nT^ aeSth6tÌC
T l° ^ C t f m o
r e demonstrated
d i f l

by FlgS. 4 7 and 4 8 , an o n g i n a l neck a n d a modified neck, respectively. I t

c a t i o n a
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
66

w i l l be observed at once t h a t the organic h a r m o n y of head-neck-body is

lost w i t h this alteration. I n Fig. 4 7 the j o i n between the neck a n d the later
discarded Anger-board wedge is i n line w i t h the seam between table and
ribs. I n profìle, the slope of board and neck each taper o n either side of this
o line towards the head, the more organic taper of the o r i g i n a i neck h a v i n g
o greater sympathy w i t h the c u r v i n g taper of the head, f r o m the cheeks
r o u n d i n t o the scroll. Moreover, the o r i g i n a i wedge (supporting the older,
more delicate flnger-board) reconciled, by means of its arched underside,
the curve of the table-arching w i t h the straight line of the Anger-board
t o p — a n aesthetic nicety t h a t was overlooked w i t h the ' i m p r o v e m e n t ' ,
Fig. 4 8 , where the straight back of the new finger-board juts out
unsympathetically over the contoured modelling of the table.

The Cremonese Violin

The extreme diversity of f o r m w h i c h characterized the early development
of the viol fìnds no true parallel i n the formative years of the v i o l i n family.
The essential shape of the v i o l i n was formalized early, w i t h no subsequent
deviant enjoying any measure of success. The cruciai evolution of the
45

i n s t r u m e n t , b o t h acoustic and aesthetic, f r o m the sixteenth to the

eighteenth centuries was therefore accomplished w i t h i n comparatively
n a r r o w and infìnitely subtle constraints. Accordingly, I have decided to
examine this graduai development t h r o u g h four instruments, dating from
1 5 6 4 to 1 7 0 3 , instruments f r o m three makers u n i t e d by the most
i m p o r t a n t and i n n o v a t o r y tradition of v i o l i n - m a k i n g , the Cremonese
F I G . 47. Originai form of violin neck and school. The four violins are the Andrea A m a t i of 1 5 6 4 , a Nicola A m a t i
Anger-board c. 1 6 7 0 , and t w o by A n t o n i o Stradivari, one of 1 6 6 6 , and the ' E m i l i a n i ' of
1703.

Ex. X
Figs. 4 9 - 5 4 , PI. X
VIOLIN (SMALL MODEL). ITALY, CREMONA, 1564
ANDREA AMATI

HILL COLLECTION, ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM, OXFORD

A c c . N o . : 10

Our first example selected f r o m the v i o l i n family is one of the earliest of

Attempts at 'redesigning' the instrument
4 5
in the nineteenth century were made by re-
spected luthiers such as Chanot, Savart, and
Staufer. They consisted of reductions of the
complex body outline to a more rational,
cornerless form. Models produced by Chanot
and Staufer were of guitar outline—a shape
Stradivari himself had considered—while that
of Savart was of trapezoid form. Both types are
reported favourably in 'behind the curtain'
acoustic tests, but, predictably, neither achieved
any degree of acceptance i n the aesthetically
conservative world of the musician.
r e m a i n i n g stringed instruments. A n exquisite v i o l i n f r o m the h a n d of
Andrea A m a t i , i t dates f r o m 1 5 6 4 , and is one of the t h i r t y - e i g h t
instruments made by t h a t great master for K i n g Charles IX of France.
The back and ribs bear traces of the painted r o y a l insignia and m o t t o ,
'Pietate et Justitia', used by the y o u n g k i n g (only fourteen years old w h e n
this i n s t r u m e n t was completed) and his mother, Catherine de Medici, w h o
most probably commissioned the ' t h i r t y - e i g h t ' (twelve small violins,
twelve large violins, six tenors, and eight basses) to be used by the
musicians of the French court. The sound of this body of strings must have
been ' r o y a l ' indeed. Alas, only a h a n d f u l of these Charles IX Amatis
survived the dispersal and destruction of court property b r o u g h t about by
the F r e n c h Revolution.
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 67

The H i l l collection at the Ashmolean M u s e u m , however, includes two

Charles IX i n s t r u m e n t s : a magniflcent large viola (one of the six 'tenors')
and this beautiful i n s t r u m e n t , one of the twelve small-pattern violins
w h i c h w o u l d have played the upper-treble parts i n the royal concerts.
Despite its extremely early date, this v i o l i n is a fully developed
i n s t r u m e n t , the product of over t h i r t y years' experience of a master
luthier, perhaps the first great violin-maker to gain widespread recog-
n i t i o n for his w o r k .
Its geometry is rather complex, lacking the elegant economy f o u n d , for
example, i n the design of the M a r i a treble v i o l , or the geometrical facility
displayed i n the more complex scheme of the tenor viol by Jaye. Like b o t h
these instruments, however, b u t unlike the other violins here to be
discussed, this A m a t i stili retains a trace of the great-circle geometry
w h i c h we shall also encounter i n the Brescian viola by M a g g i n i . The great
circle (radius \ body-length, centre C ) is no longer used here as a centring
guide for the middle-bout arcs, but does stili prò vide the foundation of the
outline, the arcs of o r i g i n , i n Fig. 49 arcs HDH' and GBG'.
It is this t e r m , radius CB, or CD, w h i c h becomes the largest t e r m , <^6 i n 5

a seven-part <f> series governing the upper-bout design, and, to a lesser

e x t e n t , the position of the /-holes and the radii of the m i n o r arcs of the
middle bouts. The vectors, i n millimetres, of this series are :
fa: 1 7 1 . 5 , fa: 1 0 6 , fa: 6 5 . 5 , fa: 4 0 . 5 , fa: 2 5 , fa: 15.4, 0 : 9.5.

Fig. 50 shows the scheme for the upper bouts. The composite curve G'S'
is initiated by the upper are of o r i g i n B G ' , centre C. C is also the centre of
the model, and thus the radius of are BG' is half body-length, 171.5 m m or
<f> . Point E' on radius CG' is a <j> division, and is the centre for are G ' M ' ,
6

radius fa (CE' is the <f> radius of a n i m p o r t a n t construction circle w h i c h is

5 F I G . 4 8 . M o d i f i c a t i o n of v i o l i n neck a n d
discussed below). The upper-bout curve t h e n shallows w i t h are M ' N ' , Anger-board
centre L o n the centre line, and therefore of radius half upper-bout
w i d t h . This radius, like that of the small counter-curve are N ' S ' , has no
numerical relationship to either the <j> series or any other major vector
used i n the design.
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Fig. 5 1 examines a further use of the <f> series. A circle of radius fa,
centre C, pierces the /-hole at its centre V between the middle notehes,
whilst a circle of radius fa, also centre C, pierces the lower/-hole centring,
W . The i m p o r t a n t <£ circle mentioned earlier is s h o w n here as are E'P'O
5

w h i c h together w i t h the body length deflnes the hypothetical vertical

aggregation of four <f> rectangles (for clarity, only half the symmetrical
pian is s h o w n ) , whose diagonals, BP' and D P ' , pierce the corners S'and V
respectively. The establishment, i n this w a y , of point P ' (and, of course, its
lateral inversion, P) is of great importance i n determining the vector
w h i c h is to complete the plotting of middle and lower bouts, as we
shall see.
This vector could be described as being distantly related to the 0 series
discussed above. Mathematically, it is i n fact § of fa ( f 106 m m = x

7 0 . 6 6 6 m m , or 70.7 m m ) , w i t h a n additional commensurable relation-

ship w i t h the body length of w h i c h it is one-fifth ( ^ x 3 5 3 m m =
70.6 m m ) . Geometrically its value, and relationship to the body outline
and the <f> series, is demonstrated i n Fig. 52 by d r a w i n g the vesica piscis o n
the horizontal centre line, between the t w o corner-piercing </>-rectangle
diagorial points P and P ' (i.e. o n line PCP'). The c o m m o n radius of the
vesica piscis circles is equal i n value to the vector t h a t we seek. The
relationship between the fa radius circle, the vesica piscis, and the outline
is s h o w n i n Fig. 52 by the lines of intersection—QQ'Q" and R J R ' R " .
The lower and middle bouts are completed i n Fig. 53 w i t h this major
vector of 70.7 m m . The are H'R", radius 70.7 m m (measured as
70.5 m m ) , centre K', continues the 'great circle' are of origin D H ' . The
counter-curve R " T ' completes the lower bouts. The radius of this are, like
its upper-bout counterpart, is mathematically unrelated to the other
values used i n this instrument.

FIG. 52

If a r e H ' R " and its lateral inversion HR, radii 70.(7) m m , centres K' and
K respectively, are produced to f o r m circles, they w i l l cross on the centre
me at point F. This point is the centre of a circle piercing the u p p e r a n d
l o w e r c e n t r i n g s of the/-holes. Its radius is 53 m m , w h i c h is the distance
KK , a n d , incidentally, twice the 'equivalent' distance EE' (see Fig 50) in
the upper-bout construction.
 69
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

The middle bouts are also analysed i n Fig. 53. The m a i n are Y Z is of
radius 7 0 . 5 m m ( 7 0 . 7 m m ? ) w h i c h , as discussed above, is the radius, too,
for m a i n lower-bout are H ' R " . The m i n o r arcs completing the curve of the
middle bouts, S'X', X'Y', and Z T , ali have radii of c^-series values : fa fa,
and <f> i , respectively.
This completes the analysis of the somewhat tortuous geometry ot tnis
instrument's body design.
The neck of this A m a t i , like t h a t of so m a n y other fiddles, has been
lengthened and repositioned according to m o d e m practice. * I n the m a i n 4

d r a w i n g (Pi. X) its present position is s h o w n to the left of the centre line ; to

the r i g h t I have indicated its probable o r i g i n a i l e n g t h (approximately
5 m m shorter t h a n present condition). No geometry was f o u n d to
correlate the total l e n g t h , n u t position, or string l e n g t h to the schemes
used i n the body design.
The head of this i n s t r u m e n t has a crisp, delicate beauty, suggesting an
illusion of its g r o w t h out of the w o o d , rather t h a n its h a v i n g been carved
f r o m i t . Traces of the o r i g i n a i painted decoration r e m a i n i n the spirals
of the scroll. The head, like the other parts of this v i o l i n , seems to
demonstrate a ruggedly independent geometry ; none of the radii of its
arcs has any relationship w i t h the various vectors of the body scheme—it FIG. 53
is a complete and separate conception.
The analysis of the head is s h o w n i n Fig. 54, where it is contained
w i t h i n t w o rectangles of the same ( 1 . 3 4 2 ) p r o p o r t i o n , annexed l o n g side
to short side : ORST, w h i c h contains the spirai of the scroll, and PQTU,
w h i c h contains the peg-box. The spirai itself is t h a t of the usuai classic
Ionie volute, traced i n Fig. 54 by the smaller dotted line (the larger
dashing representing the bevel of the scroll, w h i c h corresponds visually to
the inner line of the volute). Its conformity w i t h classic models ceases at A

P 1

FIG. 54

(rectangle ASTI is also 1.342 i n proportion). Thence, the radii of the

subsequent arcs conform to a 1.342 series based o n the sides of this system
ol rectangles. The progression i n w h o l e - n u m b e r millimetre values is • 19
2 6 , 35, 4 7 , 63. Thus, the spirai is continued by are AB, radius 26 m m '
centre K; are BC, radius 35 m m , centre J; short straight line CD, to
counter-curve are DE, radius 35 m m , centre N . The upper curves of the
peg-box are equally elegant of construction : are FG, radius 19 m m , centre

L C
° T63rm m , centre
radius ^ M' . ^
UrVe GH 47 mm
' centre
°> a n d
finally are HI, '
4 0
See introductory note to the violin group
(pp. 6 5 - 6 6 above) with reference to Figs. 47
and 48.

(o~c)
PLATE X
 ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

Ex. X I
Figs. 5 5 - 5 8 , PI. X I
VIOLIN. I T A L Y , C R E M O N A , C.1670
NICOLA AMATI
PRIVATE COLLECTION, LONDON

Between the last v i o l i n and this present example lies a period of about one
h u n d r e d years of development, and t w o generations of the A m a t i family.
Nicola was the grandson of A n d r e a , t h r o u g h Hieronymous (of the
'brothers' A m a t i , A n t o n i u s and H i e r o n y m o u s ) , and is the most u n i -
versale celebrated member of this illustrious Cremonese family. This fame
arises not only f r o m his magnifìcent instruments, and the great t o n a i
advancement they represent, b u t also f r o m the considerable influence he
was to have as teacher and model for the succeeding generation of
luthiers, w h o were to b r i n g the Cremonese school of v i o l i n - m a k i n g to a n
unrivalled zenith.
Music itself h a d hardly stood stili d u r i n g the century or so w h i c h
separates these t w o Amatis. The increasing demands for greater power
and brilliancy f r o m its players are reflected i n the broader proportions and
lower arching of the later v i o l i n . This example, w h i c h misleadingly bears
a n earlier label of 1 6 6 4 , is a so-called ' g r a n d - p a t t e r n ' A m a t i , and it was
probably made i n 1670 w h e n the master was w e l l into his seventh
decade.
As w i t h the previous example, the neck has been lengthened, here
probably by about 5 or 6 m m ; this supposed originai position of the head,
as w e l l as the originai outline of the r i g h t - h a n d upper bout (somewhat
reduced by wear and repairs), are therefore given i n the m a i n d r a w i n g .
There is a markedly more relaxed approach to the geometrical p l a n n i n g
of this i n s t r u m e n t t h a n there was i n the complex harmonic organization
of vectors found i n the Andrea A m a t i previously discussed. I t was
discovered that the body pian of the Andrea was governed by a seven-term
</> series, w i t h the i m p o r t a n t lower-bout and middle-bout are (in t h a t small
pattern, 70.7 m m ) being mathematically related to i t , and commen-
surably related to the body length. I n this i n s t r u m e n t , as we shall see, the
m i n o r vectors are not incorporated i n the smaller four-termed <f>
progression, b u t , like the equivalent lower-bout t e r m (here 71.5 m m ) ,
appear to resolve themselves into whole-number and simple fractions of a
u n i t r e l a t i n g t o , and here expressed i n , Brunswick inches, the resulting
scheme being a somewhat unlikely m i x t u r e of r a t i o n a l and irrational
mathematical values.
The other great difference i n p l a n n i n g occurs w i t h the centring of the
l o w e r - b o u t are of origin. I n the A n d r e a it was centred at C, the centre of
the model, and therefore related to the great-circle geometry found i n
contemporary and later viols (Exx. I I and I V ) . I n the Nicola A m a t i
however, this centre h a s s h i f t e d u p w a r d s o n the centre line to a

Hit Z Z t™7 f : r t s
D
t
n or 1

b o u a , of o
t r i g l n BG', Ji 1 ^ J&E p , .
0
72 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

radius, measured as 68 m m , of the f o l l o w i n g are, G ' M ' , centre Q'

= 6 7 . 7 5 m m ) . The curve t h e n shallows w i t h are M ' N ' , centre L o n
the centre line, and of radius 84 m m , the value fa w h i c h completes
the f o u r - t e r m <f> series :
fa: 355 m m , fa: 219.5 m m , fa: 135.5 m m , fa 84 mm

(ali values taken to nearest 0.5 m m ) . The curve is t h e n completed by

counter-curve are N ' S ' , radius 30 m m , w h i c h can be interpreted as
1 ^ Br. i n . , the first of the smaller vectors, harmonically unrelated to the
m a i n series.
These simple fractions of Brunswick inches are also found (Fig. 56) i n
the radii of the m i n o r arcs of the middle bouts: S'X', radius 12 m m
( i Br. i n . ) ; X ' Y ' , radius 30 m m (l\ Br. i n . , and equal to upper-bout
counter-curve N ' S ' ) ; and the lower are Z ' T , radius 18 m m ( f Br. i n . ) .
The m a i n are, Y ' Z ' , of the middle bouts is of radius 68 m m , w h i c h is the
same as that of the m a i n upper-bout are G ' M ' , that is, y>i. It is centred at
J', a point equidistant f r o m ^-point E and centre-point C o n the centre line
(see locating arcs i n Fig. 56). A line d r a w n f r o m } ' across to the centre line

FIG. 56

meeting at 0 , and a line dropped f r o m /' to the base line meeting at I ' , f o r m
a hypothetical rectangle of </> p r o p o r t i o n , / ' l ' D O , whose sides relate to the
instrument's bridge and n u t position. The long sides of this rectangle,
OD and / T , measure 195 m m , w h i c h is also equal to the i m p o r t a n t
bridge-locating factor, BV (see also Fig. 57). The probable o r i g i n a i n u t
position, A , approximately 6 m m lower o n the centre line t h a n at present,
w o u l d also be i n relationship to BV , so t h a t 7

AB = (120.5 mm) : BV = 195 m m

as 0]' (or DI') : OD (or J'V).

The construction of the lower bouts r o u g h l y corresponds, i n its

disposition of radii and arcs, to t h a t of the upper bouts (their proportional
interrelationship is, of course, quite different). This differs f r o m the scheme
used by Andrea A m a t i i n the small-pattern v i o l i n previously analysed,
where the m a i n lower-bout are ( H ' R " i n Fig. 53) continued f r o m the are of
FIG. 57
origin to the counter-curve of the lower corner. Here, i n Fig. 57, the
 V.

ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

corner counter-curve T'R' mirrors its m i d d l e - b o u t neighbour, Z'T,

h a v i n g the same radius, 18 m m (J Br. i n . ) , and leading into an
intermediary are, R'P', centred, like its upper-bout cousin, o n the
centre line, at U . This are, half the lower-bout measurement = 208 m m
( 8 | Br. i n . ) , can be produced to the centre line, where i t crosses at C, the
centre of the model. The principal lower-bout are, P ' H ' , centre K ' , is of
radius 71.5 m m (measured), w h i c h , t h o u g h unrelated to the cf> progres-
s i o n , is expressible i n Brunswick inches (3 Br. i n . = 71.34 m m ) , and
again, as i n the previous v i o l i n , w i l l divide the body length by 5 (here,
ì x 356 m m = 71.2 m m ) .
The lower bouts of the instrument are completed by are of o r i g i n D H ' ,
centre E, radius 219.5 m m , or fa, the only main-series harmonic value to
occur i n the lower-bout scheme. The m a i n </> division of the body length,
BD, w h i c h gave point E, can also be inverted ; this gives point E, the centre
of the circle w h i c h pierces the upper and lower centrings of the /-holes.
The head-design of this Nicola, like the p l a n n i n g of the body outline,
betrays a rather more casual approach to schematic geometry t h a n we
found i n the Andrea A m a t i . The w o r k itself is careful enough, and the
result very beautiful, t h o u g h of a different character f r o m the marvellous
' A l a r d ' scroll of 1649 ; perhaps i n the later scroll one can see something of
the Stradivari heads to come.
Fig. 58 shows the head outline contained i n t w o annexed rectangles:
scroll, ORSI, and peg-box, PQTU. I n the Andrea A m a t i , the equivalents
of these t w o rectangles were found to be of the same p r o p o r t i o n , and
together w i t h a t h i r d , inscribed, rectangle of similar ratio provided a series
w h i c h govemed the radii of the head and peg-box. Here there is no such
organization. The t w o annexed rectangles are harmonically unrelated, as
are the radii of the various component arcs, whose centres, like the
Andrea scroll, take no heed of the containing rectangle.
T h e I o n i e v o l u t e of the s c r o l l represented i n Fig. 58 by the dotted lines
terminates at A , where i t is continued by quadrant are A B , centre K,
radius 27.5 m m . Are BC is centred at / and is of radius 46.5 m m ; a short
straight line, CD, conneets BC w i t h the countercurve are, DE, centre M ,
radius 3 1 m m . Point M is also the centre for upper peg-box are I H , w h i c h
is therefore partly concentric w i t h are ED ; IH has a radius of 54 m m The
peg-box design is completed by straight line HG and t e r m i n a t i n g are GF
centre L, radius 13 m m . No mathematic or harmonic scheme could be
i o u n d to unite these values, w h i c h , w i t h the exception of line RS, the
depth of the head (48 m m or 2 Br. i n . ) , also failed to comply w i t h whole or F l G

simple fractions of Brunswick inches of the k i n d seemingly used i n the

smaller vectors of the body scheme.
One interesting factor to emerge f r o m the head analyses of the first three

f \ (C) 0 G-c>
PLATE XI
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 75

Ex. X I I
Figs. 5 9 - 6 2 , PI. X I I
VIOLIN. ITALY, CREMONA, 1666

ANTONIO STRADIVARI

PRIVATE COLLECTION, LONDON

M u c h has been w r i t t e n about A n t o n i o Stradivari, a m a n whose c o n t r i b u -

t i o n to the development of the v i o l i n , and thereby to music itself, is
inestimable, and whose profound artistry, u n e r r i n g i n t u i t i o n , and l i m i t -
less energy became as legendary i n his l o n g lifetime as did his consequent
and unspoiling w e a l t h . Given, t h e n , his 'key-figure' status, I have
4 7

decided o n t w o contrasting Stradivaris to complete the developing

s e q u e n c e of C r e m o n e s e v i o l i n s ; the first is a r a r e early w o r k of 1 666 (the
year before his first marriage), the second a celebrated v i o l i n of 1 7 0 3 , a n
i n s t r u m e n t w h i c h reflects the f u l l i l l u m i n a t i o n of his genius.
Despite the most exhaustive researches, m u c h of Stradivario early life
stili rests i n obscurity. F r o m the instruments of his old age, where the
master proudly declares the total of his years beneath the date of
m a k i n g , it has been established t h a t he was b o r n i n 1 6 4 4 , b u t no
4 8

definitive account of his early t r a i n i n g has yet been made. F r o m the

character of his early w o r k , it has been concluded t h a t , like m a n y of his
gifted contemporaries, he must have been a pupil of Nicola A m a t i . This is
supported by the label of this early Stradivari, w h i c h reads :

Àntoniui Stradila ri us Cremoaenfis Alum&ui

N i c o l ai i A m a t i , Faciebat A n n o * * * / / t ! j
6

the ' A L U M N U S ' m e a n i n g Toster-son' or 'disciple'. Indeed, the debt to Nicola

can be plainly seen i n the design analysis of this v i o l i n , together w i t h the
younger man's o w n emerging personality: accepting some elements,
w h i l e questioning and rejecting o t h e r p a r t s o f the inherited pattern.
Comparing the contemporary Nicola v i o l i n w i t h this 1666 Stradivari, the
impression is that they are at once like and very u n l i k e . Already there is a
feeling of length and elegance i n the latter w o r k , a l t h o u g h i t is only a
49

fraction longer and n a r r o w e r t h a n the A m a t i . The effect, as the geometry

reveals, is made almost entirely by the more shallow treatment of the
middle bouts.
The y o u n g A n t o n i o ' s attitude towards proportional geometry, like his
master Nicola's, appears to be freer t h a n Andrea's, for once more we can
trace no attempt to organize the small vectors h a r m o n i c a l l y , as were
organized those of the very early A m a t i . Nevertheless, the h a n d l i n g of the
geometry is rather more careful t h a n t h a t of the Nicola. The m a i n
golden-section body division (point E, Figs. 5 5 and 59), for example, is the
focus, i n the case of the Stradivarius (Fig. 59), for t w o converging lines
w h i c h pass exactly t h r o u g h the upper and lower/-hole centrings, whereas 4 7
'Ricco come Stradivari' actually entered
the Cremonese vernacolar.
the same focus i n the Nicola A m a t i occurs 2 - 3 m m above p o i n t E. 4 8
One such instrument, which was finished
I n the Stradivarius, too, the maker's regard for the basic proportions of the year before his death, is inscribed 'anno
length is demonstrated by the h a r m o n i c organization of overall length to aetatis 92', and another, of 1737, 'D'anni 93'.
4 9
Stradivari himself is described as tali and
body l e n g t h , a disposition n o t considered i n either of the t w o Amatis here lean.
 \

A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
76
analysed. This organization, the most sustained and beautiful use of <f>
proportion f o u n d i n the i n s t r u m e n t , utilizes four out of the Ave terms i n the
progression :
< £ : 5 7 6 m m , <f> : 3 5 6 m m , <f> : 2 2 0 m m , fa: 1 3 6 m m , fa 8 4 m m
4 3 2

(the last t e r m i n practice recorded as 83.5 m m ) . I n Fig. 59, the overall

length f r o m the top of the head (here s h o w n i n its o r i g i n a i position), Aa, to
the b u t t o n or base l i n e , D , measures 576 m m , fa. I t is divided i n
B e ' proportion at B, BD being the body length fa, w h i c h i n t u r n is divided by <j>
at E, and inversely at E. E is the i m p o r t a n t centring point for the upper-
and lower-bout arcs of o r i g i n ; its position, at the <f> division of BD, so that
BE = </Si and ED = fa, was seen i n the Nicola A m a t i , b u t n o t i n the
Andrea. The <f> division E, where BE = fa and ED = fa, is the centre of a
circle, piercing the upper and lower/-hole centrings ; its radius, 59.5 m m ,
illustrates the same puzzling tendency to simple fractions of Brunswick
inches, w h i c h were f o u n d i n the Nicola and w h i c h are continued here,
59.5 m m = 2\ Br. i n . (therefore also one-sixth of the body l e n g t h ,
356 m m (full) = 15 Br. i n . ) .
A secondary use of the </> proportion is disclosed by o r i g i n a i n u t position
A , where a division of the string l e n g t h , AV ( i n p i a n , 315.5 m m ) , occurs
at B, the point where neck and body meet, so that A B = 120.5 m m and
BV= 195 m m .
The construction of b o t h upper and, particularly, lower bouts closely
follows t h a t of the contemporary Nicola A m a t i v i o l i n . The m a i n </> series is
again used i n the upper-bout scheme, w h i c h is s h o w n here i n Fig. 60. The
upper-bout are of o r i g i n , B G ' , is centred at fapomt E g i v i n g a radius of
136 m m or <£i. Its neighbouring are G ' M ' is centred at 0 ' , half-way along
FIG. 60
radius EG', thus are G'M' is of radius 68 mm—^<f>i. The curve t h e n
shallows w i t h are M ' N ' , centre L o n the centre line, radius 83.5 m m (or,
a l l o w i n g an error of 0.5 m m , fa. The counter-curve N ' S ' , centre a', is the
only measurement i n the upper-bout scheme of the Stradivarius w h i c h
deviates significantly f r o m t h a t of the Nicola. Here the countercurve is
deeper and the corner shorter t h a n i n the previous i n s t r u m e n t , b u t again
its h a r m o n i c a l l y unrelated radius is easily expressible as a Brunswick i n c h
fraction, i n this case | Br. i n . as against the 1 ^ B r i . i n . radius used i n the
A m a t i . As we shall see, a n are of exactly the same radius is used i n the
equivalent counter-curve of the lower b o u t , a practice not followed i n
either of the preceding instruments.
But the major divergence by the y o u n g Stradivari f r o m the model of
his master arises, as we have observed, i n the increased radius and
consequent shallowing of the m a i n middle-bout are. The curve of the
middle bouts, Fig. 6 1 , is initiated by are S'X', radius 10 m m , a n d , like the
other middle-bout arcs, is harmonically unrelated to the m a i n series. S'X'
is continued by are X ' Y ' , radius 24 m m (1 Br. i n . ) , w h i c h shallows the
curve i n t o the m a i n are. The centre, /', of the m a i n are, Y'Z', is stili
equidistant f r o m </>-point E and centre-point C, as the large locating arcs i n
Fig. 6 1 demonstrate, a n d , a l t h o u g h harmonically unrelated to the m a i n
scheme, the exact radius of the are appears to have been decided by a <f>
division, where J'Y' : Y'E as 1 : 1 , 6 1 8 . The middle bouts are terminated
by are Z T , radius 18 m m or f Br. i n . , denoting a r e t u r n to the model used
by Nicola, to w h i c h the lower bouts conform.
Symmetrically curved lower corners are achieved, once more, by using
the same small radius of Z T for the lower-bout counter-curve T'R',
FIG. 61
centred at V. Incidentale, a circle d r a w n w i t h its centre at C, the centre of
 77
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

the model, w i l l pierce the counter-curve are centres a, a', b, b'. (This is
further discussed i n Appendix B, q.v.). Lower-bout construction is
continued by are R ' P ' centre U o n the centre line, and of radius
3

103.5 m m (0.5 m m shorter t h a n the A m a t i ) , a n are w h i c h , w h e n

produced, crosses the centre line at C. The m a i n lower-bout are P ' H ' is
centred at K' and is of radius 71.5 m m (3 Br. i n . ) — a g a i n a one-flfth
division of the body length. The centre, K ' , is also pierced by the middle-
bout centre-locating are centred at E. E is, of course, i n its t u r n the
centre of the lower-bout are of o r i g i n D H ' , radius </>, w h i c h completes the
2

lower-bout scheme. The outline geometry of this instrument and t h a t of its

originai m o u l d are further discussed i n Appendix B (p. 172).
F i g . b2 is the geometrical pian of the rather assertive h e a d uf t h i s
v i o l i n — a head w h i c h , t h o u g h lacking the cairn suavity of the Nicola
A m a t i , presents a more t h a n compensatory vigour and masculinity. Aside
f r o m the manner of its execution, m u c h of this boldness is traceable, i n
design terms, to the p o w e r f u l , u n i n t e r r u p t e d m a i n upper peg-box are I H .
A g a i n , the t w o containing rectangles, POTU and ORST, are of differing
p r o p o r t i o n , and there is no attempt to harmonize the separate radii i n the
design. The customary Ionie volute is represented i n Fig. 62 by the dashed
line, w h i c h terminates at A , to be continued by the quadrant are A B ,
centre K, radius 2 7 m m . The centre / of the adjoining are BC n o w lies o n
the side of the containing rectangle, unlike b o t h the preceding v i o l i n
heads, where it lay inside the rectangle. The radius of BC is therefore
49 m m , the depth of the head. A straight line, CD, leads to the t e r m i n a t i n g
a r e DE, centre N , r a d i u s 31.5 m m . The m a i n a r e of the u p p e r c u r v e ,
previously mentioned, is I H , centre M , radius 73 m m . It forms the whole
of the peg-box top apart f r o m a short, i n i t i a t i n g , straight line, P I , and a
small counter-curve, H G , centre E.

FIG. 62

Perhaps more remarkable t h a n the strange concoction of i r r a t i o n a l and

r a t i o n a l systems employed i n both the preceding and the present examples
is the apparent use of the Brunswick i n c h i n a centre w h i c h possessed its
5 0
For policy on measurement systems, see
o w n u n i t of measurement, the Cremonese oncia, or i n c h . The explana- 5 0
Chapter 4, p. 22 above. The Cremonese inch
t i o n for this most probably lies i n coincidence, i n t h a t the overall body has been a particularly difficult unit to define;
l e n g t h , being a whole-number Brunswick i n c h factor (15 Br. i n . ) , means 5 1 various sources give it a value varying from
39.25 m m to 40.3 m m .
t h a t other measurements i n a commensurable, or part-commensurable, 51
1 5 Br. i n . = 356.7 m m . The body length
scheme w i l l also be likely to coincide w i t h w h o l e , or simple fractions of^ of the Nicola Amati actually equals 355 m m ,
Brunswick inches. as measured, while that of the 1666 Stradi-
vari equals 356 m m .

} ['\ •G: 0 era

PLATE X I I
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. X I I I
Figs. 6 3 - 6 5 , PI. X I I I
VIOLIN. I T A L Y, CREMONA, 1703
ANTONIO STRADIVARI
PRIVATE COLLECTION, LONDON

The f o u r t h , and last, v i o l i n t h a t w i l l be considered i n our examination of

the Cremonese development is also undoubtedly the most elegant: the
Emiliani Stradivari of 1703. Made at the beginning of the master's
so-called Golden Period, it is a fine classical example, m u c h a k i n to the
famous 'Betts' ( 1 7 0 4 ) . M a s , no black-and-white d r a w i n g can even
s u g g e s t t h a t m a r v e l l o u s l u m i n o u s a m a l g a m of w o o d and v a r n i s h , l i g h t
and colour, w h i c h is so m u c h a part of the undeniable charisma of these
great instruments ; b u t a comparative glance at the t w o drawings of the
1666 and 1703 examples (Pls. X I I and X I I I ) should at least convey some of
the repose and exquisite grace of the later instrument. Here there is a
greater feeling of resolution ; the curves and counter-curves of the outline
flow w i t h o u t check t h r o u g h the divisions of upper, middle, and lower
b o u t s , w h i l s t t h e r e f ì n e m e n t of the /-holes n o w casts u p o n t h e p h y s i o -
g n o m y an air of cairn beauty. I n short, the i n s t r u m e n t is a complete and
perfect expression of Stradivario personal vision of the luthier's art.
It should be stressed that the full essence of the difference separating
these t w o products of Stradivari can only really be comprehended i n terms
of plastic quality. Differences of q u a n t i t y , of measurement, are of course
discernible, and are i n some ways more easily discussed, b u t finally it has
to be admitted t h a t no evocation of the spirit was e v e r a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a
mere description of the body. Nevertheless, an examination of the design
make-up of this i n s t r u m e n t , viewed against those of its precursors, does
offer some modest insights into its creator's methodology.
A g a i n we m a y proceed w i t h an examination of the overall proportions,
s h o w n here i n Fig. 63, w h i c h should be compared w i t h Fig. 59, the
equivalent stage of analysis of the 1666 instrument. I t can be seen at once
f r o m this c o m p a r i s o n that the i n s t a n c e s of vertical p r o p o r t i o n i n g are not
as extensive i n the later i n s t r u m e n t , t h o u g h it could be argued t h a t where
the golden-section ratios do r e m a i n they stili govern the more i m p o r t a n t
points of division, that is, point E, the centre f o r the arcs of o r i g i n and the
focus of the /-hole centrings, and the neck : string-length relationship,
AB'.AV.
If the overall dimensions of this v i o l i n evince less proportional p l a n n i n g
t h a n the preceding example, the same cannot be said for the organization
of t h e vectors governing the body outline. Here, as a glance at Appendix C
(a summarized chart-analysis of the four Cremonese violins) w i l l show, by
slight alteration to a few of the radii the t w o seemingly opposing modes of
p r o p o r t i o n , the commensurable and the incommensurable, present i n the
other designs, are, i n the 1703 i n s t r u m e n t , far more positively integrated,
suggesting an interpretation w h i c h to a further extent reconciles these
r a t i o n a l and i r r a t i o n a l factors. Furthermore, the r a t i o n a l proportions i n
tach^?^^ 15
T "6 a W a
° y f r m
n c e w i t h 'Brunswick
t h G Ì r c o i n c i d e

as 17 m m * ' * ^ a b i l i t y , here measured

o f c o m m e n

FIG. 63
A n analysis of the body outline is s h o w n i n Fig. 64. The are of origin as
we have seen, is stili centred at ^-point E, w h i c h divides the
BD, 354.5 m m ( « , into BE, 135.5 m m , and ED, 219 m m £)S£
W
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

the l o w e r - b o u t are of o r i g i n H D H ' has a radius </> or 219 m m . The curve

u

continues w i t h are H ' P ' , centred at K ' . This are is of radius 7 1 m m

(70.9 m m ? ) w h i c h again was read as being i n commensurable ( 1 : 5 )
5

ratio w i t h the body l e n g t h BD. The next are is P'R', centre U o n the centre
line, and of radius 1 0 2 . 2 5 m m (the m a x i m u m w i d t h P U P ' , being twice
U P ' , is measured as 2 0 4 . 5 m m ) . This is the first of the vectors that
responds to the m a i n commensurable scheme of arithmetic means, w h i c h
is based u p o n the u n i t of 17 m m : i n this case the radius can be expressed
a s 6 u ( 1 0 2 ( . 2 5 ) m m / 1 7 m m = 6 ( . 0 1 ) ) . The lower bouts are completed by
counter-curve R ' T ' , radius 17 m m (u).
The middle bouts are also started w i t h an are, T ' Z ' , of this V radius,
w h i c h once again ensures t h a t the lower corner is symmetrically curved.
The m a i n are, Z ' Y ' , is also of radius commensurable to this scheme of
arithmetic proportion : it measures 85 m m , w h i c h divides, 85 mm/17 m m ,
to Su. The r e m a i n i n g t w o smaller vectors, arcs Y ' X ' a n d X'S', have radii
of 24 m m and 10 m m respectively, neither of w h i c h relate to any trace-
able scheme.
The upper bouts are initiated by are S ' N ' , also radius 17 m m , or u. The
curve is continued by are N ' M ' , centre L, o n the centre line, radius
83.5 m m (half the m a x i m u m w i d t h ) , equal to <£, and approximately equal
to 5u. The m a i n upper-bout are, M ' G ' , centred at Q', is of radius 68 m m ,
w h i c h is exactly 4 u (68 mm/17 m m = 4). The outline is completed by
the upper-bout are of o r i g i n G'B, centre </>-point E, and of radius
135.5 m m (0).
I n this body outline we see a far fuller amplification of the w h o l e -
n u m b e r resonances, only partially declared i n the previous t w o violins.
A n d , as the following analysis shows, the proportional scheme f o u n d i n
the head proves i t to be a w o r t h y c r o w n to the body-geometry.
The m a i n d r a w i n g shows something of the compact p o w e r o f t h i s
masterly scroll—a head m u c h grander i n proportions t h a n those
previously examined. Fig. 65 gives the b r e a k d o w n of the peg-box curves
into their component arcs. The large c o n t a i n i n g rectangle PRSU
measures 105 m m by 52 m m , giving a ratio of 2 . 0 1 9 , w h i c h m i g h t be
taken as a ^/4 rectangle, or doublé square (a solution also found i n the
head of the Zanetto v i o l , Ex. I ) . The constituent rectangles PQTU and
QRST, however, did n o t relate i n ratio either to one another or to the
p a r e n t r e c t a n g l e . The superbly carved Ionie volute is traced i n Fig. 65 by
the outer broken line, finishing at A. The spirai is continued by the usuai
quadrant are, A B , radius 28.5 m m , centred at K; thence by are BC, centre
7, radius 42.5 m m ; straight line CD, and counter-curve DE, centred at N
on PRSU radius 28.5 m m . The upper peg-box curve has the same bold,
3

one-arc sweep as the master's early v i o l i n previously analysed. This is are

I H , centre M , radius 63.5 m m , and it is finished off by small counter-curve
HG, centre F, r a d i u s 19 m m .
Thus the m i l l i m e t r e vectors for the peg-box are, i n progression: 19,
28.5 (twice), 4 2 . 5 , a n d 6 3 . 5 , w h i c h , a l l o w i n g a small m a r g i n for the
inexactitudes of measurement, reveals a beautiful geometrie progression
tuned to the ratio of 2 : 3 :

28.5 m m A\ 42.5 m m 63.5 m m

19 m m - ^ U J ' 2 8 ^ = 1 A 9
' > 4 2 ^ = l A 9
'
A summarized analysis of these four Cremonese violins, presented as
one development, is given i n Appendix C (p. 174) i n the form of a chart of
comparative are radii of the four body outlines.
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
82

Ex. XIV
Figs. 6 6 - 6 9 , PI. XIV
VIOLA. ITALY, B R E S C I A , C.1610
GIOVANNI PAOLO MAGGINI
PRIVATE COLLECTION, LONDON

Following the t r a d i t i o n that a good pupil should surpass his master,

Giovanni Paolo M a g g i n i ennobled i n his w o r k the vigorous originality of
his teacher, Gasparo da Salò, w i t h a grandeur stili entirely masculine and
t h o r o u g h l y Brescian i n character. He was t r u l y the apogee of the Brescian
school, and no further separate development was to follow his death,
probably of the plague, i n 1 6 3 2 . The quintessential Brescian qualities of
strength and vigour remained, however, as indispensable agents i n the
evolution of the more refined and reposeful ideals of the Cremonese school,
and, w i t h o u t these Dionysian influences, a del Gesù w o u l d certainly never
have arisen f r o m the A p o l l o n i a n academies of Cremona.
Analysis of this particular M a g g i n i , a superb, exceedingly rare,
contralto viola, c i 6 1 0 , did reveal a very fine commensurable geometry,
b u t i t also entailed a confrontation w i t h three of the principal problems
encountered w h e n obtaining and processing proportional i n f o r m a t i o n
f r o m an elderly i n s t r u m e n t :

(i) Distortion and asymmetry.

(ii) The incidence of a point 'just missing' i n an otherwise complete
and convincing scheme, o w i n g to either :
{a) wear to the fabric ; or
(b) a m a k i n g - or drawing-error ; or
(e) a 'last m i n u t e ' arbitrary or i n t u i t i v e decision of the maker.
(iii) Our use of a decimai system (here w i t h a 0.5 m m smallest factor)
to express, and discuss, quantities (based on a host of differing
u n i t s ) undoubtedly originally conceived as fractions, w h i c h ,
52

a l t h o u g h far less convenient and universally applicable t h a n the

decimai r a t i o , nevertheless beautifully and finitely express their
quality of relationship, as w e l l as their q u a n t i t y . 53

Very often, as i n the case of the lower bouts of this i n s t r u m e n t , ali three
problems are involved at once. This became apparent w h e n the lower-
bout w i d t h was measured as 1 m m short, overall, of w h a t is obviously,
according to the support of the rest of the scheme, the true and intended
w i d t h of the o r i g i n a i design. Or, as i n the case of the most c o m m o n
problem, number (i) o n the above list, distortion and asymmetry, the
problem can be isolated, as i t was found to be i n the lower corners of this
i n s t r u m e n t , w h i c h consequently proved to be a little difficult to resolve.
Therefore, w i t h m y p r i m a r y directive i n m i n d , t h a t of producing an
exposé of the use of geometry and numerical proportion i n these designs,
FIG. 66 the f o l l o w i n g analysis treats the lower-bout w i d t h not as 245 m m
(measured) b u t as 24(6) m m (planned). This 0.4 per cent m a r g i n , I feel, is
amply justified by the resulting homogeneity of the scheme. The use of
5 2
See Chapter 4 , p. 22 (and also p. 77 parentheses a r o u n d the last digit of a figure indicates a vector based o n , or
n . 50). a subdivision of, this 'resolved' measurement.
5 3
It must be appreciated, however, that our
task being one of comparative study, the use The t h i r d problem, too, arising f r o m the necessary use of the decimai
of any system other than our o w n , familiar system, became apparent at an early stage i n the analysis. Here, the
metric/decimal system would be unpractical.
usuai proviso of a 0.5 m m m i n i m u m q u a n t i t y can become restrictive,
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

because, w h i l e it is impractical to measure an a m o u n t smaller t h a n

0 5 m m , a calculated q u a n t i t y m i g h t w e l l necessitate the use of a smaller
division. Such a situation occurs i n the u n r a v e l l i n g of the scheme ol
commensurable proportion w h i c h governs this i n s t r u m e n t . Here a basic
u n i t was discovered c o m m o n to ali the major vectors, and was calculated
as 16.4 m m (w).
This u n i t was f o u n d to govern the basic overall proportions, vertical
and horizontal. I n Fig. 66 the body outline is d r a w n i n its containing
rectangle, abcd, w h i c h measures 4 1 0 m m x 24(6) m m , or 2 5 u x 15u,
giving the ratio 5 :3 ( 1 . 6 6 6 ) . The w i d t h s of upper, middle, and lower
bouts ( M M ' , X X ' , and PP') also have the same u n i t commensurability:
M M ' = 196.5 mm = 12u (allowing 0.3 m m error)
XX' = 131 mm = 8u (allowing 0.2 mm error)
and PP' = 24(6) mm = 15w (0.4 per cent error, discussed above),

the amounts 12 : 8 : 1 5 yielding t w o simple ratios of 3 : 2 and 4 : 5 .

Fig. 67 is d r a w n to show the basis of the body-geometry. The centrally
placed axis-point, C (coinciding w i t h the bridge position), immediately
suggests great-circle resonances, a l t h o u g h here such a figure is not used
as a p l a n n i n g circle. A similar arrangement was f o u n d , w i t h o u t the
beautiful vesicas, i n the first Cremonese v i o l i n analysis, that of the Andrea
A m a t i (Ex. X) of 1 5 6 4 . A n o t h e r similarity w i t h t h a t example is the use of
the same vector for m a i n lower-bout and middle-bout are radii.
One aspect c o m m o n to ali the violins analysed, as can be construed
from Appendix B, was the 5 : 1 ratio of body length to the m a i n lower-bout
are radius ; this rule was also found to apply to the M a g g i n i viola, where it
formed part of the comprehensive commensurable pian.
The outline itself is initiated, Fig. 68, w i t h the are of origin D H ' , centre
C, radius 205 m m , 12.5w. It is continued by are H ' P ' , centre K' the major
3

vesica piscis arrangement, whose radius, 8(2) m m (one-fifth body length),

equals Su. The curve is shallowed by are P'R', centre L7, on the centre line,
radius 12(3) m m or 7.Su. The lower bouts are terminated by counter-
curve are R'T', centre /', radius measured as 24.5 m m , 1.5ii (allowing
0.1 m m error).
The middle bouts compóse three arcs: T ' Z ' , Z ' Y ' , and Y'S'. T'Z' is
centred at W ; its radius, 22 m m , appears to relate to the scheme by being
a t h i r d of the m i n o r upper-bout vesica radius, w h i c h w o u l d give it a
'«-rating' of 1.333. The m a i n middle-bout are, Z ' Y ' , centre 0 ' , as we have
said, equals i n radius the principal lower-bout are H ' P ' , i.e. the major
vesica radius (KK') o f Su. F i g . 68 s h o w s that a line d r a w n horizontally
from p o i n t L o n the centre line passes t h r o u g h X ' ( w i t h X, the point of
m i n i m u m middle-bout w i d t h ) and on to 0 ' . This line, L X ' O ' , is an
aggregate of the m i n o r and major vesica r a d i i , w h i c h govern respectively
the upper- and lower-bout schemes, here appropriately coming together
i n the middle bouts. L X ' is 65(.5) m m , the upper vesica radius, w h i l e XV
is 82 m m , the lower vesica radius, demonstrating the 4 : 5 relationship of
the t w o parts. L O ' is also the short side of rectangle L O ' E ' D , w h i c h ,
measuring 2 2 9 . 5 m m x 147.5 m m , is also commensurable to this
scheme, being a rectangle 14u ( 2 2 9 . 6 m m ) x 9u ( 1 4 7 . 6 mm)—rectangle
decimai r a t i o , 1.555. The middle bouts are completed by arcs Y'S', centre
V, radius measured as 16(.5) m m , or u.
^ The upper bouts start w i t h are S ' N ' , centre I ' , of the same radius as are
T'Z', that is, 22 m m , one-third of the m i n o r , upper-bout vesica radius. The
curve t h e n changes direction w i t h are N'M', part of the upper vesica
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

arrangement, the centre for this right-side curve being at O, the centre of
the left-side vesica circle; its radius is therefore t w o vesica r a d i i , or
1 3 1 m m as measured (131.2 m m as calculated), that is 8u. Are M ' G ' , part
of the vesica construction, is centred at 0 ' , its radius, 65(.5) m m , being
4 I L The outline is completed u p to the neck by are G'g'> centred at C,
radius therefore equal to t h a t of the lower-bout are of o r i g i n , t h a t is,
205 m m , or 12.Su.
The positioning of the /-holes is s h o w n i n Fig. 66. The circle w h i c h
pierces the four centrings has its centre at F ; its radius of 63 m m did not
correspond to the proportional scheme. Lines d r a w n t h r o u g h the t w o
centres, however, converge at point / o n the centre line ; fD measures
307.5 m m , and Bf 102.5 m m , / being a 3 : 4 division of the body
l e n g t h , BD.
The boldness and assertion exhibited i n the body design of this splendid
viola is not quite as evident i n the head. This is almost entirely due to the
slender, under-massed character of the peg-box, w h i c h imparts an
unexpected (and u n w a n t e d ) impression of delicacy where one was led to
anticipate strength. Nevertheless, the head has m u c h of beauty to i t , and
is certainly one of the most beautifully conceived heads to be analysed for
this study.
The geometry, traced i n Fig. 6 9 , demonstrates a careful regard for the
containing and component rectangles w h i c h , together w i t h the are r a d i i ,
respond to simple commensurable ratios, a scheme not directly related to
the 16.4 m m u n i t w h i c h governed the body pian.
R The m a i n rectangle, PRSU, is 1 3 2 . 7 5 m m (132.5 m m as measured) x
59 m m , w h i c h gives a ratio of 2.25 (9 : 4 ) . The scroll-containing
rectangle, ORST, is a one-third vertical division of PRSU, and thus
measures 59 m m x 4 4 . 2 5 m m , ratio 1.333 (or 4 : 3 ) . I t leaves a
'remainder', the peg-box-containing rectangle, PQTU, w h i c h measures
88.5 m m x 59 m m , ratio 1.5 (or 3 : 2). A further rectangle is implied by
one of the are centres, M ; this is I R O M , 118 m m x 78.6 m m (78.5 m m as
measured), w h i c h also yields the ratio 1.5 (3 : 2 ) .
The arcs analysed i n Fig. 69 begin w i t h the c o n t i n u a t i d h of the Ionie
volute, by quadrant are A B , centre G, radius 35.4 m m (35.5 m m
as measured). This vector has a 4 : 5 (1.25) relationship w i t h OR
(44.25 m m ) , and a 3 : 5 ( 1 . 6 6 6 ) relationship w i t h the radius of the next
are, BC, w h i c h is centred at / o n PK, its radius therefore equalling head
depth RS, that is, 59 m m . A straight line, CD, conneets this w i t h
counter-curve are DE, centre N , radius also 35.4 m m . The top side of the
peg-box is initiated by straight line P I , leading into m a i n are I H , centre M
(see above), radius 78.6 m m (2 Cremonese i n c h e s ? ) w h i c h has a 4 : 3
54

( 1 . 3 3 3 ) relationship w i t h head depth RS. The outline is completed by

counter-curve H F , also centred at /, a n d , once again, a n are of 3 5.4 m m
radius.
PLATE XIV
86 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. XV
Figs. 7 0 - 7 2 , PI. XV
VIOLONCELLO (SMALL MODEL). ENGLAND, LONDON, 1718

BARAK NORMAN

PRIVATE COLLECTION, LONDON

The last member of the v i o l i n family to be dealt w i t h here, the violoncello,

was also the last of the group to enjoy an i n d i v i d u a i solo career. Before i t
could leave its role as 'bass v i o l i n ' and challenge the solo position of the
tenacious gamba, the violoncino, or violoncello as it was to become, had
first to reduce its dimensions to a more manageable and 'flexible' size. This
appears to have been accomplished by the end of the seventeenth century,
one of its most i m p o r t a n t authors being A n t o n i o S t r a d i v a r i .
55

I n England the move towards a smaller model cello occurred not m u c h

later t h a n the I t a l i a n development—possibly the outcome of similar,
t h o u g h quite separate, circumstances. The present example is just such an
i n s t r u m e n t , a small cello f r o m the English school, made by Barak N o r m a n
c
at the Bafs V i o l i n [usually w r i t t e n , or read, as 'at the Bass Viol i n . . . ' ] St.
Paul's C h u r c h y , L o n d o n ' . I t is dated 1 7 1 8 , and bears his ingenious
d

m o n o g r a m of a B N calligraphically i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h its o w n inversion,

purfled i n the centre of the back, as well as an inlaid fiorai device o n the
front. I n his Dictionary of Violin Makers Stainer mentions such a cello of
Barak N o r m a n dated 1718 (possibly even this example) w h i c h 'was
valued at 15 guineas i n 1 7 9 0 , but n o w [ 1 8 9 6 ] the price is higher'.
Geometrically this i n s t r u m e n t was a little disappointing. Only a few
tantalizing echoes of proportional t h i n k i n g were f o u n d , w i t h no one line of
t h o u g h t asserting itself sufficiently to proclaim it to be the system used.
The same number and disposition of arcs f o r m its body outline as other
v i o l i n family members here analysed, a l t h o u g h it cannot be said that they
have been used as carefully, or indeed if they have even been used
consciously at ali. The radius, U P ' , of lower-bout are R'P' (Fig. 71), for
example, here deviates f r o m the horizontal—the result of either a careless
(or ignorant) f o r m a t i o n of the model, or, as I suspect, an arbitrary
alteration of c u r v a t u r e , that is, an alteration to the model or design
archetype previous to this example's manufacture, thus negating any
o r i g i n a i , proportionally based geometrical construction present.
V i e w i n g more positively w h a t nevertheless is a handsome i n s t r u m e n t ,
it is only fair to add t h a t some proportional relationships did emerge and
these are discussed below.
I n Fig. 70, the overall proportions, vertical and horizontal, are s h o w n .
No signifìcant ' c o n t a i n i n g ' rectangle was f o u n d , a l t h o u g h upper- and
lower-bout widths did relate :

M M ' : WW'
349 m m : 4 1 9 m m ( = 1 . 2 0 0 6 )
or 5:6.

W. H . , A. F., and A. E. Hill, Antonio

These t w o ' m a x i m u m - w i d t h lines' ( M M ' and W W ' ) — l i n e s w h i c h also
5 5

Stradivari: 'The excellence of Stradivari's

violoncellos is even more remarkable than that
of his other productions ; i n fact, w e can
unhesitatingly say that his finest examples
stand without rivals. . . . He fixed once and for
ali the standard proportions and dimensions of
the violoncello.'
intersect the corner-curve are centres of upper (O and Q') and lower (K
and K') bouts—can be connected by a square of side 4 1 9 m m ( m a x i m u m
lower-bout w i d t h , W W ' ) ; i n Fig. 70, this is square VV'W'W. The t w o
annexed rectangles, WIDJ and I W ' / ' D , each measure 157.5 m m x
2 0 9 . 5 m m ( = 1.330), giving t h e m a 3 : 4 ratio.
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES
87

Despite these commensurable ratios, there occurs, once again, a n

isolated golden-section factor ; here it is the centring at E of the lower and
upper arcs of o r i g i n , E being a <f> division of B D :
BD 711 m m
= 1.6177 (1.618).
ED 439.5 m m

One more ratio is indicated i n Fig. 70, a l t h o u g h it must be stressed that

this is a hypothetical one. The cello has u n f o r t u n a t e l y undergone the
usuai process of neck alteration ; I have therefore h a d to estimate its
originai string length (or n u t position). I t was achieved by generation and
c a l c u l a t i o n f r o m measurements taken f r o m a similar size a n d type of
c e l l o stili possessed of its originai neck. This suggested a string length
56

between 7 m m a n d 17 m m shorter t h a n at present. I n fact, the extreme

figure of difference, 17 m m , w o u l d give a string length of 6 5 0 m m —
exactly twice the distance f r o m bridge to tail :
A0 : OD
6 5 0 m m : 325 m m
2 :1,

the same proportions being present i n the Jaye and Guersan viols. I t
should, however, be repeated t h a t this is a n estimated measurement.
Given the paucity of proportional material present i n the radii of the
component arcs, it w o u l d be a needlessly unproductive exercise to give the
customary commentary to the accompanying outline figure. Instead a
table or list of the component arcs d r a w n i n Fig. 7 1 is given, w h i c h w i l l
allow any patient reader to search f u r t h e r should he so w i s h ; he is
cautioned, however, for a l t h o u g h a few hopeful 'leads' were f o u n d , no one
factor or system unites a l i , or even a c o n v i n c i n g m a j o r i t y , of the vectors. FIG. 70

Are Radius in m m

b'G' 2 7 1 . 5 (</>)
G'M' 126
M'N' 2 2 3 (centred in opposite centre
of previous are, GM)
[ N'S' 27
' S'X' 21
X'Y' 63
Y'Z' 184
. Z T 44.5
- ,
27
T R

R'P' 209.5
P'H' 149
. H'D 4 3 9 . 5 (*)

Circle piercing 135

f-hoìe centrings

The splendid head was a little more r e w a r d i n g to analyse, a l t h o u g h FIG. 71

here again difficulties, due to a seeming carelessness i n the sequence of
'organic' curves, were encountered. Like the body p i a n , the analysis of
the head of the Barak N o r m a n revealed some overall commensurable
proportions, but also the absence of a c o n t a i n i n g rectangle of signifìcant
ratio. Thus, the length of the head (in Fig. 72, PR), as i n several violins
also measured, equalled half the w i d t h of the lower bouts {PR actually 5 6
Maker Johann Theodorus Cuypers,
c i 775, no. 18 i n the van Leeuwen Boomkamp
measures 2 1 0 m m , and the lower bouts 4 1 9 m m ) . This distance, t h a t of
collection (now in the Gemeentemuseum).
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

the horizontal piane of the head-containing rectangle, PRST, is divided i n

the analysis by t w o verticals: QU partitions the scroll (QR, of QRSU, is
approximately a one-third division of PR : 2 1 0 mm/69 m m = 3 . 0 4 3 ) ; and
VB is a vertical o n w h i c h lie three are centres—one t h a t of the quadrant
are AB. VB cuts the h e a d - c o n t a i n i n g r e c t a n g l e (PRST) at exactly a quarter
division. This gives the quadrant are A B , centre K (on VB), the curve
leading f r o m the beautiful volute, a radius of 52.5 m m {\ head length).

FIG. 72

Are BC, centre 0 (on VB), radius 65 m m , continues the curve, meeting
straight line CD. Counter-curve DE, centre M , has a radius of 105 m m
Ci head length), and this conneets w i t h are EF, centre N, radius
52.5 m m , m a t c h i n g , once again, quadrant are AB (\ head length). The
upper peg-box outline begins w i t h straight line P], linked w i t h m a i n are JI,
centre L, radius 105 m m head length). Straight line IH conneets this
m a i n are w i t h the small, final, counter-curve are HG, centred, like the
quadrant are, at K, and of radius 2 0 m m .
P L A T E XV
 LNALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES
90

VIOLAS D'AMORE

The lovely viola d'amore deserves its beautiful n a m e , for it expresses m u c h

languishment and tenderness. Its sound is argentine or silvery, and exceptionally
agreeable and sweet. It is a pity that its use is so limited. 57

Few w o u l d disagree w i t h Mattheson that so sweet an i n s t r u m e n t merited

as sweet a name as the d'amore, b u t exactly h o w i t achieved such a title is
an interesting and long-unsolved q u e s t i o n . Opinion is divided between
58

those w h o take viola d'amore to mean ' v i o l of love', and others,

m a i n t a i n i n g a n Eastern o r i g i n , w h o c l a i m viola da More as ' v i o l of the
Moors'. The former, and more generally accepted explanation (perhaps by
reason of the sympathetic timbre of the i n s t r u m e n t ) , is given c u l t u r a l
support by the t r a d i t i o n of o r n a m e n t for the l o n g peg-box, w h i c h often
includes the carved head of a suitably blindfolded Cupid, and sometimes a
'scroll'-heel formed of a scallop shell—the attribute of Cupid's m o t h e r ,
Venus A p h r o d i t e , goddess of love. The second, ' M o o r i s h ' , derivation is
given organological credence by reason of the d'amore family's chief, and
amongst Western instruments practially u n i q u e , characteristic, the set
5 9

of sympathetic strings, w h i c h lie passively responsive beneath the bowed

strings—a system quite c o m m o n amongst Middle and Far Eastern
instruments. The peculiar sound-holes, t o o , have, i n ali their ' f l a m i n g
s w o r d ' variations, more t h a n a little of the East i n their calligraphy
(Fig. 73).

F I G . 73. Viola d'amore sound-hole

designs

The t u n i n g of the sympathetic strings is generally accepted t o

correspond to t h a t of the b o w e d strings. This brings us to yet another
peculiarity of the i n s t r u m e n t , for w h i l e most other stringed instruments
of the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries h a d one standard t u n i n g ,
5 7
Mattheson, Das Neu-eróffnete Orchester the chameleonic d'amore adopted a n old system of t u n i n g the strings,
(Hamburg, 1713).
Tyra w a y ' , according to the demands of the music, scordatura, w h i c h
5 8
Filippo Bonanni, writing i n 1716: ' A n -
other . . . instrument which some people use is usually m e a n t h a v i n g the open strings (bowed and sympathetic) t u n e d
called the viola d'amore, for which I have been to the tonic c h o r d of the piece to be p e r f o r m e d ; hence Mattheson's
unable to discover the reason for its having
such a name.'
reservation ' t h a t its use is so l i m i t e d ' , for the poor player has to k n o w as
5 9
Practically unique i n the sense that the
m a n y different 'ftngerings' as the major and m i n o r keys i n w h i c h he is
use of sympathetic strings in the baryton and likely to play. I n practice, this actually means seven or eight t u n i n g s ,
occasionali} in pochettes d'amour is likely to be
7

a l t h o u g h one early a u t h o r i t y , loseph M a j e r , offers as m a n y as seven-

60

a 'dispersal' from their originai use i n the viola

d'amore. Sympathetic strings have also been teen, w h i l s t another, Eisel, after laborious b u t valiant explanations of the
61

used i n the Norwegian Hardanger, or folk instrument's t u n i n g s , finishes i n a tone of defeat, w i t h the advice : 'they
fiddle, from about the middle of the seven-
teenth century onwards.
m a y do as they w i s h — l e t every sensible judge of music tune i t i n the w a y i t
6 0
Neu-eróffneter theoretlsch und practischer suits h i m best.'
Music Saal (Nuremberg, 1732).
6 1
Musicus autodidactus (Erfurt, 1738).
The f o r m of the body itself is equally unstandardized. There are
six-stringed and seven-stringed violas d'amore equipped w i t h sympathetic
 ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

strings n u m b e r i n g f r o m the usuai six, o n the more c o m m o n six bowed-

string i n s t r u m e n t , to as m a n y as t w e n t y - f o u r o n some of the more
extravagant so-called 'English Violets'. Body lengths, too, v a r y , f r o m
viohn-size moderates to arm-crippling giants. There are, however, t w o
clear types of outline employed: t h e viol f o r m , a n d the so-called
'festooned', or multiple-bouted, pattern. Both are represented here i n the
t w o examples chosen: a six bowed, six sympathetic, viol-outhne viola
d'amore, a n d a seven bowed, sixteen sympathetic, 'festooned' f o r m
English Violet.

Ex. X V I
Figs. 7 4 - 7 5 PI. X V I
3

VIOLA D'AMORE, BOHEMIA, C.1750

MAKER UNKNOWN

PRIVATE COLLECTION, LONDON

The first of the t w o violas d'amore to be discussed is a fine i n s t r u m e n t ,

regrettably unsigned, b u t probably made by one of the makers of the
Bohemian school about 1750. The body outline, a l t h o u g h different i n
feeling, owes m u c h to the classical f o r m of the viol w h i c h was met w i t h
earlier i n this study : Exx. I V , V , and V I , by Jaye, Tielke, and Guersan.
Here, of course, the usuai viol body construction is given greater strength
by the h i g h arching of the upper piate, a very un-viol-like characteristic—
b u t a reinforcement essential to such a structure, loaded as it is w i t h t w o
sets of strings at fairly h i g h tension.
The necks of instruments of the viol family are proportionally longer
t h a n t h o s e of the v i o l i n g r o u p , a n d , i n t w o of the classical examples
mentioned above, this, combined w i t h the higher position of the bridge,
resulted i n the distance f r o m n u t to bridge, or string length AC, being
twice the length between bridge and b u t t o n , or t a i l , C D ; see Figs. 3 0 in _
and 3 8 . I n the viola d'amore this ratio is of great importance o w i n g
to t h e sympathetic strings. As I mentioned earlier, these are situated
below the playing strings—in fact, they r u n f r o m the upper peg-box,
bypassing the lower, passing over their o w n n u t (below A) t h r o u g h a
t u n n e l beneath the finger-board, t h r o u g h holes i n the bridge and thence
to the t a i l , over another n u t , to be anchored i n pins i n the b o t t o m block.
Thus they have not one b u t two sounding lengths : that is, above t h e
b r i d g e , AC, and below i t , CD—hence the importance of this ratio, for if
AC = 2 CD, t h e n the result w i l l be t w o choirs of sympathetics, one
' s o u n d i n g ' an octave above the other. I n this case, however, a l t h o u g h the
b r i d g e is i n the c e n t r e , C, o f the b o d y , B D , the neck ( n u t A) c a n n o t be, a n d
is n o t , measured as half the body l e n g t h , so that AB = BC = CD. AB is i n
fact a little shorter, w h i c h is accounted for by the thickness of the t w o
nuts, at A and D, and the bridge at C (at the centre of the body w h e n the
t w o 'sides' of the sympathetic strings are i n octaves). This explains w h y ,
given this octave principle, the n u t p o i n t , A , is not included i n the vertical
proportions s h o w n i n Fig. 7 4 , w h i c h therefore consist only of BC = CD '
( = 1 7 8 mm). The h o r i z o n t a l l i n e a r p r o p o r t i o n s a r e a l s o s h o w n i n F i g . 74 : FIG. 74

•
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

the lower-bout w i d t h , I I ' , is 222.5 m m ; the middle bouts, BE', 1 1 1 m m ;

and the upper-bout w i d t h , K K ' , is 177.5 m m . This gives ratios of:
ir .be'
222.5 : 1 1 1

2 : 1 (2.004)

B E ' : KK'
1 1 1 -.177.5
5 :8 (1.599)

I I ' : KK'
222.5 -.177.5
5 :4 (1.253).

This last r a t i o , as we shall see, governs the relationship between the t w o

commensurable schemes w h i c h rule the lower and upper parts of the
design. The 5 : 8 ratio also applies to the rectangle mnop w h i c h 'contains'
the sound-box ( 3 5 6 mm/222.5 m m = 1.6 = 5 : 8 ) .
Further p l a n n i n g of the body outline is given i n Fig. 75. As w e l l as the
familiar are r a d i i , the reader w i l l notice the use of p l a n n i n g squares, a n d
the r e t u r n of the great circle (see Exx. I I , I V , V I I , X , and X I V ) . There also
appears to be a B r u n s w i c k i n c h resonance i n m a n y of the separate vectors.
Only the points relevant to the analysis of the r i g h t - h a n d half of the
i n s t r u m e n t are given.

FIG. 75

The outline is initiated by great-circle are of o r i g i n D H ' , centre C, radius

178 m m (half the body l e n g t h - B D : CD = 2 : 1 ) . I t is c o n t i n u e d by are
> 1
e G ' , radius 89 m m , repeating the ratio 2 : 1 ( C H ' : G'W) The
c e n t r

lower bouts a r e completed by are l'N', centre L, w h i c h lies outside the

out me, on the great circle ; this radius, l ' I , is 2 6 7 m m , and gives ratios of
3 . 2 ( 2 6 7 m m : 178 m m ) and 3 : 1 (276 m m : 89 m m ) w i t h the other
lower-bout are radii mentioned above. A square, VF'l'L, can be con
structed, u ^ n g radius ^ ^a s i t s b a s e j i t s t o p j

the top of the body. Thus, the three vectors of the lower bouts could be

l ee n
n g tt h
h , w hhi c hZf o r! clarity
° ^w e w i l l cali a major
' u n i t :* * « °f body
r S S ItÌP 6S f S m a l l C S t t 6 r m 3 q U a r t e r
s

178 = 2 maj. units; 89 = 1 maj. u n i t ; 267 = 3 maj. units.

 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 93

The middle bouts m a r k the change-over f r o m the 'major u n i t '

c o m m e n s u r a b l e s y s t e m of the lower bouts to the ' m i n o r u n i t ' commen-
surable system of the upper bouts. This latter is based o n a u n i t of 71 m m ,
a fifth division of the body l e n g t h , g i v i n g a lower : upper bout ratio of
89 m m : 7 1 m m ( 1 . 2 5 3 ) , or 5 : 4 , w h i c h was revealed earlier by the
overall proportions of w i d t h . The first middle-bout are, N ' i T , stili relates to
the lower (major) scheme—its radius is measured as 26.5 m m w h i c h ,
a l l o w i n g for measurement 2 6 7 m m : 26.5 m m ( 1 0 . 0 7 5 ) , gives a ratio of
1 0 : 1 w i t h the preceding major t e r m .
The m a i n middle-bout are, K ' Q ' , centre P', is of radius 71 m m , or 1
m i n o r u n i t of the upper scheme. The small are Q ' M ' , completing the
centre curve, has the same relationship w i t h the large upper-bout radius,
O M ' , as R'N' had w i t h large lower-bout radius L N ' , t h a t of 1 : 1 0 . Q ' M " s
radius measures 21.5 m m , w h i l e that of the upper-bout are M ' K ' , centred
at 0 , is 213 m m , or 3 m i n o r units. A g a i n , a ' p l a n n i n g square' (here
W X ' Y ' Z ) can be d r a w n , a l t h o u g h here there is no r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the
great circle; the top of the square, side W X ' , passes t h r o u g h B ; side WZ
passes t h r o u g h are centre 0 ; and side Z Y ' , the base of the square, passes
along the b o t t o m of the sound-holes. The upper bouts are continued f r o m
M'K' by are K ' S ' , centre /', and of radius 71 m m , or 1 m i n o r u n i t , u. The
counter-curve S ' U ' , centre T , is of radius 35.5 m m (|u), giving
upper-bout vector ratios of 3 : 1 (6 : 2) and 2 : 1 . I n b o t h upper and lower
b o u t s the m a i n u n i t w a s r e l a t e d to the o v e r a l l b o u t w i d t h as 2 : 5, t h a t is :

177.5 m m
upper— = 2.5
71 mm
222.5 m m
and lower = 2.5.
89 m m

The whole proportional p l a n n i n g of the body-outline vectors has

therefore been very beautifully managed ; the t w o simple commensurable
schemes, major and m i n o r , are commensurably integrated, b o t h w i t h
each other and w i t h the overall proportions, being a quarter and a fifth
respectively of the body length :

356 m m 356 m m
= 4; — = 5(.014).
89 m m 71 m m
A f u r t h e r g e o m e t r i c a l device is d r a w n i n Fig. 75, the vesica piscis. If this
is centred at points / and /' i n the sound-holes (118.5 m m apart as
measured), the resulting figure fits inside the c o n t a i n i n g square abed,
touches radius OK' (and, of course, K O ' ) , and passes t h r o u g h centre L
(and L') on the great circle.
The beautifully carved heads of b o t h this and the f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u m e n t
were not d r a w n i n elevation for analysis, since the curves of their peg-
boxes were extremely s h a l l o w , and therefore t h o u g h t unlikely to yield
any accurately measurable i n f o r m a t i o n .

: : > u ffl • & m c

PLATE XVI
 95
ALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. X V I I
Figs. 7 6 - 7 8 , P I X V I I
E N G L I S H VIOLET. GERMANY, MUNICH, 1724
PAULUS ALLETSEE
GEMEENTEMUSEUM, THE HAGUE
(Ex Care! v a n Leeuwen B o o m k a m p , N o . 8)

Over a dozen violas d'amore made by Paulus Alletsee are k n o w n to

survive, and most of t h e m are mentioned by H a r r y Danks i n his survey of
k n o w n instruments, 'Makers of the Viola d ' a m o r e ' , appended to his 62

invaluable profile, The Viola d'Amore (Bois de Boulogne, 1 9 7 6 ) . The

present specimen, w h i c h has, however, eluded M r Danks's net, is an
'English Violet' dating f r o m 1 7 2 4 and hearing seven bowed a n d sixteen
sympathetic strings. I t is f r o m the Carel v a n Leeuwen Boomkamp
collection, w h i c h is n o w housed at The Hague i n the Gemeentemuseum.
No satisfactory explanation has ever been found for the name 'English
Violet'. I n the first i n s t a n c e , v i o l e t , or violetta, w o u l d n o r m a l l y describe a
small viola, and yet instruments called English Violet are always larger
t h a n the average viola d'amore : a n d , of course, there is n o t h i n g remotely
'English' about the violet, or the viola d'amore, w h i c h were b o t h quite
definitely evolved i n w h a t we w o u l d n o w cali Germany. Danks puts
f o r w a r d Kinsky's view t h a t englisch m a y have been a contemporary
(Leopold Mozart?) misnomer—engelhaft, m e a n i n g angelic, h a v i n g been
the intended adjective, an explanation w h i c h at least conforms to the
celestial image of the i n s t r u m e n t . Whatever its origins, the name 'English
Violet' is usually reserved for a subtype of larger viola d'amore, w i t h a n
increased number of sympathetic strings, and w h i c h are more c o m m o n l y
of multiple-bouted, or festooned, outline.
As we have seen, and indeed shall see, practically ali the i n s t r u m e n t -
designs analysed i n this study are h a r m o n i c a l l y governed, to greater or
lesser extent, t h r o u g h the proportions of their component-arc r a d i i ,
sometimes w i t h , as i t were, 'positional p l a n n i n g ' by means of the vesica
piscis (Exx. I I , I I I , V i l i , X, X I V , and X V I ) , the great circle (Exx. I I , I V , V I I , X,
XTV, and X V I ) , or grids i n the f o r m of p l a n n i n g squares or c o n t a i n i n g
rectangles, etc. (Exx. V, V I I , XTV, X V , and X V I ) . The numbers indicate
relevant i n s t r u m e n t examples previously analysed i n this study—for
overall data, see Chapter 7, m a i n S u m m a r y Chart 1 , p. 158.
I n the geometry of this i n s t r u m e n t , however, the emphasis is radically
changed away f r o m the proportional regulation of are vectors t o w a r d
a more vigorous and complete positional p l a n n i n g of are centres,
using p l a n n i n g circles a n d , most notably, an extremely comprehensive
rectangular grid.
The reader w i l l observe, f r o m the m a i n d r a w i n g , the great complexity of
the Alletsee's body outline. The increased n u m b e r of arcs, and the great
stress laid o n their positioning by p l a n n i n g circles and rectangles, as w e l l
as the grid itself, result i n rather a b u l k y k n o t to u n r a v e l for the analysis.
Because of this, I shall discuss the geometry i n t w o 'layers'. The first w i l l be
the by n o w familiar process of e x a m i n i n g the principal measurements
(string l e n g t h , n u t - and bridge-positions, body l e n g t h , and bout widths)
for overall proportional relationships, followed by a vector-by-vector
h a r m o n i c exposé of the o u t l i n e , while the second 'layer' w i l l consist of
a s u m m a r y of the a l l - i m p o r t a n t grid system used by the instrument's mZu^ xvT* a b
° t h e P r C V Ì
° U S i n s t m
"
96 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

geometer. It must be remembered, however, t h a t this two-layered

approach is merely a n analytical convenience, the t w o systems or
processes being homogeneously conceived, interdependent, and con-
structionally inseparable.
Fig. 76 shows the outline o f the violet, its vertical axis BD, and its bridge
position E. As the brackets convey, the l e n g t h , BD, can be divided into Ave
equal parts (each of 85 m m ) , w i t h the bridge-line falling o n a § division
from the b o t t o m . This is also the upper point o n the centre line, w h e r e the
t w o vesica piscis circles, w h i c h are part of the lower-bout construction,
cross and intersect each other. A p a r t f r o m t w o p l a n n i n g circles, w h o l e -
n u m b e r relationships do n o t occur elsewhere i n the design, w h i c h is
o t h e r w i s e golden-section r e g u l a t e d . Other vertical and horizontal ratios
are dealt w i t h later i n the discussion of the grid.
A p a r t f r o m the vesica piscis arrangement, other circles are employed to
p i a n a n d u n i f y s y m m e t r i c a l l y the outline (see Fig. 77). As m a n y of these
circles just miss h a v i n g a centre-circumference relationship w i t h one
another, the scheme is not as scrupulously composed as its c o m p a n i o n
g r i d , but is nevertheless quite handsome. The radii of these circles, like
the radii of the o u t l i n e arcs themselves, bear few traces of h a r m o n i c
consideration, apart f r o m the t w o upper ' p l a n n i n g circles' centred at V
( w h i c h are of radius 155 m m and 5 9 m m , w h i c h m a y relate by </> + 1 , i.e.
155 mm/59 m m = 2 . 6 2 7 — 1.618 + 1 ) and the circle centred at F
( w h i c h pierces the t w o vesica centres I a n d I ' , the lower sound-hole
FIG. 78

centrings n and n ' , and just misses centre G of the middle circle), whose
radius, 77.5 m m , is half the radius of the large circle centred at V
(155 m m ) .
G is also the centre of are of origin ( H ) D H ' , radius 2 3 9 . 5 m m , w h i c h
initiates the instrument's outline. The lower bouts are continued by vesica
are H ' / ' j centre I ' , radius 87.5 m m , and completed by are J'K', centre P,
radius 2 7 m m ; the use here of a lower-case locating letter indicates its
presence i n the grid scheme discussed hereafter.
The middle-bout section could be said to start at iC , w i t h are K ' L ' ,
r

radius 2 7 m m (the same as the preceding lower-bout are) and centre n ' ,
neatly placed at the lower sound-hole centre. The curve is continued
by L ' M ' , centre g (again a grid point), radius 38.5 m m . The m a i n
middle-bout are M ' N ' is provided by m a i n circle centre G, radius 74 m m ,
w h i c h passes just below the bridge-line, and the section closes w i t h are
N ' O ' , centre p ' , radius 11.5 m m .
The upper bouts are initiated by are O'P', centre U (the top of the
sound-board rose), radius 108 m m . W h e n produced, this are pierces the
centre, p' (and p ) , of the top middle-bout are, and n a r r o w l y misses G
(centre of m a i n circle). The u n d u l a t i n g curves of the upper bouts begin
their sinuous m o t i o n w i t h are P ' O ' , centre W , radius 4 4 m m ; W is
situated o n the smaller p l a n n i n g circle (radius 59 m m ) w h i c h , like
its larger c o m p a n i o n , is centred at V. The curve of the bouts takes an
i n w a r d dip w i t h are 0 ' r T , centre Y' (on the larger p l a n n i n g circle,
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

radius 155 m m ) and radius 62 m m . It bulges outwards again w i t h are

R'S', centre X ' , o n the smaller circle, and radius 38.5 m m (an
a m o u n t encountered earlier as a middle-bout vector), centred at g \
and here h a v i n g a <f) relationship w i t h its t w o n e i g h b o u r i n g radii
(62mm/38.5 m m = 1.610 — </>). The final are of the outline is again an
i n c u r v i n g one, S'T', centre Z ' , again o n the larger p l a n n i n g circle,
radius, as mentioned, 62 m m .
The grid itself, w h i c h is a reticulation of overlapping </> rectangles and
squares, is given i n Fig. 78. The diagram is largely self-explanatory, and
the component rectangles and squares w i l l therefore be more easily
followed f r o m a check-list t h a n f r o m a descriptive text. Before giving such
a list, however, it w i l l probably be of help to m e n t i o n a few of the major
figures included i n the d r a w i n g . First, the whole b o d y is o u t l i n e d by a
c o n t a i n i n g rectangle aa'b'b, of <f> ratio. The sides of this rectangle pass
t h r o u g h the top, B, and b o t t o m , D, of the body, and t o u c h , tangentially,
the lower bouts at the point of m a x i m u m w i d t h . The same m e t h o d is
applied to the upper bouts, where rectangle cc'd'd passes again t h r o u g h
the top, B, a n d , o n each side, t h r o u g h the point of m a x i m u m w i d t h of the
upper (; and /") and middle bouts, h a v i n g its base line dd' intersecting the
centres, I and I ' , of the lower-bout vesica arrangement. Rectangle ee'f'f
frames the middle-bout w i d t h and m a i n circle diameter w i t h the base line,
/D/', w h i l e the square, gg'h'h, gives centres for the middle-bout arcs
L M and L ' M ' (gg' passes a little above true centre C). gg'h'h is also the
external companion square of <f> rectangle ii'g'g, w h i c h links the body p i a n
to the n u t position, A.
The following is a check-list of these, and other, rectangles, giving
measurements, ratios, and summarized significance. Once again, m a n y of
the vectors of this scheme appear to relate to the Brunswick i n c h :
425 mm
aa'b'b = 1.619 overall body-containing rectangle
262.5 mm
331 m m
cc'd'd = 1.607 upper and middle bouts, vesica piscis centres
206 m m
239.5 m m
ee'f'f = 1.618 middle bouts
148 mm
216 mm
gg'h'h = ril are centres for middle bouts
216 mm
349 mm
ii'g'g = 1.616 nut position
216 mm
331 mm
jj'k'k = 1.607 upper and middle bouts, upper-bout planning-
206 mm
circle centre, V
196 mm
ll'm'm =
121 mm 1.6198 lower-bout are centres
155 mm
nn'o'o =
155 mm sound-hole centrings.
PLATE XVII
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

KITS OR POCHETTES

The k i t , or pochette, was the t i n y i n s t r u m e n t used by dancing-masters of

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries discreetly to m a r k time and tune
for their pupils. I n essence i t is a h i g h l y portable, literally pocketable,
v i o l i n , carried w i t h its t i n y b o w i n a t u b u l a r case inside the l o n g pockets
of the teacher's coat. The usuai f o r m of the i n s t r u m e n t was the so-called
'rebec' shape, sometimes also called a sordine, w h i c h was straight-sided,
n a r r o w , and t r u n c h e o n - l i k e (hence the t u b u l a r case), a l t h o u g h m a n y
survive w i t h m i n i a t u r e v i o l i n bodies, sometimes festooned i n outline like
our first example, d a t i n g f r o m 1 6 8 6 . More rare is the type represented
here by the second specimen, of c i 7 6 0 , w h i c h , like the preceding violas
d'amore, has a n arrangement of sympathetic strings below the finger-
board. Later examples were made to collapse, or perhaps assemble, w i t h
b o w , into a h o l l o w w a l k i n g - s t i c k , as were some flutes and clarinets, as
w e l l as the more expected swords, guns, and drinking-flasks of the early
nineteenth century.
One characteristic c o m m o n to most kits, however, is the archaic 'E'
f o r m of sound-hole (see Exx. I I and I I I ) , used here no doubt to minimize the
w e a k e n i n g effect of the o p e n i n g s to the very n a r r o w sound-boards.

Ex. X V I I I
Figs. 7 9 - 8 0 , PI. X V I I I
K I T Or P O C H E T T E . B E L G I U M , BRUSSELS, 1686
GASPAR BORBON

MUSÉE DU C O N S E R V A T O I R E R O Y A L DE M U S I O U E , BRUSSELS
Acc. N o . : 2 7 6 4

A l t h o u g h i t seems to be a n u n u s u a l l y complex outline for such a modest

little i n s t r u m e n t , this arrangement of convolutions is also f o u n d i n
pochettes other t h a n this example of Borbon's. One such is the pochette,
t h o u g h t to be I t a l i a n a n d once attributed to Stradivari, w h i c h is i n the
Donaldson collection. This has the same body outline, b u t a different head,
hearing a conventional scroll-head instead of the volute and escutcheon
of the Borbon. The t e m p t a t i o n to attribute the Donaldson pochette to
Stradivari is understandable, for amongst the m a n y paper patterns of
i n s t r u m e n t outlines left by the master are a n u m b e r of k i t designs of
v a r y i n g forms, t w o of w h i c h a r e s i m i l a r to this ' f e s t o o n e d ' form. I t was
interesting to compare the outline of the Borbon ( 1 6 8 6 ) w i t h the t w o
Stradivari patterns (e. 1 7 0 0 ? ) , copies of w h i c h were made f r o m the
originals i n Cremona. None of the curves was found to correspond i n any
of the designs, whereas the height of the middle-bout complex, t h a t is,
distance RK (see Fig. 79), was found to be the same i n ali three cases—the
o n l y c o m m o n measurement.
The body geometry of the Borbon pochette is s h o w n i n Fig. 79. As can
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

be seen, it reveals a further example of great-circle p l a n n i n g , a l t h o u g h

here, as i n the Jaye v i o l (Ex. I V ) , the circle does not coincide w i t h the are of
o r i g i n , as i n Ex. I I (Maria treble viol) and Ex. X V I (anonymous Bohemian
viola d'amore). The radii of the outline arcs were governed by a simple
commensurable scheme based o n a u n i t (u) of 9.5 m m , w h i c h was the u n i t
radius of the smallest arcs i n Fig. 79, given the lower-case letters of a', b\ *
e', d ' , and e' for their centres. The top, like the b o t t o m , of the instrument's /
outline is defined by a m i n i a t u r e vesica piscis, an arrangement w h i c h , as it j
were, 'anchors' the t w o symmetrical halves of the i n s t r u m e n t at each of j
its extreme ends. The top vesica are is W U ' , centred at V, radius 19 m m \
or 2u. The curve is then inflexed by m a i n upper-bout are l/'S', centre T , \
positioned on the great circle, and radius 47.5 m m or 5u. The curve is \
closed by the first of the small arcs, S'R', centre e', radius u. Small are R'P', \
centre d\radius u, makes the corner, w h i c h is t u r n e d by inverse are P'O',
centre e', also radius u. The next are, middle-bout are O ' N ' , is centred at
Q', and is of radius 28.5 m m or 3u. W h e n produced, this are and are U'S',
centred at T', t o u c h 'tangentially' (see dotted line i n Fig. 79). The middle
bouts are continued by straight line N ' M ' , and then t u r a inwards w i t h are
M ' L ' , centre radius 38 m m , 4 n , and are completed by small are L ' K ' , F I G
centre V, i n the lower sound-hole centring, radius u.
The lower bouts also start (or end) w i t h a small a r e — K ' ] ' , centred at a',
radius also u. They curve inwards w i t h m a i n are / ' H ' , centred at Z '
(outside the great circle) and of radius 66.5 m m , or 7u. The outline is
completed by the echo vesica piscis arcs of the top, a l t h o u g h here they are
beautifully connected by the are of o r i g i n , w h i c h is centred at the upper
intersection of the t w o arcs (E). O w i n g to wear, or an error i n d r a w i n g or
m a k i n g , this lower vesica is a fraction smaller t h a n the upper one: H ' G ' ,
centre P, has a radius of 18.5 m m (0.5 m m short of 2u), w h i c h makes
diameter EG', the radius of are G ' D ' , 37 m m . Regarding this as wear, or
error, the final t w o outline vectors w o u l d be 2u and 4 u , respectively.
The sound-hole centrings are pierced by a circle d r a w n f r o m F o n the
centre line ; its radius is 37 m m , just short of 4 u , w h i c h w o u l d have given
a radius of 38 m m . The centres of the curves of the sound-holes have also
been d r a w n i n Fig. 79. The outermost curve is centred at X' on the great
circle, w h i l e the inner curve is centred at Y'. Their radii, 107 m m and
82 m m , are not related to the commensurable scheme. The only linear
measurement, vertical or horizontal, to yield to the 9.5 m m u n i t , apart,
that is, f r o m the above radii, proved to be the string length w h i c h , being
304 m m , divides 304/9.5 to 32u.
The d i m i n u t i v e head of the i n s t r u m e n t is s h o w n i n outline profile i n
Fig. 80. Here again the radii of the arcs were found to be multiples of the
basic u n i t , u, of 9.5 m m . Once more, the overall proportions (e.g. the
c o n t a i n i n g rectangle WXYZ) have not been considered proportionately.
The under-curve of the volute is started w i t h are AB, centre O, radius
19 m m or 2u, continued by are BC, centre D, radius 66.5 m m (7w) and
completed by short straight line CE and counter-curve EF, centre G,
radius again 19 m m or 2u. The top side of the peg-box consists of large are
HI, centred at/, and of radius 66.5 m m (7u), short straight line IK, and the
inner curve KL, also centred at 0 , and of radius 6.5 m m .

0 ® c
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. XIX
Figs. 8 1 - 8 3 , PI. XIX
POCHETTE D'AMOUR. ITALY, TURIN, C.1760

BATTISTA GENOVA

DONALDSON C O L L E C T I O N , R O Y A L COLLEGE OF MUSIC

Acc. N o . : RCM 38
The idea of a pochette d ' a m o u r is i n t r i g u i n g , for one is inclined to suppose
t h a t such a t i n y , ribless sound-box as i n this i n s t r u m e n t of Battista Genova
w o u l d be an insufficient resonator to amplify and t r a n s m i t the gentle
vibrations of sympathetic strings, b u t apparently i t is, and the resulting
sound is described as 'silvery'. A l t h o u g h rare, and indeed its maker little
k n o w n , this example is not u n i q u e , there being an exotic 'festooned'
pochette d ' a m o u r w i t h 'flame' sound-holes i n the collection of i n s t r u -
ments at Budapest, w h i l e the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t (New York)
has t w o fine specimens, one of w h i c h , hearing a carved Cupid's head of
exceptional beauty, is of similar overall outline to o u r o w n i n s t r u m e n t .
Genova actually w o r k e d i n T u r i n , where he h a d been a p u p i l of Gian
Francesco Celoniati. The present example, w h i c h was made probably
c . l 7 6 0 , bears the same golden-yellow v a r n i s h t h a t his teacher used, and
has a graceful little body of v i o l outline.
A l t h o u g h of different f o r m , t i m e , and place, the p r o p o r t i o n a l system
used i n this design is very similar to that used i n the previous example, the
Gaspar Borbon pochette, that is, a simple, commensurable scheme, based
o n a small u n i t , u , w h i c h here equals 9 m m . I t can be seen regulating the
widths (horizontal linear proportion) of the upper, middle, and lower
bouts i n Fig. 8 1 . W W , the upper bouts, measure 90 m m across, or l O u ;
the middle bouts, VV\ are 54 m m w i d e , or 6 u ; and H H ' , the lower bouts,
measure 108(.5) m m or \2u (twice the middle-bout measurement—see
also Ex. X V I , Fig. 74), w h i c h gives bout ratios of :
10 : 6 : 12
or 5:3:6.

The outline itself is broken d o w n i n t o component arcs and radii i n

Fig. 82. Here the lower bouts are seen to have the same semicircular start H
as those of the Tielke v i o l (Ex. V ) . This is are D H ' , centre G, w h i c h has
a radius of 54(.25) m m ( H H ' measuring 108.5 m m ) , or, a l l o w i n g the
0.25 m m as m a r g i n , 6u. The centre of the next, and o n l y other,
l o w e r - b o u t a r e is positioned o n the opposite edge of the i n s t r u m e n t , so t h a t
are H ' I ' , centre H , has a radius of 108.5 m m , 12u, twice t h a t of are D H ' .
The middle bouts compóse three arcs : I ' / ' , centre M ' , radius 13.5 m m ,
equalling 1 . 5 I I J m a i n a r e J'K', centre L' (not, however, positioned by
either circle or grid), radius 36 m m or 4 u ; and finally K'0\ centre N '
radius also 13.5 m m ( 1.5 u). The upper bouts, like the lower bouts, are also ta.
part-formed by an are centred o n the centre line ; this is are O'Q', c e n t r e P,
r a d i u s 45 m m o r 5u. The curve continues w i t h are Q'S', centre R, radius
55 m m (the same as radius GH') or 6 I I , and the outline is completed by
counter-curve S T , centre 17', radius 2 7 m m , w h i c h equals 3u.
A g a i n the sound-holes are of the archaic 'E' type, and slightly
uncomfortably placed, as t h o u g h the too-near upper centres should have
been connected to their lower circles by </'s and not by the old 'E's The
circle piercing these four centres is centred at P o n the centre l i n e ; its
radius, 33 m m , does n o t relate to the u n i t system; its circumference is
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES
104

'tangential' to the middle-bout curves. The inner curve of the sound-hole

itself does, however, correspond to the commensurable scheme—it is
s h o w n i n Fig. 82 w i t h its centre at x, its radius, 72 m m , being twice the
m a i n middle-bout are radius and equalling 8u.
The question of string length and bridge position is a tricky one. A t
present the i n s t r u m e n t is set up w i t h its bridge at E, no doubt the 'position
of greatest use', t h a t is, where the marks and wear to the belly indicate, by
a sort of m a j o r i t y vote, where the bridge has always been. Bearing i n m i n d
t h a t these little pochettes rarely conform to n o r m a l luthier practices, it
should, however, be mentioned that the notches i n the sound-holes, w h i c h
w o u l d n o r m a l l y indicate the ideal bridge p o s i t i o n , suggest a higher pla-
63

cing ( i n Fig. 8 2 , e), a position w h i c h gives the sympathetic strings a har-

monically tuned string length o n b o t h sides of the bridge, so t h a t Ae : eD
is as 3 : 1 , a consideration n o t at present catered for w i t h the bridge
at E. I n practice, however, the l u t h i e r , i n adopting these sound-holes a n d
positioning t h e m so closely, has reduced the w i d t h of belly at this point (e),
so t h a t there is scarce enough r o o m to stand a bridge, not to m e n t i o n the
paucity of w o o d r e m a i n i n g for the essential v i b r a t i o n . Had the existing
centres been connected by '/'s rather t h a n by 'E's, this problem w o u l d not
have arisen, and the h a r m o n i c a l l y , and aesthetically, more likely bridge
position w o u l d t h e n have been possible. I therefore suspect t h a t the design
archetype of this i n s t r u m e n t may well have differed i n this respect.
The incorporation of sympathetic strings, w i t h their additional t u n i n g -
pegs, has meant a m u c h longer peg-box for this pochette t h a n for t h a t of
the Borbon. As w i t h the body design, there is a feeling of organic grace
about the head, w i t h its volute t e r m i n a l , w h i c h has been curve-analysed
i n Fig. 83. The vortex of this d r a w i n g is inevitably crowded and confusing ;
to avoid greater m u d d l e , I have therefore not loaded the figure w i t h added
letters denoting the centres of arcs, centres w h i c h the reader should stili be
able to find f r o m the identity of the are alone.
FIG. 82
The overall containing rectangles, NPQS, NORS, and OPOR, again
were not f o u n d to have any proportional significance, a l t h o u g h once or
twice a radius did correspond to a n i s o l a t e d m e a s u r e m e n t . Neither did the
u n i t scheme of the body design {u = 9 m m ) appear i n the p l a n n i n g of
the head.
The arithmetic mean (b = ±(a + c)), however, was used, and the
i m p o r t a n t o u t e r v o l u t e of the h e a d is so governed. The arcs whose radii
comprise this arithmetic progression are AB, BC, CD, and DE, and their
radii i n millimetres respectively read 5 . 5 , 1 0 . 5 , 1 5 . 5 , and 20.5. The curve
is then s h a l l o w e d by are EF, w h o s e centre lies o n head-containing
rectangle side RO produced, and whose radius measures 51.5 m m , w h i c h
is 0.5 m m short of being the s u m of the preceding volute r a d i i , but is
also half of measurement NO. The under-curve of the peg-box is then
continued by straight line FG and counter-curve G H , whose radius
37 m m , equals the height, PQ, of the head rectangle NPOS.
The top curve of the peg-box commences after straight line N I , w i t h are
FIG. 83
I / , whose radius, 99 m m , equals f of NO. Straight line JK then conneets
this w i t h the curves of the inner volute are KL, centred o n line N P , radius
24 m m , are L M , radius 9.5 m m , and centre are MA, radius 6 m m - c u r v e s
whose radii have a more arbitrary relationship t h a n did the arithmetically
organized arcs of the outer volute.
That is, on a line intersecting the point of
6 3

weight equilibrium of the piate.

 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES
106

LUTES

The singular importance of the lute as a key musical i n s t r u m e n t of the

Renaissance is attested to n o t o n l y by the enormous w e a l t h of music it
engendered, b u t also by the poets, writers, and painters w h o f o u n d
inspiration i n the gentle magic of its sound, or i n the pure and deceptively
simple beauty of its f o r m . This prime position, however, is n o t substan-
tiated by the n u m b e r of early lutes to survive, w h i c h is lamentably few.
F r o m inventories, such as t h a t taken f r o m the w o r k i n g stock of the master
l u t h i e r , Lucas Maler, at his d e a t h , we k n o w t h a t lutes, and h i g h l y valued
64

ones at t h a t , were produced i n w h a t seem to be astonishing quantities by

the German colonies of lute-makers t h e n w o r k i n g i n n o r t h e r n Italy. M a s ,
the remarkably fragile nature of these instruments, w h i c h helped to give
t h e m the resonant t o n a i qualities for w h i c h they were so prized and
consequently so widely used, has meant t h a t , of the thousands of
master-instruments made i n the sixteenth c e n t u r y , scarce a h a n d f u l
survive, even i n part. T h a t almost no sixteenth-century lute remains to US
i n the f o r m and c o n d i t i o n t h a t it left its maker, however, is due not just to
their inherent fragility, b u t also to the c o n t i n u a i changes i n the n a t u r e of
the music itself, w i t h the increasing demand for a deeper register to the
i n s t r u m e n t . T h u s , good lutes, w h i c h usually meant old lutes (Samuel
Johnson's Dictionary, 1 7 5 5 , discloses t h a t a lute m i g h t take u p to eighty
years to reach its best t o n e ) were constantly being fitted w i t h new necks,
65

heads, bridges, and bars, to keep apace of musical fashion, at a rate w h i c h

left even Praetorius a little dazed : . . f r o m year to year, so m a n y changes
are being made t h a t n o t h i n g very definite can be w r i t t e n ' . 6 6

I n short, the o l d , h i g h l y prized lute bodies were considered by

subsequent players to be interchangeable, and the string-stop, neck, and
head type were considerations to be custom-fitted to the players' musical
needs : witness the correspondence between the 'English' lutenist Jacques
Gaultier a n d Constantin Huygens i n H o l l a n d ( 1 6 4 7 - 8 ) :

There is certainly here another k i n d of lute of Bologna for accompanying

singing. It is one of the large lutes of Sconvel. I f y o u w o u l d please let me k n o w i n
w h a t fashion y o u w o u l d like the neck to be, a n d w h e t h e r y o u w o u l d like it to be
b o t h for the p l a y i n g of pieces a n d also for s i n g i n g , I w i l l have i t p u t i n t o p l a y i n g
order. 67

M a n y fine lutes have therefore had w o r k i n g careers t h r o u g h o u t the

M . W. Prynne, 'Some Remarks on Old
6 4
Lutes', LSJ voi. 1 . See also 'The Old Bologna
Lute-Makers', LSJ voi. 3, by the same writer.
Prynne, LSJ voi. 3.
6 5
whole period of the instrument's use, sailing, if not under different colours
(to use the old phrase), t h e n certainly by means of different riggings.
W h e n the lute finally w e n t o u t of fashion i n the eighteenth c e n t u r y ,
s u r v i v i n g bodies were often yet again re-used, either i n the manufacture of
hurdy-gurdies, or, later, i n conversions to guitars a n d even mandolones.
The nineteenth-century f o r g e r s o f 'antique' artefacts also did their share
of lute body-snatching i n order to c a n n i b a l e diverse remains and
tragments i n t o suspiciously over-decorative 'collector's pieces', m a n y of
w h i c h have regrettably found their w a y into some i m p o r t a n t public
collections, to be displayed as genuine sixteenth- or seventeenth-centurv

Syntagma Musicum, Part 1 , chap. xxv.

6 6
instruments. J

J. D. Roberts, 'The Lute : Historical Notes',

6 7

It is therefore o u t of caution t h a t I have decided, i n this section, to

LSJ voi. 2, p. 2 1 .
confine m y analyses to the p r i m a r y aspects of body design, a l t h o u g h
 107
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

where string lengths or n u t or bridge positions are t h o u g h t to be o r i g i n a i ,

t h e n , of course, these too are taken i n t o consideration.
The bodies of the bowed instruments t h a t we have discussed so far have
backs designed o n the same two-dimensional p i a n as the f r o n t , w i t h a 6 8

section of vertical ribs, sometimes parallel, sometimes a l m o s t imper-

ceptibly tapered, f o r m i n g the sides of the sound-box, thus enclosing the
essential volume of air. For o u r purpose, this has needed no discussion, i n
piane geometry terms, beyond that of the body p i a n itself (and, where
relevant, an elevation of the head design). W i t h the lute f o r m of body,
however, the two-dimensional body outline rises i n t o a v a u l t of seemingly
complex, three-dimensional curves, w h i c h can, however, be rendered
back i n t o the two-dimensional piane geometry i n w h i c h they were
undoubtedly conceived. To this end, I have analysed the o n l y con-
69

sistente definable measurements w h i c h could be taken f r o m the v a u l t ; a

l o n g i t u d i n a l proflle, together w i t h a horizontal cross-section at the widest
point.

Ex. XX
Figs. 8 4 - 8 5
LUTE (DRAWING). HOLLAND, C.1460
HENRICUS ARNAULT OF ZWOLLE

BIBLIOTHÈQUE N A T I O N A L E, PARIS

Acc. N o . : 7 2 9 5

Perhaps the t w o most signifìcant instrument-examples i n this section are

the lutes by Hans Frei and G i o v a n n i Hieber, w h i c h m a r k the change i n
development of the 'classic' i n s t r u m e n t f r o m the exquisite Bolognese
' p e a r l - m o u l d ' f o r m , w i t h its l o n g , shallow curves, to the fuller, broader
shape of the later sixteenth-century Venetian lutes. Before discussing b o t h
these and the other lutes, however, we have a unique o p p o r t u n i t y to
examine the design of a fìfteenth-century l u t e , t h r o u g h the concise
w o r k i n g d r a w i n g left by the D u t c h scholar Henricus A r n a u l t of Zwolle. I t
is given, w i t h instructions for the f o r m i n g of the outline and the m a k i n g of
the interior m o u l d , o n a single sheet, w h i c h forms part of a manuscript
treatise o n musical instruments ( m a i n l y keyboards) n o w i n the Biblio-
thèque Nationale i n Paris.
This sheet is s h o w n here i n Fig. 84. The paper o n w h i c h i t was w r i t t e n
has stretched a little i n the vertical axis, resulting i n a slight distortion i n
the d r a w i n g . A r n a u l t seems to have made one or t w o errors, w h i c h he
rather c h a r m i n g l y corrects: for example, the left-hand figure is the
correction for a section incorrectly d r a w n i n the m o u l d end-view o n the
r i g h t of the page. He also started his d r a w i n g too h i g h o n the page, for
w h e n he carne to d r a w i n the surprisingly long n e c k he r a n o u t of paper ;
70

unperturbed, he explains :
A n arguable exception perhaps would be
6 8

the alla gobba back of the viols and, more

I t e m — t h e neck should have the l e n g t h of the line ik to t h e n u t , b u t here it is too particularly, that found i n the sloping-
short, because the paper is n o t l o n g e n o u g h . shouldered type, such as the Ciciliano (Ex. III).
For corroboration of this view, see the
6 9

A r n a u l t mentions no measurements as such, b u t clearly defines the following analysis of the Buechenberg chitar-
rone (Ex. XXIII).
p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t the lute should have, w h i c h are a l i derived f r o m simple,
See Ian Harwood's remarks on his discus-
7 0

w h o l e - n u m b e r ratios. For the sake of c l a r i t y , I have r e d r a w n A r n a u l t ' s sion of this lute i n 'A Fifteenth Century Lute
lute according to his w r i t t e n instructions, o m i t t i n g those lines pertaining Design', LSJ voi. 2, pp. 7-8. This useful article
also provides a full English translation of
to the m o u l d construction, Fig. 85 ( m y c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d lettering). A r n a u l t ' s L a t i n text.
 ^
è

G. 84. Drawing instructions for the

construction of a luta, Henricus Arnault. (Bib.iothèque Nationa.e, Paris,
 109
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

FIG. 85

A circle is first d r a w n , centre C o n the vertical axis. The horizontal

diameter H C H ' is t h e n c o n s t r u c t e d , and arcs H J , centre H ' , a n d H ' J ' J
centre H , are completed, the radii HJ' and H ' ] crossing at the point where
the centre line and large-circle circumference meet. This becomes the
centre E for the are J B J ' , w h i c h completes the body outline. The radii E]
and E J ' are thus determined by 'tangency' to the larger arcs.
The r a d i i of these t w o circles, centre E and centre C , have a ratio
of 7 : 1 2 . A l i other measurements are developed f r o m w h o l e - n u m b e r ,
vertical or horizontal, divisions of this body outline. T h u s , the neck A B is
given as being equal to the body w i d t h HCH' ; the bridge position, G , o n
the centre line, as a one-sixth division of B D , and of G D , the lower t h i r d to
be the b o t t o m block ; the sound-hole is centred at F , h a l f - w a y between the
top and the bridge ( ^ B G = F ) , and its diameter is to be o n e - t h i r d of the
horizontal piercing its centre, KFK'.
A p a r t f r o m this commensurable approach to r a t i o , the other i m p o r t a n t
design factor to emerge f r o m the d r a w i n g is the large vesica piscis, VP, i n
w h i c h the w h o l e lute body is inscribed ( m a i n arcs H J and H']' being
produced f r o m the m a i n diameter H C H ' ) . Interestingly, the use of this
signifìcant design device is not alluded to i n the text.

®c
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
110

Ex. X X I
Figs. 8 6 - 8 9 , PI. XX
LUTE, TENOR. ITALY, BOLOGNA, C.1550
HANS FREI
W A R W I C K COUNTY MUSEUM

Acc. N o . : 67/1965

The deep-bodied, rounded lute of A r n a u l t ' s d r a w i n g , utilizing the same

curve for outline and cross-section alike, was superseded i n the early
sixteenth century by a slimmer, more sophisticated s h a p e - t h e so-called
' p e a r l - m o u l d ' f o r m of the early Bolognese school. Due homage is
71

paid to the artistry and skill of the t w o most prestigious luthiers of this
development i n M a r y Burwell's Instruction Book for the Iute, written in
12

the 1 6 6 0 s :
Laux Maler [Mauller] and Hans Frey [Hunts Frith] have been the two chiefest
lute-makers that have lived at Bologna, who have rendered their names immortai
by the melodious sound of that famous instrument, and will stili make them
resound through ali the earth as long as it will please God to maintain the
harmony of the universe.

A n d John Evelyn, o n a visit to Bologna i n 1 6 4 5 , l o n g after it had ceased to

be a centre of l u t e - m a k i n g , wrote : ^

This place has also been celebrated for lutes made by the old masters, Mollen
[Maler], Hans Frei, and Nicholas Sconvelt, which were of extraordinary price ; the
workmen were chiefly Germans. 73

Indeed, these instruments have always been i n great demand, despite

their consequent 'extraordinary price'. M a c e speaks of Maler lutes,
74

' p i t t i m i Old, Batter'd Crack'd Things', valued at one h u n d r e d pounds

apiece ( 1 6 7 6 ) , w h e n a fine new lute, \ . . far more t a k i n g to the c o m m o n
eye', w o u l d cost b u t three or four pounds.
It has been estimated t h a t Maler's o u t p u t of instruments m a y have
75

been as h i g h as 4 , 0 0 0 lutes d u r i n g his w o r k i n g lifetime, b u t of these only

three examples survive ; similarly, only three Frei lutes are extant, w h i l e of
Sconfelt, sadly, no i n s t r u m e n t remains to i l l u m i n a t e the hearsay of a
considerable reputation.
I have chosen, t h e n , to represent this i m p o r t a n t school w i t h a lute made
by Hans Frei i n about 1550. I t is the i n s t r u m e n t once owned by Eric
Halfpenny, b u t w h i c h is n o w lodged i n W a r w i c k County M u s e u m
(Accession No. : 67/1965). The condition of the i n s t r u m e n t is surprisingly
good, a l t h o u g h its present eleven-course condition is not o r i g i n a i , the
neck, head, and bridge being later, probably seventeenth-century,
replacements of the earlier, shorter neck and fittings, w h i c h most likely
w o u l d have carried only six or seven courses. Only the body scheme itself
w i l l therefore be considered, and an account of its geometry follows.
Fig. 86 shows the body outline or the table of the lute inscribed i n its
T h o m a s Mace, Musick's Monument (Lon-
7 1
containing rectangle, EFGH. The ratio of this rectangle is, of course, that
don, 1676), Pari I I , chap. i i i , p. 49.
Quoted i n GSJ voi. x i .
7 2 of the vertical and horizontal axes, AD and N N ' , of the lute pian itself, and
Quoted in LSJ voi. 3.
7 3
it comes as no surprise, given the harmonious aspect of the i n s t r u m e n t ,
Musick's Monument ( L o n d o n , 1 6 7 6 ) , P a r t
that this ratio should prove to be 1 : 1 . 6 1 8 — t h e golden r a t i o :
7 4

n , chap. i i i , p. 48.
Prynne, 'The Old Bologna Lute-Makers',
7 5
AD _ 497.5 mm
LSJ voi. 5, p. 20. = 1.611
NN' ~ 307.5 mm
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

It is interesting, as we shall see, t h a t Frei, h a v i n g selected this most

beautiful, b u t mathematically i r r a t i o n a l , scheme for his basic p r o p o r t i o n ,
should t h e n revert i n the r e m a i n i n g traceable proportional decisions to
the r a t i o n a l , commensurable ratios of the k i n d used by A r n a u l t a century
earlier (see earlier discussion). This is s h o w n almost immediately: i n
Fig. 86 the are of o r i g i n , I D I ' , is d r a w n , centred at point A , where the
centre Une meets the upper l i m i t of the table. Its radius is therefore the
body l e n g t h , 4 9 7 . 5 m m , and the radii A I and AI' pierce the centres C and
C of the ubiquitous vesica piscis construction, whose t w o circles f o r m the
c o n t i n u a t i o n of this lower are, f r o m I to / and f r o m V to /' (for the sake of
clarity, only the r i g h t - h a n d side of the symmetrical pian is analysed i n
Fig. 86). The radius of these circles is an i m p o r t a n t vector i n the design,
d e m o n s t r a t i n g the first of Frei's c o m m e n s u r a b l e ratios, being 1 : 5 of the
overall length AD {AD/CI = 4 9 7 . 5 mm/99.5 m m = 5/1).

The r e m a i n i n g curves of the outline are completed (Fig. 86) by arcs J'M'
and M'L'. Are M'L' is extremely shallow, centred at O, w i t h a radius of
765 m m , for w h i c h no harmonic resolution could be extrapolated f r o m
the vectors of the body scheme.
This brings us to Fig. 8 7 , w h i c h deals w i t h the design decisions made
w i t h i n the o u t l i n e — t h e position of the b r i d g e , and the size and piacing of
the rose. This last question of the rose is an i n t r i g u i n g one, for i t is n o w
t h o u g h t quite likely that the c u t t i n g of lute roses was a specialized
occupation, undertaken by skilled south German craftsmen, and t h a t
the great I t a l i a n lute-makers of the sixteenth century purchased their
rectangular lute-belly 'blanks' f r o m the n o r t h , w i t h the roses already cut.
It w o u l d then r e m a i n for t h e m to construct their outlines a r o u n d this
existing feature. Unfortunately, no real light can be t h r o w n o n this quite
plausible theory by the geometry of these early lutes, except t h a t f r o m
the examples analysed it w o u l d appear t h a t greater attention is paid to the
linear proportion radiating f r o m the c i r c u l a r b o r d e r itself (i.e. f r o m t h e
circumference of the rose to the body outline and bridge position) t h a n to
either {a) the position of its centre w i t h i n the vertical axis, or (b) the
harmonic relationship of its size, radius or diameter, to the overall
proportional scheme. This thought-process is demonstrated here i n
Fig. 8 7 , where, quite independently of t h e a c t u a l size of the rose ( w h i c h is
not harmonically related to the m a i n scheme) or indeed the position of its
centre, the proportions a r o u n d its circumference and w i t h i n the body
outline, w i t h the incorporation of the bridge position, are elegantly
disposed by means of the simple, whole-number ratios of 1 : 1 , 1 : 2 , 2 : 3 ,
and 1 : 3 . These are best expressed i n terms of u n i t s , i n this case 8 1 m m i n
length. Thus, i n the vertical axis A D , there are t w o units between A , the
top of the table, and the top of the rose, as there are equally t w o units
between the bridge, B, and the lower edge of the rose, leaving one u n i t
between the bridge-line at B and the lower edge of the table, D, and
similarly one u n i t between the left and r i g h t sides of the rose and the
adjacent edges of the table. This is demonstrated more clearly by the
dotted concentric circles radiating o u t f r o m the rose i n Fig. 8 7 , i n each
case the radii being increased by one u n i t of 8 1 m m .
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
112

Unlike the lute of A r n a u l t ' s d r a w i n g , the l o n g i t u d i n a l section of this

design is not the same as half its p i a n . Nevertheless, its depth is equal to
half its w i d t h . Fig. 88 shows the vertical, or l o n g i t u d i n a l , section, w h i c h
can be inscribed i n t w o annexed golden-section rectangles, AA'P'P and
PP'D'D, w h i c h are therefore related to the m a i n outline-containing
^-rectangle, EFGH, i n the ratio 1 : 4 . The lower of these t w o rectangles
contains the square QQ'D'D, w h i c h , as can be seen, is of great importance.

FIG. 88

The diagonal, Q D ' , of this square passes t h r o u g h the centre, C " , of

the lowest are, RS, whose radius, 99.5 m m , exactly equals that of the
corresponding vesica piscis arcs, JI and I ' / ' j used i n the front of the
i n s t r u m e n t , where this i m p o r t a n t vector was s h o w n to have a 1 : 5
relationship w i t h the overall length AD. A vertical line d r a w n t h r o u g h
centre C " , i n Fig. 8 8 , meets the base line, D D ' , at R, t h a t is, the point
where the ribs of the v a u l t rise away f r o m behind the strengthening 'lace',
s h o w n i n cross-section as DR. Here another commensurable ratio is
f o u n d , as DR : D D ' equals 1 : 3. The lowest are, RS, is continued by the
m a i n are, ST, whose centre lies o n Q'O produced, and completed,
meeting the back of the neck at U, by are TU, of radii 672 m m and
187 m m respectively. Neither of these last values was f o u n d to relate
h a r m o n i c a l l y to the rest of the scheme.
The cross-section taken at the widest point is s h o w n i n Fig. 89. As I
mentioned above, a l t h o u g h it is not semicircular i n section like the lute of
A r n a u l t , this Frei lute's depth (QQ') is half its w i d t h ( W W ) . QW'VQ' is
therefore a square, containing the smaller square XZVY, w h i c h i n t u r n
yields the quadrant are defining the joints of the ribs. This are, ZY, is
centred at X, and its radius, 132.5 m m , is again related to the i m p o r t a n t
v e c t o r , 99.5 m m , of the vesica piscis arcs and l o n g i t u d i n a l cross-section,
FIG. 89
here i n the ratio 99.5 m m : 132.5 m m = 132.5/99.5 = 1.33(2) =^=3 : 4 .
Thus, a l t h o u g h broadly planned to the overall accommodation of the
golden r a t i o , the detailed p l a n n i n g of this most beautiful i n s t r u m e n t is
entrusted to the r a t i o n a l , whole-number, so-called ' m u s i c a l ' ratios such
76

See discussion of the Ciciliano viol, Ex. I I I .

asl:l,1:2,1:3,1:5,2:3,and3:4.

CD F"
G 0
P L A T E XX
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. X X I I
Figs. 9 0 - 9 4 , PI. X X I
LUTE, ALTO. I T A L Y, V E N I C E , C.1580
GIOVANNI HIEBER
MUSÉE DU CONSERVATOIRE R O Y A L DE M U S I Q U E , BRUSSELS
Acc. No.: 1561

Unique a m o n g the instruments discussed i n this section, and indeed

practically amongst ali other s u r v i v i n g sixteenth-century lutes, this
i n s t r u m e n t , made i n the last quarter of the century by Giovanni Hieber of
Venice, does retain its o r i g i n a i head and neck—a fact w h i c h is satisfyingly
confirmed by the analysis of its geometry, explained below. A p a r t f r o m the
verification of the head and neck's a u t h e n t i c i t y , the analysis also reveals
the full extent of the later alterations, and effective shortening of the lower
part of the body (some idea of w h i c h can be gained f r o m e x a m i n a t i o n of
the i n s t r u m e n t itself), and establishes w h a t m u s t have been the o r i g i n a i
bridge position, before the lower part of the table sustained its distorting
damage and repair. This can be seen most clearly i n the m a i n d r a w i n g ,
where the present flattened state of the lute's base ( w h i c h , regrettably, has
been t h o u g h t by some m o d e m luthiers to be a particular feature of
the i n s t r u m e n t , and one to be faithfully replicated) is d r a w n w i t h i n the
reconstructed o r i g i n a i outline. That this is correct is clearly supported by
(a) the r e m a i n i n g outline geometry, (b) the i n s t r u m e n t ' s type, a n d , w i t h
the reinstatement of the true bridge position, (c) the typical commen-
surable proportions t h e n f o u n d i n the lute's pian.
Indeed, the establishment of the o r i g i n a i bridge-line was the i n i t i a l
thread i n the u n r a v e l l i n g of the Hieber's design geometry,

Untwisting ali the chains that tie

The hidden soul of harmony.
By this r e p o s i t i o n i n g , n o t only were the h a r m o n i c proportions w i t h i n the
table itself resolved, b u t the consequent o r i g i n a i string length was t h e n
also f o u n d to be i n commensurable relationship w i t h the table length. This
i n f o r m a t i o n , too, is given i n the m a i n d r a w i n g : o n the left-hand side,
the present, a l t e r e d position of the bridge is s h o w n , together w i t h the
appropriate fret positions, w h i l e o n the r i g h t - h a n d side I have d r a w n the
supposed o r i g i n a i bridge-line, and the revised fretting.
The complete, pre-alteration, body o u t l i n e is s h o w n , w i t h t h e n e c k , i n
Fig. 9 0 , where AD is the body l e n g t h (A being the top of the table) and E the
n u t of the i n s t r u m e n t . Here, no proportional significance was f o u n d i n the
rectangles c o n t a i n i n g the body o u t l i n e , or the neck a n d body together, as
was the case w i t h the body area of the Frei l u t e , w h i c h , as the reader w i l l
remember, was precisely defined by the elegant, t h o u g h schematically
isolated, golden-section rectangle. Linear p r o p o r t i o n , however, has been
considered, for we find that overall length to body l e n g t h , i.e.

ED: AD
676.5 m m : 4 5 1 m m ,
is 3:2;

or, alternatively, body length to neck length

AD:AE
451 m m : 225.5 m m
equals 2:1.
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

The geometry of the body outline (Fig. 91) follows the same pattern as that
found i n the Frei Iute, a l t h o u g h the proportional relationship between the
various vectors is different.
The are of o r i g i n IDI', n o w obscured by damage, is almost certain to
have been centred at A. (As we have said, this is corroborated by previous
example (cf. Frei), the r e m a i n i n g arcs, and the consequent commen-
surable cohesion of the instrument's proportions.) The radius of this are
w o u l d therefore be the body length A D , 4 5 1 m m . The next arcs were
provided by t w o circles, i n vesica piscis arrangement, centred at C and C ,
w h i c h t w o points lie o n the lines produced f r o m the edges of the neck (see
Fig. 9 1 ) . A r e l'I' is thus centred at C , and is of 9 7 . 5 m m radius. This is
contained, as i n the Frei l u t e , by an are, J'K', centred at M , o n the
opposite edge of the table at the widest point, g i v i n g an are radius of
3 0 9 m m (body w i d t h ) . The m a i n are is K ' L ' , w h i c h is centred at N . Its
radius, 3 9 0 m m , is commensurably related to the vesica piscis are r a d i i ,
centred at C and C ( 9 7 . 5 m m ) , i n the ratio 4 : 1 . j$ jg^*
The rose position, bridge-line position, and string length are examined
i n Fig. 9 2 . A g a i n , greater regard is paid to the space s u r r o u n d i n g the
circumference of the rose t h a n to the positioning of its centre. Following
b o t h the Frei and the A r n a u l t , the distances above and below the rose are
again equal, i.e.
AR = R"B = 142.5 mm. FIG. 91

This is related to R ' F ' ( 9 5 m m ) i n the n o w familiar ratio

142.5 :95

3 : 2

w h i l e the r e m a i n i n g space below the bridge, BD, is, i n t u r n , related to R'F'

i n the ratio

76 m m : 95 m m
4 : 5.

The line GG' is equal i n length to the rose diameter RR".

The true string l e n g t h , EB, was also found to be i n simple, whole-
number relationship w i t h b o t h the body l e n g t h , A D , and the overall
l e n g t h , ED, that is :

AD:EB
451 m m :601(.3) m m
f "
3 :4

and ED : EB <
676.5 m m :601(.3) m m
9 :8.

Thus, by the resolution of these rational proportions, the originai pian of

this i m p o r t a n t instrument becomes apparent, its design made w h o l e , <
desite the ravages to its fabric. Regrettably, the nature of the damage and
repair, w h i c h partly obscured the lower f r o n t of the i n s t r u m e n t , resulted
i n distortion of the v a u l t , w h i c h consequently caused some difnculty w h e n
the relevant cross-sections were measured. The f o l l o w i n g vectors, h o w -
ever, w o u l d appear by their interrelationship to be correct.
Fig. 93 is the l o n g i t u d i n a l section of the Hieber. The dashed line i n the
lower section traces the present damaged profile of the b o t t o m of the vault.
Like the Frei, this lute is as deep as half its w i d t h , its deepest p o i n t , 0 ' , FIG. 92
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

E'
E

FIG. 93

being the corner of a square, Q O ' D ' D , w h i c h contains, and deflnes, the
lower arcs. The present lace depth, D H , is related to the overall depth, D D ' ,
i n the ratio
DH:DD'
1 :5.

The centre of the are HS lies o n the diagonal, Q D ' , of this square, and its
radius is 122 m m . This relates to the vesica arcs of the p i a n i n the ratio
122 m m : 97.5 mm
5 : 4.

The are is continued by are SQ', radius 2 4 4 m m , w h i c h is i n 2 : 1 ratio

w i t h are SH and 5 : 2 ratio w i t h the vesica arcs. The m a i n are is Q'T,
centred at G " , of r a d i u s 4 8 7 . 5 m m . This is i n exactly 5 : 1 ratio w i t h the
vesica arcs, and again (here a l l o w i n g for a 0.5 m m m a r g i n of error) 2 : 1
ratio w i t h its preceding are SO'. The profile of the v a u l t is completed by are
TU, radius 2 4 4 m m , w h i c h thus m i r r o r s are SQ'. Fig. 93 also includes the
head profile w h i c h measures, EE', 195 m m , w h i c h is 2 : 1 to the 'key'
radius of the vesica piscis arcs.
The horizontal cross-section taken at the widest p o i n t is s h o w n i n
Fig. 94. The depth being half the w i d t h , Q W ' V Q ' is a square. It contains
the smaller square, XZVY, hearing the rib-seam-deflning quadrant are ZY,
centre X. The radius of this are relates to the larger square i n the ratio
8 :9.
PLATE XXI
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. X X I I I
Figs. 9 5 - 9 8 , PI. X X I I
LUTE, CHITARRONE. I T A L Y, ROME, 1614
MATTEO BUECHENBERG

VICTORIA A N D ALBERT MUSEUM

Acc. N o . : 2 1 8 - 1 8 8 2

By the t u r n of the sixteenth c e n t u r y , the need for lutes w i t h an extensive

bass register, p r i m a r i l y for the accompaniment of singing, resulted i n
the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the rather u n l i k e l y - l o o k i n g , but musically effective,
long-necked bass lutes, called chitarroni. This development coincided w i t h
the shift of the centre of l u t e - m a k i n g f r o m Venice—as, earlier, it h a d
moved to Venice f r o m Bologna—to Padua and to Rome. Thus, i t was the
makers of Rome w h o became associated w i t h the early development of the
chitarrone (referred to by Praetorius as the ' R o m a n theorbo') and of these,
Matteo Buechenberg, the maker of our t h i r d example, was perhaps the
most famous.
Constructionally, one of the major innovations f o u n d i n the i n s t r u -
ments of this school is the increased number of ribs f o r m i n g the vault.
Previously, as we have seen, nine-, eleven-, or thirteen-ribbed vaults were
most often employed, whereas this v a u l t is constructed f r o m no fewer
t h a n forty-one n a r r o w ribs, each cut f r o m a piece of pine w i t h dark to light
shading i n the g r a i n , achieving a trompe-Voeil effect of f l u t i n g .
A n idea of the size of the chitarrone is gained f r o m Fig. 95, where the
additional long neck, w h i c h brings the instrument's total length to over
six feet, can be seen. Unfortunately, this 'bass' neck has been repaired and
spliced, w h i c h is w h y its present string length of approximately 1 5 9 0 m m
has not been included i n the following analysis.
The commensurable proportions w h i c h were f o u n d i n the preceding
lutes are also evident i n this fine design of Buechenberg's. Here the
whole-number proportions are based o n one u n i t , w i t h remarkable
consistency. I n fact, this u n i t of 127.5 m m is the radius of the customary
vesica piscis lower-bout construction, w h i c h was also f o u n d i n this lute
and w h i c h is discussed below.
The commensurable proportions of length can be seen i n Fig. 9 5 , the
vertical distance between each set of horizontal lines being one u n i t of
127.5 m m . ED comprises eight such units. T h u s , the ratio of neck length
to body length
E A : AD
= 3:5
and the ratio of string length to body length
EB .AD
= 7:5.

The bridge-line, B, is placed at one-flfth of the body length f r o m D , w h i l e

the centre line, R, of the m a i n lower roses, i n the triple rose cluster, is
half-way between the body top A and bridge B, RD being three-fifths of AD
and AR two-fifths of A D .
The rectangle c o n t a i n i n g the body outline has no proportional
significance, as was the case w i t h the Frei's body p i a n ( w h i c h , as the
reader w i l l remember, was inscribed w i t h i n a golden-section rectangle,
a l t h o u g h the lute as a w h o l e was f o u n d to be governed by commensurable
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

ratios). The present design, using only r a t i o n a l , whole-number ratios of

the same u n i t , makes no attempt to rationalize the body w i d t h (and
therefore the containing rectangle), the type of body-outline construction
precluding a proportional solution t h a t utilizes the same system.
The geometry of the Buechenberg's body outline is d r a w n i n Fig. 96.
The are of o r i g i n , I D I ' , is stili centred at A , the radius therefore equalling
the body l e n g t h , 637.5 m m , w h i c h is exactly five units. The outline is
continued by are I'J', centre C , radius 127.5 m m . This are a n d , of course,
its t w i n , I / , are formed by the vesica piscis construction centred at C and
C ' ; a s w e have said, its component radii of 127.5 m m f o r m the key u n i t to
the whole-number ratios of the design. I t was of great importance, too, i n
the other lutes so far discussed a n d , like the Frei lute, its ratio here to
the body length is 1 : 5. I n agreement w i t h the preceding lutes, too, is the

arrangement of the next are, J'K', whose centre, M , again lies o n the
o p p o s i t e edge of the i n s t r u m e n t , at the p o i n t of m a x i m u m w i d t h . The m a i n
are, K ' G ' , is centred at N; its radius, 8 9 2 . 5 m m , is equal to the m a i n string
length, that is, seven units. The rounder shoulders of this large-bodied lute
are provided by an additional are, G ' H ' , centre F, radius 255 m m , exactly
t w o u n i t s , w h i c h completes the body o u t l i n e .
The explanation of the positioning of the roses does not require, as
before, a separate d i a g r a m , as their centring was s h o w n quite clearly i n
Fig. 95. I n this i n s t r u m e n t , however, t w o departures f r o m the practice of
rose-positioning s h o w n i n the last t w o lutes were f o u n d . The first was
the harmonic placing of a rose centre (see Fig. 95) where previously the
circumferences alone were f o u n d to be of prime harmonic importance.
The second was the harmonic consideration of the rose diameter. The
m a i n d r a w i n g shows h o w the upper rose is smaller t h a n the lower t w o ; its
outer border, however, touches, and 'leads i n t o ' , the inner borders of the
lower t w o , and these three circles, w h i c h thus f o r m a trefoil, are of the
same diameter, 85 m m , w h i c h is related to the m a i n u n i t of 12 7.5 m m i n
the ratio 2 : 3 .
I n so large an i n s t r u m e n t , it should be of no surprise that its depth is less
t h a n half its w i d t h (depth = ^ w i d t h is a principle f o u n d i n the A r n a u l t ,
the Frei, and the Hieber); nevertheless, the point of m a x i m u m depth,
Q', i n Fig. 9 7 , lies i n piane 0 ( 7 , at a distance f r o m the bottom of
the i n s t r u m e n t , i.e. QD, w h i c h is equal to half its w i d t h , so t h a t
QD= 195 m m .
DP is the 'lace', or capping strip, w h i c h is a little distorted w i t h age and
repair. The v a u l t section is commenced by are PS, whose radius again
equals t h a t of the vesica piscis arcs of the pian (127.5 m m ) It is
continued here by are SQ', radius 637.5 m m ; this equals the body
l e n g t h , and arc-of-origin radius, of five units. The m a i n are, Q'T,
continues the curve of the v a u l t f r o m the point of m a x i m u m depth This
are is of radius 1020 m m , w h i c h equals the overall length f r o m m a i n n u t
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

FIG. 97 D P

to b u t t o n (ED i n Fig. 9 5 ) , t h a t is, eight units. The are TV continues this

curve ; its radius is 3 8 2.5 m m , w h i c h equals the m a i n neck length of three
units. The sectional curve of the v a u l t is completed by a further are, VU,
whose radius, 85 m m , we have also encountered before as the c o m m o n
rose diameter, w h i c h equalled t w o - t h i r d s of a u n i t .
The section taken at the m a x i m u m w i d t h and depth of the lute is s h o w n
i n Fig. 98. I t is quite different i n geometrical p i a n f r o m the t w o preceding
instruments, as visual comparison w i l l show.
The remarkable degree of proportional homogeneity f o u n d i n this
i n s t r u m e n t , however, extends quite notably to this section. A l t h o u g h , as
we have seen, its depth, 0 0 ' , is n o t equal to half its w i d t h ( W W ) , the
w i d t h and h a l f - w i d t h values are stili used here. Indeed, the whole section
is related to the design of the body p i a n i n an extremely beautiful solution,
w h i c h can be inscribed i n a square of side 390 m m , the m a x i m u m w i d t h of
the i n s t r u m e n t . T h u s , the curve of the section is initiated f r o m the edge of
the table by are W'Y\ w h i c h is centred at Q ; its radius is therefore
195 m m , half the body w i d t h . I t is continued by are Y ' X ' , centred at Z ' ,
whose radius is 127.5 m m , a n d , as can be seen f r o m the d i a g r a m , forms
part of another vesica piscis arrangement, w h i c h echoes the construction
used i n the pian of the i n s t r u m e n t , and indeed i n the l o n g i t u d i n a l
cross-section. The vesica arcs are joined by are X O ' X ' , centred at 0 , and
of radius 3 9 0 m m — t h e w i d t h of the i n s t r u m e n t . This beautiful figure,
w h i c h , above a l i , conclusively proves the piane geometry derivation of the
three-dimensional Iute v a u l t , concludes the discussion of one of the most
homogeneously conceived and mathematically satisfying instruments to
be examined so far.
122 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. XXIV
PI. X X I I I
LUTE, THEORBO. GERMANY, HAMBURG, 1734
JACOBUS HENRICUS GOLDT

VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM

Acc. No.: 4274-1856

Ex. XXV
Figs. 9 9 - 1 0 2 , PI. XXIV
LUTE, THEORBO. ENGLAND, LONDON, 1762

MICHAEL RAUCHE
VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM

Acc. N o . : 9 - 1 8 7 1

The m a n y fine lutes to come f r o m Germany i n the early eighteenth

century reflect the great explosion of interest w h i c h occurred there, whilst
elsewhere the i n s t r u m e n t was i n its final recession. These ' b a r o q u e lutes'
tended to follow the elongated proportions of the early, Bolognese,
instruments, and their makers, the Hoffmanns, Jauck, Schelle, etc., were
w o r t h y craftsmen. One such i n s t r u m e n t , b y Jacobus Henricus Goldt, was
made i n H a m b u r g i n 1 7 3 4 , and is n o w i n the Victoria and Albert M u s e u m
collection. I t is extremely well made, and bears r i c h m a r q u e t r y o n neck
and finger-board. The body, however, is of rather d u l l and stolid design,
lacking that exquisite, gentle tension between the curves of the o u t l i n e ,
w h i c h marks a well-conceived design. Neither is there i n s p i r a t i o n , nor
even sensitivity, to be f o u n d i n the ponderous, rather bloated, f o r m of the
vault. I t was measured, d r a w n , and analysed, but yielded disappointing
p r o p o r t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n . A d r a w i n g (PI. X X I I I ) is included for the sake
of visual comparison w i t h the other lutes, b u t no geometrical exposé is
necessary, the i n s t r u m e n t lacking any traceable harmonic scheme, its
vectors seeming a r b i t r a r y i n value and disorganized i n arrangement. Even
the ubiquitous vesica piscis construction for the 'lower b o u t s ' was not 77

used, thus flouting an u n w r i t t e n l a w for the relationship of the cruciai

lower curves of one side of the outline to the m i r r o r - i m a g e curves of the
other.
A n o t h e r lute, also a theorbo, was therefore selected f r o m the Victoria
and Albert M u s e u m collection to present a n eighteenth-century develop-
ment of the i n s t r u m e n t (PI. X X I V ) . Perhaps not quite as typical as the
Goldt, this fine lute by Michael Rauche was, i n fact, of even later date,
1 7 6 2 , and was made, as the rather graphic cartouche o n the back of its
neck proclaims, i n Chandos Street, London. Its design, a l t h o u g h arguably
b e t r a y i n g the m o r e r e l a x e d a t t i t u d e o f the eighteenth c e n t u r y towards
geometrical and proportional p l a n n i n g i n design, nevertheless belongs to
the same design t r a d i t i o n as the lutes of the previous t w o centuries, w i t h
their characteristic employment of commensurable ratios.
The term is here used to describe the lower
A few simple ratios can be seen i n the overall p l a n n i n g of the i n s t r u m e n t
7 7

section of the lute body, although of course

there are no true 'bouts' to the unidirectional i n Fig. 9 9 , a l t h o u g h again no harmonic significance was f o u n d i n the
curves of a lute outline. body-containing rectangle, as was the case of the Frei lute. For e x a m p l e ,
PLATE XXIII
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

the m a i n string l e n g t h , EB, 712 m m , is i n simple ratio w i t h body length,

AD, 535 m m , that is :
EB : AD
712 mm : 535 mm
= 4:3.

The positions of the bridge and rose cluster are also s h o w n i n Fig. 99. The
bridge-line, B, misses h a v i n g a 1 : 5 relationship w i t h the body l e n g t h ,
A D , by 2 to 3 m m , whereas the rose cluster, this time positioned by the
lower tangential edge of the upper hole, point E, is stili centred half-way
between body-top. A , and bridge-line, B, i.e. AF = EB. The roses are also
positioned by an are-swing up f r o m the base line, xy, and therefore of
radius 366 m m , the overall w i d t h of the body ; the are passes t h r o u g h the
lower rose centres, r and r' (Fig. 9 9 ) , and thence t h r o u g h point E.
The geometry of the body outline is analysed i n Fig. 100. The
l o w e r - b o u t construction, as can be seen, is the classic 'vesica piscis/arc
78

of o r i g i n ' c o m b i n a t i o n , w h i c h seems to have been the customary solution.

FIG. 100

It differs, however, f r o m the preceding analysed lutes both geometrically

and harmonically. Unlike those of its forebears, the are of o r i g i n is not
centred at A ( w h i c h w o u l d give a radius equal to body length A D ) , but
instead i t is positioned somewhat lower o n the centre line (more a k i n to its
position i n v i o l i n geometries), s h o w n here at G. This gives the arc-of-
origin radius, GD, the value of 415 m m , w h i c h is the first of the
commensurable radii of the body outlines, related, not as previously to the
vesica piscis radii (here 116.5 m m , and harmonically isolated), b u t to
the inner, inlaid radius of the roses, that is, 83 m m . Thus, the radius of the
are of o r i g i n , IDI', is related to this u n i t , 4 1 5 m m : 83 m m or 5 : 1 .
The vesica piscis figure is s h o w n centred at C and C', its are, V]',
connecting the are of o r i g i n , DI', w i t h the m a i n are of the outline, J'K''.
This is centred at N , and is of radius 498 m m , w h i c h is equal to six units of
83 m m , and is therefore i n 6 : 5 ratio w i t h the are of o r i g i n . The outline is
concluded by are K'V, centre M , radius 332 m m , w h i c h is another vector
commensurable to the u n i t of 83 m m , 332 m m : 83 m m , that is, 4 : 1 . I t
therefore follows that this are is i n 3 32 : 4 9 8 ratio to its neighbour, t h a t is,
4 : 6 or, if y o u prefer, 2 : 3 .
 ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES 125

The geometry of the splendici, ivory-ribbed v a u l t of this Iute is described

i n the f o l l o w i n g t w o sections. The l o n g i t u d i n a l section is d r a w n i n
Fig. 1 0 1 . The straight 'lace' rib is DH, f r o m w h i c h the curve is initiated by
are HS, radius 116.5 m m , w h i c h relates directly to the vesica piscis are of
the body p i a n , and thus conforms, i n this detail, to practically ali the lutes
previously analysed here, and realizes a design t r a d i t i o n spanning more
t h a n t w o centuries. This are, HS, is continued by are SO, radius 4 1 5 m m ,
w h i c h , as i n the Buechenberg, is the same as the are of origin ( a l t h o u g h i n
this case not also equal to the body length). As we have said, 4 1 5 m m is
five units of 83 m m . The curve continues w i t h are OT, radius 4 9 8 m m ,
again relating to the front of the i n s t r u m e n t , 498 m m being the m a i n are
of the p i a n , and six units of 83 m m . The curve is completed by are TU,
radius 166 m m , w h i c h is, of course, t w o units of 83 m m .
166 m m is also the m a x i m u m depth, W T ' of the v a u l t , as is s h o w n i n
3

the cross-sectional d r a w i n g , Fig. 1 0 2 , taken at the point of m a x i m u m

w i d t h , W W , 3 6 7 m m . This, as i n the cross-section of the Buechenberg, is

» i

\
. .

also the radius, OV, of are VX, the lowest curve of the cross-section of the FIG. 102
vault. This figure can therefore also be constructed w i t h i n a square. The
curve is completed by are XY, radius 150 m m , a value not harmoniously
integrated to the rest of the Rauche's geometry.

} a © [-•. c
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES
127

MANDORE AND MANDOLINES

The mandore and mandolines are here grouped together, as d i m i n u t i v e

cousins of the lute family of instruments, some features of w h i c h , to a
greater or lesser degree, they ali possess.
Both names, mandore and m a n d o l i n e , or m a n d o l i n o , share a c o m m o n
o r i g i n i n the I t a l i a n mandorla, m e a n i n g ' a l m o n d ' , an obvious allusion to
the instrument's body shape. The origins of the i n s t r u m e n t type, however,
lie w i t h the four-course mandore of the Renaissance, i n effect a simple,
m i n i a t u r e lute, w h i c h was sometimes added to a consort of lutes to
brighten the texture, often, i t w o u l d seem, to the detriment of the larger
instruments : i t so preoccupies the ear that the lutes have trouble i n being
c

heard'. 79

I n fact i t was this mandore, represented here by an attractive,

seventeenth-century, I t a l i a n specimen (Ex. X X V I ) , w h i c h became the
most i m p o r t a n t founder-member of t h a t group of instruments usually
called the mandoline family. I r o n i c a l l y , the w o r d ' f a m i l y ' here is used i n a
different organological sense f r o m w h a t it is taken to i m p l y w i t h regard
to the families of instruments i n the Renaissance. I n this instance, the
m a n d o l i n e ' f a m i l y ' describes the m a n y different regional variants and
hybrids of mandoline w h i c h emerged i n eighteenth- and nineteenth-
century Italy ; i n the other, earlier sense, the family of instruments meant
the range, i n different sizes and pitches, of one type of i n s t r u m e n t . The use
of the w o r d is ironie, because it was this cruciai change, away f r o m
the concept of a graduated group as the governing order for musical
instruments, w h i c h , i n effect, afforded the mandore (and therefore its
descendant, the m a n d o l i n e ) an o p p o r t u n i t y to prosper. W i t h the break-
d o w n of the ' f a m i l y ' concept, the orphaned survivors tended to be those
members f o u n d at the extremes of the pitch range, instruments n o w
valued and developed for their i n d i v i d u a i Umbre, rather t h a n as separate
parts of an ' u n b r o k e n ' w h o l e . One such was the mandore, w h i c h ,
t h r o u g h o u t the seventeenth century, gradually increased its o w n range
from four courses to six, at the same time undergoing a change of name
to mandolino. This i n s t r u m e n t , w i t h carved and fretted rose, tied frets,
reclining peg-box w i t h horizontal pegs, and bridge-tied strings, became
w h a t we n o w cali a Milanese mandoline (cf. Ex. X X V I I ) , one of the t w o
principal members of the mandoline group, the other being the Neapolitan
mandoline, the more familiar, v i o l i n - t u n e d i n s t r u m e n t first developed i n
7 9
Marin Mersenne, Harmonie Universeìle
the eighteenth century by the Vinaccia family (cf. Ex. X X V I I I ) . (Paris, 1636).
128 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

Ex. X X V I
Figs. 103-1073 PI. XXV
MANDORE, F0UR-C0URSE. ITALY, V E N I C E ? C.1640
MAKER U N K N O W N

CONSERVATOIRE DE M U S I O U E , P A R I S
Acc. N o . : E.222, C.235

Perhaps not surprisingly, it is rare t o find the decorative restraint o f the

v i o l i n , or the unembellished f o r m a i p u r i t y of the lute, i n the more 'social'
instruments, and i n almost ali the r e m a i n i n g examples i n this study, great
emphasis is placed by their makers o n their decorative qualities, and
their appeal as objects of virtù, as m u c h as their f u n c t i o n as musical
instruments.
This delightful four-course mandore is no exception to this policy.
Largely made f r o m i v o r y , banded i n head, neck, and v a u l t w i t h
o r n a m e n t a i double-stringing of ebony, it presents a dazzling visual effect,
a decorative scheme w h i c h , by contrast, stresses the organic, refractory
qualities of the w o o d of the table, a n d bestows u p o n i t a n air of
preciousness far above even that of the costly ivory w h i c h surrounds i t .
Great care, too, has been taken w i t h the many-layered, sunken rose, a
beautiful, organic accretion of fantastic, Gothic intricacy.
The Gothic mode appears to have continued i n use, as the most suitable
stylistic m e d i u m for the roses of musical instruments, long after it had
ceased to be of interest i n other fields of the decorative arts. This was, no
doubt, due to an almost matchless facility for its providing o r n a m e n t a i ,
pierced tracery w i t h i n a circle. Indeed, such was the eclecticism of the
musical-instrument maker t h a t a keyboard i n s t r u m e n t m i g h t w e l l display
a severely Classical case, defìned by academically correct m o u l d i n g s , lined
w i t h ali the Eastern riches of gilded Moresques, w h i l e i n the sound-board
there w i l l lie a rose of the purest Gothic.
This present i n s t r u m e n t , whose rather beautiful geometry is discussed
below, was made by a n u n k n o w n l u t h i e r , w o r k i n g i n Italy (possibly
Venice ?) i n about 1 6 4 0 . The overall proportions have been very carefully
considered. The body pian fits exactly into a ^ 4 rectangle, or doublé
s q u a r e . This, i n Fig. 1 0 3 , is W X Y Z , WZ, or BD, measuring 249 m m , and
ZY, or H H ' , measuring 124.5 m m . This last, the body w i d t h , is also the
length of the head (seen f r o m the front) f r o m the top, T, of the o r n a m e n t a i
crest to A, the n u t . The p o s i t i o n i n g of the s o u n d - h o l e , centre F, is by
means of a most beautiful m e t h o d , one similar to t h a t used i n the Rauche
theorbo (Ex. XXV) ; the line W X , short side of body-containing rectangle
W X Y Z , is dropped d o w n o n to the long side {XY or W Z ) to point C' or C;
the resulting arcs (WC and XC) i n t e r s e c t the centre line a t F, the e x a c t
centre of the rose. The bridge position, E, w i t h i n the body-piane, BD,
adopts the same p r o p o r t i o n i n g as did the Buechenberg chitarrone
(Ex. X X I I I ) , that is, at a point o n e - f i f t h f r o m the b o t t o m of the i n s t r u m e n t ,
so t h a t BE : B D = 4 : 5.
The vectors used i n the rest of the instrument's design are ali directly, or
indirectly, related to a commensurable u n i t , u the smallest outline are
3

radius, w h i c h was first measured as 46.5 m m , b u t , by calculation, was

confirmed as being 4 6 . 6 6 6 m m . I n f a e t o n , or 1 5 . 5 5 5 m m , also accounts
for the overall measurements of body height and w i d t h , w h i c h can t h e n be
expressed as being and f u respectively. This u n i t also seems to be
 ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES 129

present i n the string l e n g t h , AE, measuring 327.5 m m , w h i c h is probably

intended as 7u (actually 4 6 . 6 6 6 m m x 7 = 3 2 6 . 6 6 6 m m ) .
The body outline is resolved into its component arcs i n Fig. 1 0 4 . The are
of o r i g i n , D I ' , is centred at 0 o n the centre line, so that DO : OB is 3 : 5. Its
radius is t h e r e f o r e three-eighths of the body l e n g t h , or, i n t e r m s o f t h e u n i t
of commensurability, 2u ( 9 3 . 3 3 3 m m ) . The next are, are I ' / ' j is centred at
G ' , w h i c h is situated o n the bridge-line (one-flfth of the body height from
D), its radius being 4 6 . 6 6 6 m m , or u. The following are, J'K'', is centred o n
the opposite edge of the i n s t r u m e n t at H , the point of m a x i m u m w i d t h , its
radius (half BD) therefore being 124.5 m m , or i n terms of u , f u . W h e n
produced upwards, this are, w i t h its symmetrical opposite, centred at H ' ,
f o r m s part of a v e s i c a , the top of w h i c h ' t a n g e n t i a l l y ' passes t h r o u g h t h e
outer border of the rose. The largest, most shallow are is K ' L ' , centre M ,
radius 4 2 0 m m , that is, exactly 9 u .

W i t h great beauty of economy, the composite curve of the body pian

just discussed was found to be repeated i n the l o n g i t u d i n a l profile
(Fig. 1 0 5 ) . The body is, however, slightly deeper t h a n half its w i d t h , as the
cross-section (Fig. 106) later makes clear. After the lace, i n Fig. 105 D I " ,
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

the arcs exactly correspond to their Fig. 104 body-plan counterparts, the
respective radii for arcs I " / " , / " K " , K " L " , being u, f u , and 9u.
The cross-section taken at the widest p o i n t , H H ' , is d r a w n i n Fig. 106.
H ' P ' is a straight line, whilst are P'T is a quadrant are centred at S (PTP'
being a semicircle), its r a d i u s , half the w i d t h , t h e r e f o r e b e i n g 62.2 5 m m
(fu).
The difficulties of w o r k i n g i n i v o r y , as opposed to w o o d , become more
apparent i n the head carving of this mandore. The t i g h t , pierced spirai of
the scroll begins to reveal signs of technical strain, w h i l e the little face,
carved into the front of the scroll, considerably lowers the otherwise h i g h
standard of w o r k , and could even be interpreted as later, 'amateur'
interference, w h i c h I suspect, however, it is not. The u n c e r t a i n t i e s of the
w o r k i n g of the upper part of the volute also made the geometrical analysis
of the elevation considerably more difficult. The essential head outline is
s h o w n i n Fig. 1 0 7 , w i t h o u t the extra, o r n a m e n t a i features. I t w i l l be seen
at o n c e t h a t the relationship of the scroll to the head-containing rectangle
is radically different from the scroll-heads previously examined. Here, the
line of the neck piane (continued as side OS of containing rectangle QSTW)
does not pass tangentially t h r o u g h the top of the scroll spirai. Instead, the
scroll lies i n the b o t t o m corner, S1W, of the rectangle, w i t h the centre,
or eye, of the volute positioned on a horizontal piane passing exactly
S half-way t h r o u g h the short side, ST. The m a i n rectangle, w h i c h measures
160 m m x 42 m m , is internally annexed at each end by t w o similar ^ 4
A rectangles standing v e r t i c a l l y : QZVW, 2 1 m m x 4 2 m m , m a r k i n g the
position, Z, of the n u t , and RSTU, also 2 1 m m x 42 m m , w h i c h borders the
scroll itself. This last r e c t a n g l e is f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d by h o r i z o n t a l XY, so
T that XYTU, 21 m m x 31.5 m m (a 1.5 or 2 : 3 rectangle), exactly contains
the spirai of the scroll. A g a i n , the classical Ionie volute is used, here
ceasing o n the outer curve at A , to be continued by are A B , centre K,
radius 18.5 m m (seemingly not schematically signifìcant). The underside
peg-box line is continued by straight line BC, and t h e n by are CD, centre L ,
and radius 118 m m , this being the distance between the t w o i n t e r n a i
J4: rectangles, t h a t is, ZK, or VU. The l i n e is t e r m i n a t e d by are DE
(produceable to Q), centred at M , and of radius 31.5 m m , equal to the long
side of the spiral-containing rectangle, XYTU. The upper peg-box curve
commences at F, w i t h are FG, centre N , radius 118 m m , echoing that of
the m a i n lower are, CD. A straight line, G H , conneets this w i t h are H I ,
centre 0 , radius again 31.5 m m , and small are I / , centre P, radius
9.5 m m , marries the upper curve to the i n n e r Ionie spirai.
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
132

Ex. X X V I I
Figs. 1 0 8 - 1 1 2 , PI. X X V I
M I L A N E S E M A N D O L I N E - M A N D O L I N 0 > C O R I S T O ,

F I V E - C O U R S E . I T A L Y , C R E M O N A , C.171U
AttT. A N T O N I O S T R A D I V A R I

P R I V A T E C O L L E C T I O N , L O N D O N

The m a i n d r a w i n g firmly proclaims this mandoline to be the exception to

the decorative tendency of plucked-instrument design remarked u p o n i n
the i n t r o d u c t i o n to this section. There, I said i t was rare to flnd the
decorative restraint of the v i o l i n , and here, i n this example, we have
precisely t h a t : a t i n y plucked i n s t r u m e n t , w h i c h w e could cali a Milanese
mandoline, of p l a i n and reserved design. This u n u s u a l sobriety is
immediately explained o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the instrument's a u t h o r s h i p :
for the h a n d l i n g of the w o o d , the carving of the head, a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y ,
the unmistakable brilliance of the s u r v i v i n g v a r n i s h , ali point to one
m a n — A n t o n i o Stradivari. A direct check of the outline w i t h the master's
originai patterns preserved i n Cremona provided further c o n f i r m a t i o n ,
pattern N o . 4 2 0 , a ' M a n d o l i n o C o r i s t o ' , being a counterpart i n body
8 0 81

outline, bridge position, and string disposition (four doublé courses, one
single), a l t h o u g h some d e v i a t i o n i n rose position and Anger-board w i d t h
was evident. Moreover, decorative restraint was, of course, an essential
characteristic of Stradivari's m a t u r e aesthetic. As far as this study is
concerned, however, perhaps the most interesting clue was t h a t f o u n d
i n the geometry itself, the head of the mandoline utilizing a geometrie
progression of 2 : 3, a system used i n the head of the Emiliani v i o l i n of
1703 (Ex. X I I I ) , a l t h o u g h n o t i n the v e r y e a r l y v i o l i n of 1 6 6 6 (Ex. X I I ) .
Thus, further analyses could possibly be of use i n p i n - p o i n t i n g the date of
the mandoline, w h i c h at present is estimated to be w i t h i n the first t w e n t y
years of the eighteenth century.
The body-geometry of the Stradivari mandoline broadly follows
the same patterns as the preceding mandore, a l t h o u g h i n this case the
body-containing rectangle was n o t of any signifìcant p r o p o r t i o n . The
elegant method used i n the mandore of positioning the rose c e n t r e by
dropping the r e c t a n g l e sides are-fashion across the centre line was also
absent. Some linear proportions, however, were present, and are s h o w n
here i n Fig. 108. A g a i n , the bridge was positioned at a 1 : 5, 4 : 5 division
of t h e body length (BE : BD = 4 : 5), a l t h o u g h here the mathematics were
not quite as precise :

BE :BD = 198.5 m m : 2 4 8 . 5 m m = 1 . 2 5 1 8 .

The o t h e r l i n e a r proportions w h i c h occur i n Fig. 108 are the string

l e n g t h , A£, 319 m m , and the overall w i d t h , H H ' , 1 1 6 m m . They have a n
FIG. 108
1 1 : 4 ratio (2.75) w h i c h is mentioned here, as H H ' , a vector i n the body
outline, appears to have no other proportional significance, a n d , like the
corresponding vector i n the previous example, and i n m a n y of the lutes is
N420 is the catalogue number given by
8 0
something of a rogue q u a n t i t y . 5

Sacconi i n his I 'Segreti' di Stradivari. The The rest of the body design is governed by a c o m m e n s u r a b l e scheme
pattern i n question is illustrateci in fig. 175,
p. 238. T h e r e seems, h o w e v e r , to be an error
based o n a u n i t , u, of 4 9 . 5 m m , again equal to the smallest outline are
in compilation, as the corresponding text, radius The body o u t l i n e , s h o w i n g the constituent arcs, is d r a w n i n
p. 239, does not seem to refer to this pattern! Fig. 109. The are of o r i g i n , D I ' , is centred at O o n the centre line, its radius,
Stradivari's inscribed description.
8 1

99 m m , t h e r e f o r e being 2u. This is continued by are I ' / ' , centre G ' , o n the
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 133

9 \

I/CìA
1
t o
H X #J

* n ^ 7

FIG. 109 D I

bridge-line, and of radius 49.5 m m , or u. The next are, J'K', is centred at

H , on the other side of the outline ; its radius is therefore the w i d t h of the
i n s t r u m e n t , H H ' , w h i c h , as mentioned above, does not relate to the m a i n
commensurable scheme; like the previous example, however, w h e n
produced, these arcs, J'K' and JK, f o r m part of a vesica piscis, w h i c h
'tangentially' touches the outer circle of the rose, and here crosses the
centre line at point Q, so that QD : B D = 2 : 3. The body outline is
completed by are K ' L ' , centre M , whose radius of 4 9 6 . 5 m m was here
taken as lOu.
The economy of f o r m i n the mandore, w h i c h applied the same curve to
body pian and l o n g i t u d i n a l profile, is evident here (Fig. 110), and again
the body is slightly deeper t h a n half its w i d t h . D I " is the capping lace; are

I " J " is centred at G " , radius 49.5 m m , or u ; are / " K " , centred at H " , is of
radius 116 m m (the overall w i d t h ) ; and are K " L " is 4 9 5 m m , or l O u .
The c r o s s - s e c t i o n t a k e n at the widest p o i n t , H H ' , is g i v e n i n Fig. 111.
UP and H ' P ' are the ledges of the capping r i b . The curve of the rib section
is semicircular, centred at S; are P T ( P ) is of radius 56 m m , a vector not
related to the u n i t scheme.
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES
134

The volute-and-escutcheon type head, w i t h its beautifully curved

peg-box, is d r a w n i n profile i n Fig. 112. Here, too, no proportional
significance attaches to the ratio of the c o n t a i n i n g rectangle; height, ST,
however, was f o u n d to equal the diameter of the body rose. The length
f r o m the top of the volute to the n u t , SZ, equals 141.5 m m . Here, a l l o w i n g
for a 0.5 m m m a r g i n of error, this distance, 142 m m , is the major t e r m of

FIG. 112
L

a 2 : 3 (1.5) geometrie progression, w h i c h governs the are radii of the

peg-box curves, a l t h o u g h not those of the volute. The series consists of the
following millimetre values :
28, 42, 63, (94.6), and 142.

The outer curve of the head starts at O, w i t h counter-curve are OA,

centre P, radius 10 m m . The m a i n outer volute curve, A B , t h e n follows,
and this is centred at K, and is of radius 17.5 m m ; i t is related to the next
t e r m , the radius of are BC, i n the ratio 5 : 1 2 , are BC, centre 0 , h a v i n g a
radius of 42 m m , the first of our 2 : 3 progression vectors. I t is followed by
the large are CD, centre L, radius 142 m m ( 2 : 3 ) , and finally by are DE,
centre M , radius 63 m m (2 : 3). The upper peg-box contour is initiated by
straight line ZQF, leading to m a i n are FG, centre N , radius once again
142 m m (2 : 3). A short straight line, GH, links this to are H I , centre O
(shared w i t h BC), radius 28 m m (2 : 3 ) . The volute t h e n completes the
head w i t h inner are I / , centre X, radius 6.5 m m

..} m c
136 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

Ex. XXVIII
Figs. 113-1183 PI. XXVII
NEAPOLITAN MANDOLINE. I T A L Y , NAPLES, 1753
JOHANNES VINACCIA

PRIVATE COLLECTION, LONDON

The creation o f the Neapolitan mandoline at once brings to m i n d the old

story t h a t the carnei was a horse designed by a committee. Of course, the
Neapolitan mandoline was probably developed (or should it be synthe-
sized?) by o n e m a n , m o s t likely a m e m b e r o f the Vinaccia family of
luthiers, b u t it represents such a case of organological eclecticism that it is
small wonder t h a t the parallel of the carnei story should suggest itself. The
instrument's design is little more t h a n a n a m a l g a m , a sort of cocktail, of
previously separate ideas and features, c o m b i n i n g v i o l i n t u n i n g w i t h lute
stringing, the body f o r m and tessitura of the mandore, the peg-, neck-,
and head-systems of the g u i t a r , together w i t h the raked sound-board
and string anchorage of the chitarra battente. These last t w o features,
concerning the stringing system used (i.e. raked sound-board, w i t h b u t t o n
fixture and peg-board w i t h posterior pegs), were n o t , however, unprece-
dented features i n mandoline design—they can be f o u n d i n the Genoese
mandoline, an early eighteenth-century battente v a r i a t i o n of the Milanese
instrument.
W h y such a synthesis as the Neapolitan mandoline occurred is a
musicological question w h i c h does n o t c o n c e r n u s here. W h a t m a k e s the
instrument an interesting and i m p o r t a n t candidate for proportional study
is its comparatively recent b i r t h , i n this f o r m c i 7 4 0 , w h i c h , firstly, gives
us an opportunity of flnding an example very near to the design archetype
and, secondly, provides evidence of mid-eighteenth-century proportional
thoughts, w h i c h , if present i n the design, w o u l d have had to be applied
actively, rather t h a n just m a i n t a i n e d as part of a passive design t r a d i t i o n
not necessarily fully understood.
Even more interesting is the fact that a still-careful application of
proportional knowledge should be made d u r i n g a period w h e n the quality
of design, of decoration, and of manufacture was beginning to decline into
a state of factory-produced decadence.
I n Naples the Vinaccia family themselves were active as makers of
violins, mandolas, mandolones, guitars, and mandolines f r o m the
b e g i n n i n g of the eighteenth to the end of the nineteenth centuries. This
dynasty is a m i g h t i l y confusing one to u n r a v e l , embracing as it does
numerous father-son, u n c l e - n e p h e w - c o u s i n , relationships, ali paying
genealogical respect one to another by passing a r o u n d the same few
Christian names. Of their w o r k , i t is fair to say t h a t , w h i l e the violins they
produced are rather poorly conceived and executed, their o r i g i n a i
creations, the mandolas, mandolines, and their development of the
g u i t a r , w h e n from the hands of t h e more sensitive members of the
8 2

family, are fine instruments, b o t h i n choice of materials, m a n u f a c t u r e ,

One member of the V i n a c c i a family has
8 2
been credited with the change to single, as
opposed to doublé, stringing on the guitar. Of
course, such a claim is practically impossible to
verify ; the Vinaccias, however, were certainly
remarkable innovators.
and decoration, a n d , as w i l l be revealed by the analysis of the following
example, also i n design conception.
D u r i n g a period of o n l y t h i r t y or forty years the Neapolitan mandoline
passed, i n these and other Naples family workshops, f r o m a carefully made
and decorated, small-bodied i n s t r u m e n t to a n increasingly decadent f o r m ,
w i t h careless, m a s s - p r o d u c e d o r n a m e n t , and ever more corpulent shape.
 ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

A few good-quality examples have been available for study and have
revealed some surprising and valuable i n f o r m a t i o n . D u r i n g the first three
decades of its existence, the Vinaccia Neapolitan m a n d o l i n e , as I have
said, u n d e r w e n t a considerable change i n body contours, presumably i n
order to increase the volume of air contained, a n d thus supposedly
increase the v o l u m e a n d depth of sound p r o d u c e d . There seem to be
83

three clear stages i n this process, a n d the three outline types, each i n
production for about ten years, are s h o w n here i n Fig. 113 ; the i n t r i g u i n g
l i n k between these three differing outlines (a, b, c) is t h a t they share a
c o m m o n vertical/horizontal ratio of 1 . 6 6 6 — a l i three outlines can be
'contained' i n a 3 : 5 rectangle.

F I G . 113. Body-outline development of the early Neapolitan mandoline

Unfortunately, there is n o t r o o m here to analyse fully more t h a n

one example of Vinaccia m a n d o l i n e , a n d a final choice h a d to be made
between t w o models : a fine example by perhaps the most accomplished of
the Vinaccias (Fig. 113b), made i n 1 7 6 5 by A n t o n i o Vinaccia, or a n
earlier one of 1 7 5 3 (type Fig. 113a) f r o m Johannes Vinaccia. This last, i n
the conception and execution of its decoration, lacked the sophistication
of the A n t o n i o , b u t , the Johannes's being so near to the design archetype
(it is the earliest Neapolitan mandoline I have been able to locate) a n d
h a v i n g a most impressive p r o p o r t i o n a l scheme, m y choice was made.
The design of this i n s t r u m e n t is governed by t w o separate commen-
surable systems: one specifically used i n the c o n t a i n i n g rectangle a n d
inscribed grid for the front of the i n s t r u m e n t , the other i n regulating the
vertical/linear proportions ; b o t h are used i n the radii of the component
arcs. Rather beautifully, b o t h u n i t s , major and m i n o r , are given i n the
rose of the i n s t r u m e n t . The m i n o r u n i t , 2 7.25 m m , is the radius of the
inner sound-hole opening, and the major u n i t , 4 7 . 5 m m , is the radius of
the outer rose-border.
The rectangular grid containing the body is d r a w n i n Fig. 1 1 4 ; abcd, as
we mentioned earlier, is a 3 : 5 rectangle, measuring 2 7 3 m m x 163.5 m m
( 1 . 6 6 9 ) . As w e l l as the usuai centrai vertical axis, there are three
horizontal divisions, e/, H H ' , and ij ; e/, or eCf, passes tangentially t h r o u g h
the sound-hole at C, the centre of the are of o r i g i n , dividing abed into
square efed a n d 1.5 (2 : 3 ) rectangle abfe. The square is bisected by
horizontal H E H ' , w h i c h , apart f r o m being the widest point of the
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
138
i n s t r u m e n t , is also the exact position of the horizontal 'crease' of the
raked sound-board a n d the bridge-line.
The other h o r i z o n t a l , i j , and t w o short verticals, kl and m n , are further
i n t e r n a i divisions of the 2 : 3 r e c t a n g l e abfe. I n Fig. 114 they are d r a w n as
dotted lines, and divide the area into squares, w h i c h exactly circumscribe
the sound-hole opening ; they are therefore squares of side 54.5 m m — t w o
m i n o r u n i t s , u. The four squares, w h i c h are quarters of efcd, are ali of side
^ x 163.5 m m = 81.75 m m or 3u.
The major u n i t , U , 47.5 m m , regulates the vertical/linear proportion-
ing s h o w n i n Fig. 115. A E , the string l e n g t h , measures 332.5 m m , or 7 U ;
it is divided at B, so t h a t A B , the neck, measures 142.5 m m , 3Li, and BE
190 m m , or 4 U . This last, 190 m m , or 4 U , is also the distance FD,
rose-centre to tail. The last t w o ratios, bracketed i n Fig. 1 1 5 , are the
diameter of the outer rose-border itself, op, 9 5 m m , or 217, and the distance
pD, w h i c h like the neck, A B , measures 142.5 m m , or 3 U .
Fig. 116 gives a b r e a k d o w n of the outline into component-arc radii. The
are of o r i g i n , D I ' , is centred at C, efcd being a square (Fig. 114) ; its radius is
t h e r e f o r e equal to the m a x i m u m body w i d t h , H H ' , t h a t is, 163.5 m m , or
6u. The next are, I ' / ' , centre G ' , marks a r e t u r n to the familiar vesica piscis
lower-bout construction, w h i c h , however, was n o t present i n the later
Vinaccia models w h i c h have been examined. The radius of this vesica are
is 52 m m , w h i c h does not relate to either unit-commensurable system.
The curve is continued by are / ' K ' , centre H , o n the opposite edge,
following the c o m m o n practice dating back to A r n a u l t of giving the are, at
the point of m a x i m u m w i d t h , a radius equal to the m a x i m u m w i d t h . Here
FIG. 115
i t is 163.5 m m , or 6w, and therefore also equal to the radius of the are of
o r i g i n ; w h e n produced u p w a r d s , arcs J ' K ' and JK enclose the i n n e r
sound-hole i n the upper part of a vesica—see the previous t w o examples.
The m a i n curve of the o u t l i n e , are K ' L ' , is centred at M , and is of radius
measured as 4 0 9 m m ; this is t w o and a half times the w i d t h of 163.5 m m
( 4 0 8 . 7 5 m m ) , or 15u.
The l o n g i t u d i n a l profile, proportionately m u c h deeper t h a n the preced-
i n g mandore and Milanese m a n d o l i n e , is d r a w n i n Fig. 117. DP is the wide
capping r i b or <lace\ The curve of the vault is initiated by are PQ, a
q u a d r a n t a r e , centred at O, and of radius 47.5 m m , t h a t is u. The m a i n
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES

curve t h e n continues w i t h are QJR, centred at N , and of radius 4 0 8 . 5 m m ,

or 15u ( 4 0 8 . 7 5 m m ) — t h e same as the m a i n are of the front of the
i n s t r u m e n t . The radius, NO, of this are passes t h r o u g h the rake of the
sound-board, ED, at 9 0 ° . The curve of the profile is t h e n completed by
are RT, centred at S, and of radius 82 m m , or 3u (81.75 m m ) .
Finally, Fig. 118 is the cross-section made at the point of m a x i m u m
w i d t h . Here again, a vesica construction has been used—only o n c e before
found i n a v a u l t construction, t h a t of the geometrically equally beautiful
chitarrone by Buechenberg (Ex. X X I I I ) . Are Z X ' is the cross-section are of
o r i g i n , centred at E ; its radius, 119 m m , equals 2.51/ ( 1 1 8 . 7 5 m m ) . Are
X ' W , centre Y ' , is the vesica are and, like the small lower are, PQ, of the
profile, measures exactly 47.5 m m , or 17, i n radius. A shallow curve,
W 1 7 ' , centre V , finishes the section before the lace L7'H'; its radius
7

m e a s u r e s 163.5 m m , the same as H H ' , the w i d t h of the model, t h a t is, 6u.

The head of this mandoline is of the fiat, guitar type, w i t h posterior pegs.
It is m o u n t e d at the usuai shallow angle to the neck (about 1 5 0 ° ) , b u t , to
avoid confusion and distortion, has been depicted 'fiat' i n the m a i n
d r a w i n g , i n the same piane as the neck and table of the i n s t r u m e n t . This
method has been adopted for this type of head, and the guitars w h i c h
follow have ali been so treated.

} $ E O D ["•; C
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES 141

CITTERNS
' A rather ignoble k i n d of i n s t r u m e n t piayed by cobblers and barbers'
was the sentence passed o n the cittern by Praetorius i n 1 6 1 9 . Other 8 4

contemporary references, often r i c h i n b a w d y analogy, also stress this

r a t h e r l o w l y status, one a p p a r e n t l y a r i s i n g f r o m t h e e n t e r p r i s e o f t h e
barbers of the seventeenth century, particularly those i n England,
w h o provided a cittern for the casual diversion of w a i t i n g customers.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the advantages of stable, strummable, metal s t r i n g i n g ,
providing b r i g h t toned accompaniment or m e r r y tunes, eminently suited
the i n s t r u m e n t to this somewhat promiscuous usage, w h i c h i n t u r n
prompted the inevitable parallels of easy v i r t u e : 'a barber's cittern for
e v e r y s e r v i n g - m a n to play u p o n ' . 8 5

I n fact, history has been u n k i n d to the c i t t e r n , for it w o u l d appear that

its origins were of a very different nature f r o m that w h i c h it represents. Of
ali the instruments that had Neoplatonist pretensions to ancient lineage
(and they were not a few), the cittern seemingly has the most c o n v i n c i n g ,
and, even i n a very reflned and consciously designed i n s t r u m e n t such as
our first example, balusters, or scrolls at the stock of the neck, stili r e m a i n
as the supposed r u d i m e n t a r y vestiges of the w i n g s , or arms, of the k i t h a r a ,
or ancient Greek lyre. Its relatively simple and robust structure meant that
the cittern was cheaper to b u y t h a n the more intricately constructed lute,
w h i l e its w i r e stringing assured easier and cheaper maintenance,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the t o r r i d I t a l i a n climate, w h e r e , like so m a n y other
instruments, it was first developed. Yet, despite its consequent p o p u l a r i t y ,
the cittern was at first no less regarded t h a n the l u t e , and thus enjoyed,
f r o m the middle of the sixteenth c e n t u r y , a fairly extensive printed
repertoire of its o w n . 8 6

Ex. XXIX
Figs. 1 1 9 - 1 2 0 , PI. XXVIII
CITTERN. I T A L Y, BRESCIA(?), C.1650
MAKER U N K N O W N

CONSERVATOIRE DE MUSIOUE, PARIS

Acc. N o . : E . 1 2 7 1 , C.1053

The decorative richness and costly w o r k m a n s h i p of our first cittern

example are further testimony to the instrument's noble status i n
seventeenth-century Italy. I n overall f o r a i , and i n m a n y details of its
superbly carved decoration, it follows the magnificent design developed by
Girolamo di V i r c h i s i n the second half of the sixteenth century. This
87

cittern, f r o m the Paris Conservatoire collection, and its sister i n the

Ashmolean are undoubtedly of later date, t h o u g h perhaps not quite as late 8 4
Sintagma Musicum.
Thomas Dekker, The Honest Whore (quoted
as t h a t of 1 7 0 0 occasionally given. Sometime before 1 8 8 8 , w h e n it was
8 5

in Munrow, Instruments of the Middle Ages and

described i n Musical Instruments, 88
the Paris cittern had acquired, no Renaissance).
doubt o w i n g to its prodigious craftsmanship, b o t h a n a t t r i b u t i o n t o , and 8 6
See George A. Weigand, 'The Cittern
indeed a label of, Stradivari. A t that time ( 1 8 8 8 ) i t was stated as belong- Repertoire', EM voi. 1 , no. 2 (Aprii 1973).
8 7
Cittern by Girolamo di Virchis, Brescia,
ing to the great violinist A l a r d , w h o , it should be remembered, was 1574. Sammlung alter Musikinstrumente,
the son-in-law of the i m p o r t a n t nineteenth-century luthier and v i o l i n A . 6 1 , Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
connoisseur, Jean Baptiste V u i l l a u m e . I suspect this period of its history to 8 8
A. J. Hipkins and W. Gibb, Musical Instru-
ments, Historic, Rare and Unique (Edinburgh,
be the o r i g i n of the a t t r i b u t i o n , and possibly also that of the l a b e l — i n any 1888).
ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

event, i t is a great loss to the history of lutherie t h a t the true authorship of

these t w o fine citterns f r o m the Paris and Ashmolean collections is n o t
known.
The c o n d i t i o n of the Paris i n s t r u m e n t is very good, a l t h o u g h the usuai
fretted rose is missing. The bridge, too, is positioned incorrectly, b u t has
been resited i n the r i g h t - h a n d side of the m a i n d r a w i n g . Regrettably, the
exceptional high-relief carving w h i c h covers the back of the 'solid' head,
e n t w i n i n g a male and female satyr i n a leafy bower f r o m w h i c h grotesque
masques emerge, cannot be seen f r o m the f r o n t elevation of the m a i n
drawing.
The analysis of the instrument's design-geometry revealed a very
careful use of commensurable proportions, particularly the ratio 2 : 3 —
simple proportions w h i c h not only governed the few outline r a d i i , but also
defined the fairly comprehensive body-outline grid. This grid is s h o w n i n
Fig. 119, where the body outline is d r a w n w i t h i n its c o n t a i n i n g rectangle,
MNOP. MNOP measures 340.5 m m (BD) x 2 2 7 m m ( H H ' ) , and therefore
has a ratio of 340.5/227 = 1.5 or 3 : 2 (or a l t e r n a t i v e l y 2 : 3).
The body is horizontally divided at the point of m a x i m u m w i d t h by line
H ( C ) H ' , so t h a t MNH'His a square, BC : BD also being 2 : 3. C, as we shall
see later, is the centre of the ' l o w e r - b o u t ' semicircle, and is, i n a sense, the
' m u s t a r d seed' of the design, f r o m w h i c h m u c h of the f o r m is generated. If,
for example, compasses are placed at C and opened to a radius of t w o -
thirds distance C H ' ( f x 113.5 m m = 7 5 . 6 6 6 m m , i.e. one-third m a x i -
m u m w i d t h ) , a p l a n n i n g are can be described as g i v i n g points G and G ' ,
the centres for the adj acent outline arcs, and point F, the centre of the rose
(BF : BC = 2 : 3). The rose diameter is also decided by the grid of Fig. 119 :
rectangle BNH'CQl or 2 : 1 ) is divided vertically i n t o quarters, the
first of the dividing lines passing tangentially t h r o u g h the rose c i r c u m -
ference, g i v i n g a rose radius of ^ x 113.5 m m = 2 8 . 3 7 5 m m , or diameter
56.75 m m (56.5 m m as measured) and piercing the centre of the baluster
terminal S'. Incidentally, a line d r a w n from the rose centre, F, t h r o u g h the
left-hand b a l u s t e r t e r m i n a l , S, also pierces t h e eye o f t h e v o l u t e w h i c h
terminates the decorative figure i n the left side of the lower finger-board.
The correct bridge position, E, was determined by simple calculation
f r o m the fixed frets of the finger-board. H a v i n g done so, h o w e v e r , n o
c o n v i n c i n g mathematical reasoning w o u l d account for either the new
string l e n g t h , AE (444 m m ) , or, alternatively, the bridge position w i t h i n
the body axis, BD (ED = 103 m m ) .
The simple body o u t l i n e , consisting of only three arcs p e r side, is d r a w n
i n Fig. 120. The lower part of the design, as we have seen, is a semicircle,
centred at C. Dealing, as usuai, w i t h only half the outline, the are of o r i g i n ,
centred at C, is quadrant are D H ' , radius half the w i d t h , 113.5 m m . The
r e m a i n i n g t w o arcs are b o t h of the same radius. The centre for are H T is
at G, o n the other side of the model ; it was arrived at by a process described
above (CG = |HC = f x 113.5 m m = 7 5 . 6 6 6 m m ) and gives H T a
radius of 189 m m (measured), or (2 x f x 113.5 m m ) + (^x 113.5 m m )
as c a l c u l a t e d = 1 8 9 . 1 6 6 m m .
The counter-curve of the shoulder are, IK\ centre/', was also measured
as 189 m m , b u t here no mathematical justification for its centring could
be f o u n d . The relationship of the t w o radius vectors of 113.5 m m ( D H ' )
and 1 8 9 ( . 1 6 6 ) m m ( H T and I'K') is another simple w h o l e - n u m b e r ratio :
1 8 9 . 1 6 6 mm/113.5 m m = 1.666 = 5 : 3 (or alternatively 3 : 5).
The complex side elevation of this cittern's head was judged unsuitable
for geometrical a n a l y s i s , as was the s h a l l o w , c u r v e d peg-box of the
f o l l o w i n g Tielke cittern.
 ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT EXAMPLES
144

Ex. XXX
Figs. 1 2 1 - 1 2 3 , PI. XXIX
BELL CITTERN. GERMANY, HAMBURG, 1676

JOACHIM TIELKE

DONALDSON COLLECTION, ROYAL COLLEGE OF MUSIC,

LONDON

Acc. N o . : RCM 27

K n o w n i n Germany as the Hamburger Cithrinchen (little cittern of

H a m b u r g ) , this late f o r m of cittern was most probably the i n n o v a t i o n of
the great l u t h i e r Joachim Tielke, whose w o r k this present example is. As
this is the earliest Tielke cittern ( 1 6 7 6 ) — i t w o u l d seem t h a t he made only
the 'beli' t y p e — t h e n , by inference, it must also be the oldest s u r v i v i n g beli
cittern. The i n s t r u m e n t was made w h e n Tielke was t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s o l d ,
and compared w i t h m a n y of his later oeuvres, w i t h their f a m i l i a r ,
extravagant intarsias of classical allegories, or sumptuous fiorai schemes,
it is almost chaste a n d p l a i n i n appearance, despite its r i c h p u r f l i n g ,
intricate roses, and fine carved head. Time and use, however, have not
treated it k i n d l y , adding to some careless asymmetry of manufacture the
further distortion of damage. There also appears to be some alteration to
the finger-board frets, and consequently the bridge position, this n o doubt
resulting f r o m the difficult t u n i n g problems inherent i n the c i t t e r n .
The design-geometry of this cittern is a fairly complex blend of a
seemingly i r r a t i o n a l J 3 v a r i a n t ratio and simple commensurable propor-
tions. A l t h o u g h , i n this study, we have n o t dealt directly w i t h ^ 3
s y m m e t r y , it has, i n fact, been tacitly encountered o n numerous
occasions i n association w i t h the vesica piscis. This last figure, so simply
c o n s t r u c t e d , as we saw i n Fig. 10, is s h o w n once more i n Fig. 1 2 1 , where
t w o circles, centred at U and at V, and of c o m m o n radius UV, are i n vesica
piscis arrangement. The d r a w i n g has been made to show the r a t i o n a l
commensurable affinities of the nevertheless i r r a t i o n a l ^ 3 p r o p o r t i o n
( 1 . 7 3 2 ) . The vesica piscis itself has r a t i o , i.e. ST/UV = 1 . 7 3 2 . The
V 3 rectangle, i n Fig. 1 2 1 W X Y Z , possesses m a n y other, r a t i o n a l ,
characteristics : i t 'contains' t w o equilateral triangles, SVU and UVT, and
its d i a g o n a l ( Z X ) is t h e r e f o r e twice its short side ; its g n o m o n is twice its
8 9

o w n area, and its area, or r a t i o , is three times that of its r e c i p r o c a i . Thus,90

The figure w h i c h , added to a rectangle,

8 9 y/3 symmetry is allied to the simple commensurable ratios of 1 : 2 and
will increase its size without alteration to its 1 :3.
shape or ratio. See Hambidge, Part I I , lesson 7.
The reciprocai of a rectangle is a figure of
9 0 I n the present example, the v a r i a n t ratio is 1 . 1 5 5 ; this is
similar shape, but smaller size ; it is situated in f x 1 . 7 3 2 , and is simply the ratio of the short half of a y/3 rectangle—in
the end of the major rectangle, whose short
Fig. 1 2 1 WXVU or UVYZ. This is the ratio of the rectangle s u r r o u n d i n g , or
side forms the long side of the reciprocai. I n this
position, the diagonal of the major and that of c o n t a i n i n g , an equilateral t r i a n g l e , or, indeed, a Gothic arch. I t is used
the reciprocai intersect at right angles. See here to help p i a n the body area of the c i t t e r n , w h i l e the instrument's
Hambidge, Part I , lesson 4.
outline curves are determined by a related and sympathetic commen-
Amidst the distortions and asymmetry
9 1

present in the instrument, the main rose was

surable series.
found to be 3 m m left of the centre line.
Assuming this to be error in manufacture, the
rose position has been corrected i n the main
drawing.
These features—rose position, nut posi-
9 2
tion, and neck/body relationship—differ con-
siderably from the arrangement found i n the
V & A 'Tielke' beli cittern, an instrument which
in outline design is very similar to the present
(earlier) example.
No signifìcant overall proportions of length concerning the n u t
position, string l e n g t h , or head length could be discerned; n o r could any
rationale be determined for the assumed (and certainly not for the
actual) 9 1
p o s i t i o n i n g of the m a i n r o s e . 9 2
The proportional discussion
therefore concentrates o n the p i a n and outline of the body itself.
Rectangle WXFE (Fig. 122) is the overall body-containing rectangle of
the cittern ; it is a c o m p o u n d of 1.133 ratio (264 mm/2 33 m m ) , the m a i n
division being horizontal U(Q)V. Point Q is the l o n g i t u d i n a l t i p of a
 145

FIG. 121

c o n s t r u c t i o n a l v e s i c a , and r e c t a n g l e WXVU (233 m m x 201.(7) mm) the

short half ( 1 . 1 5 5 ) of the ^ 3 vesica-containing rectangle. UV passes
t h r o u g h the corners ( U and V) of the i n s t r u m e n t , and t h r o u g h the centres
R and R' of the t w o small, lower roses. The remainder, rectangle UVEE
(233 mm/62.3 m m = 3.73(9)), can be expressed as t w o squares and a ^ 3
rectangle or, symmetrically, as t w o squares and t w o 1.155 rectangles.
The body l e n g t h , BD, can also be arrived at by calculation f r o m the
diagonal WV (or X U ) — a n i m p o r t a n t outline r a d i u s — a n d the ratio of its
rectangle (WXVU):
306 mm ,.. . / M C

= 264 .935 mm.

1.155
The body design is d r a w n i n Fig. 1 2 3 , contained w i t h i n the i m p o r t a n t
FIG. 122
rectangles WXFE and W X V U , w i t h outline reduced to component arcs
and radii.
The are of o r i g i n , D H ' , is related to the major rectangle WXFE by their
c o m m o n centre at C, and by the arc's extreme radius, C H ' (132 m m ) ,
w h i c h lies exactly o n the i m p o r t a n t diagonal WF. A l i subsequent arcs
relate (commensurably) by their radii to the diagonal of the m i n o r
rectangle WXVU w h i c h very beautifully forms the extreme radius of the
next are. This are, WV, whose centre lies at the opposite upper corner, W,
of the containing rectangles, conneets, by its inscribed segment, the t w o
diagonals of WXFE and WXVU. Its radius, the diagonal W V o f the latter, is
306 m m — w h i c h we have already encountered as the vector w h i c h , by
calculation, was intermediary between the t w o ' c o n t a i n i n g ' rectangles.
These t w o arcs, D H ' and H'V together, f o r m the lower part of the outline.
The upper curvature begins at the corner V, w i t h are VV, centred at G ' ,
and of radius 102 m m ; this is the first of the commensurable-fadii
relationships :
306 mm : 102 mm
= 3:1.
FIG. 123
Centre G ' appears to be positioned by rectangle BN'G'C w h i c h , measuring
180 m m x 120 m m , has a 1.5, or 3 : 2, ratio. The outline continues w i t h
straight line V]' connecting w i t h are J'K', centre O, o n the opposite side of
the model, and of radius 102 m m — e c h o i n g t h a t of VV. 0 lies o n the
diagonal WV, and is positioned by dropping a n are d o w n f r o m WB
(116.5 m m ) . The final are, K'M', is of radius 51 m m and is centred at V,
r e c t a n g l e b'XA'L' h a v i n g a ratio of 1 : 2 . The 5 1 m m radius yields
commensurable ratios w i t h the other radii of 1 : 2 (102 m m ) and 1 : 6
(306 m m ) . Moreover, the radii of the roses, 13 m m and 26 m m ,
themselves i n 1 : 2 r a t i o , also appear to c o n f o r m , albeit n o t p r e c i s e l y , to
this same commensurable scheme.

a emr.c73
PLATE XXIX
 ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES 147

G U I T ARS

The o r i g i n s a n d e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e g u i t a r , like those o f so m a n y

instruments, lie i n confusion a n d obscurity. Pitifully few early examples
survive, n o doubt partly o w i n g to the instrument's extreme construc-
tional fragility, and thus to confusion and obscurity is added the distortion
of s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e , a r b i t r a r i l y selected b y accident a n d the w h i m of
fate. The Spanish vihuela (either de mano or de pénola), for example, is
the first i m p o r t a n t guitar-type i n s t r u m e n t , a n d was i n its c o u n t r y as
p r e s t i g i o u s as t h e l u t e (of A r a b o r i g i n ) was else w h e r e . Y e t this i n s t r u m e n t ,
for w h i c h exists a sizeable literature, is represented n o w by o n l y one
s u r v i v i n g example : a n artefact w h i c h could w e l l owe its preservation to
9 3

its o w n exceptional, rather t h a n typical, features.

T w o specimens of sixteenth-century guitars have come d o w n to us, and
b o t h of t h e m are exceptionally small (the v i h u e l a , o n the other h a n d ,
seems to have been a very large i n s t r u m e n t ) . One of t h e m , the i n s t r u m e n t
by Josef Dòrfler, is i n the four-course state c o m m o n at that t i m e ; t h e
94

other, a n d the first i n s t r u m e n t considered here, is by Belchior Diaz of

Lisbon, and has five courses. The backs of b o t h these i n t r u m e n t s are of the
vaulted type, w h i c h was perhaps the more usuai early construction. The
fiat-back type is represented here by o u r second example—the ivory
Cocho, one of the very earliest flat-backed guitars t h a t are k n o w n . The
magnificent chitarra battente by M a n g o L o n g o has been selected as the
95

t h i r d example.
Acoustically, the guitar evolved most rapidly d u r i n g the nineteenth
century, a period w h i c h lies outside the scope a n d purpose of this study.
A p a r t f r o m the change f r o m five doublé courses to six single strings, the
i n s t r u m e n t then u n d e r w e n t major alteration, b o t h to its outer shape,
w h i c h broadened at lower a n d upper bouts a n d n a r r o w e d at the waist,
a n d , most i m p o r t a n t l y , to its inner acoustic construction, where n e w
linings a n d a d v a n c e d b a r r i n g i n n o v a t i o n s helped to create the r i c h
sonorities w h i c h are so familiar to m o d e m ears. I t was i n this period, t o o ,
that the old flush finger-board, w i t h its movable tied frets, was replaced by
an applied fixed-fretted one, and the elegant peg-board supplanted by the 9 3
To be found at the Musée Jacquemart-
more convenient w o r m - g e a r e d machine heads—changes w h i c h , f r o m a n André, Paris.
9 4
An Exhibition of European Musical Instru-
aesthetic v i e w p o i n t , c a n only be judged as retrograde. Before this design ments (Edinburgh, 1968).
w a t e r s h e d , the body outline h a d changed very little i n more t h a n t w o 9 5
The chitarra battente state of this instru-
c e n t u r i e s , r e m a i n i n g n a r r o w , a n d o n l y gently c u r v e d , its aspect d e m u r e ment is most likely a later alteration of func-
tion—see introduction to the Mango Longo,
to eyes accustomed to the hour-glass contours of the modera guitar. Ex. XXXITI.
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
148

Ex. XXXI
Figs. 1 2 4 - 1 2 6
GUITAR, SMALL FIVE-COURSE. PORTUGAL, LISBON, 1582

B E L C H I O R D I A Z

D O N A L D S O N C O L L E C T I O N , R O Y A L C O L L E G E O F M U S I C ,

L O N D O N

Acc. N o . : 1 7 1

Regrettably, n o t h i n g is k n o w n about Belchior Diaz, the maker of this

fìve-course guitar, perhaps his only s u r v i v i n g instrument. Four-course
instruments (seven or eight strings) were seemingly the more popular i n
the sixteenth century, particularly i n France, and i t was for the
four-course stringing t h a t the earliest music was p r i n t e d . Diaz's guitar is
96

beautifully made: the purfled design of the board is particularly h a n d -

some, w i t h its interlaced, wave-like patterns—mysteriously coincident
w i t h the node and anti-node figuration made by a v i b r a t i n g s t r i n g ,
Fig. 124. The vaulted back consists of seven 'Doric'-fluted ribs of
f r u i t w o o d , separated by ivory fillets. Damage, and subsequent restoration,
however, as well as distorting the body o u t l i n e , seem to have robbed the
i n s t r u m e n t of its o r i g i n a i table, w h i c h for our purpose also means the loss
of the v i t a l originai i n f o r m a t i o n of rose and bridge positions. It should be
added t h a t b o t h these features, as restored, are i n tolerably correct
positions, a l t h o u g h the rose is set slightly lower t h a n a n 'average' r a t i o ,
estimated f r o m a dozen, albeit later (seventeenth-century), instruments.
For this reason, t h a t is, the replacement of the f r o n t , a full d r a w i n g and
analysis of the guitar could not be made ; its r a r i t y , its provenance, and the
quality of its discernible proportional scheme, however, justify its
inclusion here, if only as the subject of an outline discussion.
Geometrically, the i n s t r u m e n t is very beautiful, and has been carefully
regulated by a proportional system based m a i n l y on a single commen-
surable u n i t . The ratio of 5 : 2 governs the body-length to middle-bout
proportion (see Fig. 1 2 5 ) : BD/TT' = 365 mm/146 m m = 2.5, w h i l e the
F I G . 1 2 4 . S m a l l g u i t a r by Belchior Diaz,
head, ZA (146 m m = middle bouts T T ) , to neck, AB, to body l e n g t h , BD,
L i s b o n , 1 5 8 2 . ( R o y a l College of M u s i c ) is 6 : 1 1 : 1 5 . For the rest of the instrument's p l a n n i n g , a u n i t , u, of
3 3 . 1 6 6 m m , is the key, r u l i n g b o t h the containing grid of Fig. 1 2 5 , and
the component-arc radii of Fig. 126.
The body outline fits inside a 6 : 11 rectangle ( 1 . 8 3 3 ) , i n Fig. 125 abcd:
ad/dc = BD/JJ' = 365 mm/199 m m = 1.834—the same ratio t h a t was
found i n head : neck. W i t h i n this rectangle, abcd, t w o squares can be
d r a w n : efgh, of side 165(.8) m m , or 5u, w h i c h contains the upper bouts,
and mncd, of side 199 m m ( 1 9 8 . 9 9 9 m m ) , or 6u. The upper square is
further divided equally into four by horizontal N N ' and vertical BO, points
N , N ' , and 0 ali being centres of outline arcs. These small squares, eBSN,
etc., are therefore of side 2^u.
The outline (Fig. 126) commences w i t h are of o r i g i n D I ' , centre 0 , o n
the centre line (and at the division of the t w o major squares discussed
above) and of radius 199 m m , 6u, the lower-bout w i d t h . The curve is
c o n t i n u e d by a vesica piscis are (the construction is centred at G and G'),
are ry, centre G ' , and radius 2u. The next are, ]'K', is centred at G, the
Found within a collection of vihuela
9 6
opposite vesica centre, and therefore of radius 4w. We have met this
music, made by Alonso Mudarra, printed i n arrangement before i n t w o Brescian instruments, the lira da braccio of
1 546 as Tres Libros de Musica.
Gasparo, Ex. V i l i , and the M a g g i n i viola, Ex. XIV. W h e n produced, are
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

FIG. 1 2 5 FIG. 1 2 6

J'K' crosses the centre line at point 0 , the centre of the are of o r i g i n . The
curve of the waist is provided by are K ' L ' , centre M ' , radius again
199 m m , or 6u.
The u p p e r bout a r e , L'P', is c e n t r e d at grid p o i n t N, o n the opposite edge
of the i n s t r u m e n t , its radius, the w i d t h of the upper bouts, being 165(.8)
m m , or Su. The outline is concluded by are P ' R ' , centre 0 ' , radius
6 6 ( . 3 3 3 ) m m , or 2u—the same as the vesica arcs of the lower bouts.

} U ffl E cd C
 ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

Ex. X X X I I
Figs. 1 2 7 - 1 2 9 , PI. XXX
GUITAR. ITALY, VENICE, 1602

CHRISTOPHO COCHO

CONSERVATOIRE DE MUSIQUE, PARIS

Acc. N o . : E.2090

The fiat back and the sides of this elegant early guitar, like the sound-box
of the little mandore previously examined (Ex. X X V I ) , are composed of ribs
or strips of i v o r y , separated by fillets of e b o n y - i v o r y - e b o n y stringing,
producing a beautiful and impressive effect. The treatment of the rose and
table decoration of the t w o instruments is also s i m i l a r : the alliance of
richness w i t h restraint n o doubt carefully calculated b y the makers to
appeal to the w e a l t h y aesthete and amateur as a meritorious addition to
his o w n personal Parnassus.
A t least three other instruments of Christopho Cocho (also Choco,
Cocco, Cocko, Cocks, and Choc) survive: a Iute i n the Germanisches
N a t i o n a l m u s e u m i n Nuremberg, a theorbo i n the Victoria a n d Albert
M u s e u m , a n d another theorbo, together w i t h this guitar, i n the Paris
Conservatoire collection.
Cocho w o r k e d i n the first half of the seventeenth century i n Venice,
'all'insegna dell'aquila d'oro'. A pyrographic stamp of a n eagle is just
discernible i n the upper part of the table of this guitar, w h i c h , as we have
mentioned i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n , is one of the earliest s u r v i v i n g guitars
( 1 6 0 2 ) to have adopted the n o w familiar fiat, u n v a u l t e d , back.
Alas, i v o r y , w i t h ali its beauty, is not the most stable of materials, and
w h i l s t its movements due to atmospheric changes are minimized by the
engineering principles of strength and stability at w o r k i n a lute v a u l t ,
they are, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , only weakly harnessed i n the fiat back and rib
design f o u n d i n the Cocho guitar. I n fact, b o t h left- and right-side edges of
the top were warped and distorted i n various places beyond the p u r f l i n g ; it
was, however, possible to ascertain the o r i g i n a i outline by generating the
undistorted parts of b o t h sides, using the unaltered, inner outline of the
table itself as a guide. I t is this supposed ' o r i g i n a i ' outline w h i c h is s h o w n
i n the m a i n d r a w i n g .
Geometrically, the i n s t r u m e n t follows the m a j o r i t y of the other
instruments here analysed, w i t h a design once more defined by commen-
surable methods.
Fig. 1 2 7 gives the overall vertical and horizontal proportions f o u n d i n
the instrument. T w o overall containing rectangles are employed: first
efed, w h i c h encloses the body f r o m D to E, the extension of the table into
y the finger-board, and the proportional boundary of the table observed i n
the lutes; a n d , secondly, rectangle abed, w h i c h encloses the sound-box
alone, f r o m D to B—the system used i n the Neapolitan mandoline,
Ex. X X V I I I . The first rectangle, efed, is a doublé square, or ^ 4 rectangle,
measuring 4 7 8 m m by 2 3 9 m m . Proportionally, it c a n also be expressed
(apart f r o m the ratio 2 : 1 ) either as the ratio 6 : 3 , the w i d t h //' being
divided by a vesica arrangement of radius 7 9 . 6 6 6 m m , the u n i t governing
the lower are radii w i t h the are of o r i g i n , centred, as we shall see, i n the
centre, C, of this major rectangle—or, alternatively, efed can be expressed
by the ratio 10 : 5, the smaller u n i t (47.8 m m ) being c o m m o n to both efed
and abed. ea is one such 4 7 . 8 m m u n i t , leaving abed as a rectangle of 9 : 5
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S
151

ratio ( 4 3 0 mm/2 39 m m = 1 . 7 9 9 , or 1.8). The position of the sound-hole,

or rose centre, E, is also related to the upper h o r i z o n t a l , t h a t is, to eEf, i n
t h a t EF = FP = 195 m m ; i n other w o r d s , the rose is centred half-way
between the bridge, P and table b o u n d a r y , E.
5

Rather unexpectedly, the upper-bout c o n f l g u r a t i o n , again a vesica-

piscis based solution, does n o t directly relate proportionally to its lower-
bout counterpart, w h i c h i n t u r n means t h a t overall widths of lower and
upper bouts are n o t commensurable w i t h each other. There does, h o w -
ever, appear to be such a relationship between the upper-bout w i d t h and
the waist, or middle-bout w i d t h , t h a t is, N N ' : TT :

NN' 188 m m
1.249 (or 1.25, i.e. 5 :4).
TV 150.5 mm
The outline b r e a k d o w n to component arcs a n d radii is d r a w n i n
Fig. 128. The square m(C)ncd, w h i c h is the lower half of ^ 4 rectangle efed
(see Fig. 127), encloses or 'contains' the lower-bout c o n s t r u c t i o n — a n
exact counterpart to the lower-bout design of the Belchior Diaz guitar.
Here, however, the centre of the are of o r i g i n , C, also coincides w i t h the
centre of the m a i n rectangle, i.e. EC = CD, w h i c h suggests the possibility
of a great-circle geometry, a l t h o u g h i n practice the middle-bout are
c e n t r e s , M ' and M , fall just 2 or 3 m m inside the circle's circumference.
The radius (CrT) of the are of origin (DH'), w h i c h is equal to the FIG. 128
lower-bout w i d t h , measures 2 3 9 m m , or 317 (where V = 7 9 . 6 6 6 m m ) .
The vesica piscis are H'J', centred at G ' , continues the o u t l i n e , its radius
measured as 79.5 m m , b u t calculated as 7 9 . 6 6 6 m m , or 17. The curve
t h e n shallows w i t h are J'K', centred at G—the opposite vesica centre—
thus giving a radius of 217, or 1 5 9 . 3 3 3 m m , and completing the
lower-bout c u r v a t u r e ; /'2C', w h e n produced, crosses the centre line at C,
centre of the model and of the are of o r i g i n . One are forms the curve of the
waist, and it conneets w i t h the lower bouts by short straight line K'O'.
This is are O'L', centred at M ' (as previously stated, just short of the great
circle) and of radius 159.5 m m , or 217 ( 1 5 9 . 3 3 3 m m ) .
The upper bouts, as we have said, do n o t correspond to this 17-based,
commensurable scheme, b u t instead follow a n independent course, based
on the u n r e l a t e d radius, u ( 6 2 . 6 6 6 m m ) , of the upper vesica piscis
arrangement. This is correspondingly centred at Q and Q', and gives (on
the r i g h t - h a n d side) the are R ' N ' (radius 6 2 . 6 6 6 m m , or u). The other
upper-bout are is centred n o t i n the opposite vesica centre, as i n the
lower-bout arrangement, b u t o n the opposite edge, so giving a radius
equivalent to the m a x i m u m upper w i d t h of the i n s t r u m e n t , and therefore
three times the vesica radius ; thus N ' L ' , centre N , has a radius of 18 8 m m ,
or 3u. W h e n produced, this are meets the outer border of the rose, centre
F , a border whose radius, 62.5 m m , could therefore also be said to be
schematically related to the m i n o r , u-based, commensurable scheme.
This, t h e n , completes the discussion of the body outline.
Following the drawing policy outlined in the discussion of the
Neapolitan m a n d o l i n e , Ex. X X V I I I , the head of this guitar has been d r a w n
i n the same piane as the neck and body. W h i l s t no proportional
significance could be found i n the ratios governing the neck length to
either head or body l e n g t h , the head itself, measuring 66 m m i n w i d t h and
176 m m i n l e n g t h , fits exactly into a rectangle (in Fig. 1 2 9 , WXYZ) of
3 : 8 r a t i o , the highest c o m m o n factor, 22 m m , not relating to the rest
of the scheme. FIG. 129

} U | B f f l [-'; C
 153
A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

Ex. X X X I I I
Figs. 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 , PI. X X X I
CHITARRA BATTENTE/GUITAR. ITALY, NAPLES, 1624

MANGO LONGO
CASTELLO SFORZESCO, M I L A N

Acc. N o . : 2 7 7

Perhaps the most r i c h l y i n l a i d and ornamented i n s t r u m e n t to have been

examined for this study, this magniflcent i n s t r u m e n t by Mango Longo
was originally selected as an example of c h i t a r r a battente. Closer scrutiny,
on measurement and d r a w i n g , however, suggests that its present battente
state is not o r i g i n a i , b u t a later conversion f r o m a standard guitar. For our
m a i n purpose, t h o u g h , there seems to be no practical difference w h a t -
soever between guitar and c h i t a r r a battente, the body outlines h a v i n g no
generic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s peculiar to one or other type. The m a i n difference is
one of s t r i n g i n g , and its related acoustic and s t r u c t u r a l principles,
namely : the guitar is g u t - s t r u n g , w i t h its strings tied to a bridge glued to a
fiat belly, w h i l e the chitarra battente (battere = 'to strike') is w i r e - s t r u n g ,
its more stable strings passing over a bridge (often only held i n place by
their pressure), this resting o n the table, or sound-board, w h i c h has been
given a rake or b a c k w a r d crease, i n order to help resist the increased string
pressure. String a n c h o r a g e is by means of buttons fixed t h r o u g h the base
into the b o t t o m block of the i n s t r u m e n t .
Conversions, usually of vault-backed guitars to chitarre b a t t e n t i , were
not u n c o m m o n , and m a n y fine, signed guitars have undergone surgery,
i n some cases very crude surgery, i n order to be used i n this w a y . The w o r k
o n this example has been done rather carefully. The 'crease' i n the table
was made at a one-quarter di vision of the body l e n g t h , BD, probably at the
old bridge-line (the present bridge is u n l i k e l y to be originai). The fiat table
w o u l d have been scored, or grooved, underneath at this point and t h e n
slightly bent back below the bridge-line, the ribs and b o t t o m block h a v i n g
been suitably lowered to accommodate the alteration. The fact t h a t this
w a s n o t a n o r i g i n a i feature also accounts for the slight distortion to the
lower-bout 'corner' curves, w h i c h have a n 'extra' inorganic bulge where
the t w o , t h e n m a r g i n a l l y differing, contours of ribs and table have been
forced together.
The neck, w h i c h does n o t have the i n l a i d fixed frets of bone or metal
ordinarily f o u n d i n a n ' o r i g i n a i ' battente, has been shortened by a specifìc
a m o u n t (three frets, f r o m the n u t ) , an a m o u n t c o m m o n to one or t w o
other such c o n v e r s i o n s , leaving eight fret divisions to the neck itself The
shortening of the neck has also meant the loss of an engraved ivory
plaque, w h i c h w o u l d have appeared as the second of four episodes i n an
A r c a d i a n sequence decorating the neck and head. The first scene, n o w at
the top of the neck, depicts Orpheus c h a r m i n g the beasts (represented by
the front q u a r t o : of a supine deer), w h i l s t i n plaques three and four, found
i n the head, a pair of hounds are i n e t e r n a i p u r s u i t of a hare The
r e m a i n i n g plaque, at the top of the head, is engraved:

M. MANGO

LONGO FECIT

IN NAPOLI

w h i l e the other large plaque i n the neck bears an engraved crest,

ANALYSIS OF I N S T R U M E N T EXAMPLES

surmounted by a c r o w n , w i t h a cartouche hearing the numbers 7 : 4 : 9 ' —

u n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t some key design ratios, b u t apparently a m e t h o d of
w r i t i n g the date i n the eighteenth century (idem quod 1 7 4 9 ) , this
presumably being the date of its possession (and possibly even of its
battente conversion) by some noble owner. The inlaid design, incorporat-
i n g t w o i n t e r t w i n e d squares constituting a star octagon w h i c h borders the
rose, is especially handsome, w h i l e the many-tiered and -layered rose itself
is a w h i r l p o o l of dazzling intricacy, its Gothic traceries inhabited by
singing, nesting birds, apparently modelled f r o m glass !
The geometry of the Longo g u i t a r , perhaps not surprisingly, combines
aspects of b o t h the design-geometries of the t w o earlier guitars previously
analysed.
The overall vertical and horizontal proportions are s h o w n bracketed i n
Fig. 1 3 0 . A g a i n , as i n the Cocho guitar, t w o c o n t a i n i n g rectangles are
employed : efed, enclosing the body, BD, plus the extension of the table, EB
(i.e. ED), a n d abed, w h i c h encloses the sound-box, B D , alone. Their
proportions are precisely the same as those found i n the previous guitar,
namely :
efed, 509.5 m m : 2 5 5 m m = 1 . 9 9 8

or, a l l o w i n g a n error of 0.5 m m , 2 : 1 , so that efed is a doublé square, or

J4: rectangle. Likewise,
abed, 459 m m : 255 m m = 1.8 = 9 : 5.

The middle and upper bouts, once more, are unrelated i n w i d t h to the
lower bouts, a l t h o u g h h a v i n g a separate proportional relationship of their
own:
NN' : I T
216 mm : 192 m m
= 1.125
or 9:8.

The present bridge position, also the level of the battente crease, crosses
the centre line at P ; this, as we have said, is most likely to be the o r i g i n a i
b r i d g e p o s i t i o n , a n d lies at a one-quarter division of body length BD
(BD/PD = 4 5 9 mm/115 m m = 3 . 9 9 1 (or 4 ) ) . N o proportional signi-
ficance was f o u n d i n the placing of the rose, centre F ; if, however, i t had
been positioned 3.5 m m higher o n the centre line, i t w o u l d have had a
3 : 5 ratio w i t h major body length ED, and a 2 : 3 ratio w i t h sound-board
length BD.
A l t h o u g h there is certainly some consistency s h o w n i n the length of the
c o m p o n e n t - a r c r a d i i (see Fig. 1 3 1 ) , a n overall unit-based system of
commensurability is n o t applicable to ali the radii of the body outline. The
geometrie construction of the lower bouts also differs f r o m the t w o
preceding examples, w h i c h each employed a c o n t a i n i n g square, w i t h the
m a x i m u m w i d t h being equal to the arc-of-origin radius, and thus to the
square side (see Figs. 1 2 6 and 128). Here the are of o r i g i n , D H ' , is centred
at E, the centre of the rose, and has a radius of 3 0 2 m m , w h i c h , w h i l s t n o t
directly d i v i s i b l e by the most c o m m o n l y used u n i t (85 m m , being the
vesica radius of the lower bouts), appears to be the sum of this u n i t and the
upper-bout w i d t h and are radius N N ' ( 2 1 6 m m ) — a c c e p t i n g , of course,
the 1 m m difference as error. This means t h a t the next are, H ' / ' , c a n be
centred by t w o methods, the familiar vesica piscis device, centred at G and
G ' , and the implied are of 2 1 6 m m (the upper-bout w i d t h ) centred at E.
The lower-bout are following H'J' (radius 8 5 m m ) is are J ' K ' , centre /, o n
 A N A L Y S I S OF I N S T R U M E N T E X A M P L E S

the opposite edge ; this has a radius of 2 5 5 m m , t h a t is, three vesica radii of
85 m m , or the m a x i m u m lower-bout w i d t h . A short straight line, K ' O '
(see also Cocho g u i t a r ) , conneets the lower-bout curves w i t h the
counter-curve are, O'L', of the middle bouts. Centred at M ' , this are also
has a radius of 2 5 5 m m .
The upper bouts follow approximately the pattern of those of the Diaz
guitar, b u t i n c o m m o n w i t h the Cocho, the upper-bout w i d t h also forms a
radius for the curve, are L ' N ' , leading f r o m the middle bouts, here of
radius 2 1 6 m m . The final curve of the o u t l i n e , N ' R ' , centre Q', like the
example by Diaz, echoes, i n radius, the lower-bout vesica curve, i n this
case 8 5 m m .

FIG. 131

The head of the guitar, w i t h its pastoral scenes, has suffered damage
and alteration to the lower parts of the engraved ivory borders ; t w o
alternative reconstructions of the o r i g i n a i outline are given i n the
r i g h t - h a n d side of the m a i n d r a w i n g , i n dotted and dashed lines. I n its
present condition the head measures 1 6 1 m m x 65 m m , a rectangle of
2 . 4 7 6 p r o p o r t i o n — 1 . 5 m m short of 2.5, or a 5 : 2 ratio. I t is curious that
65 m m seems to be almost a standard w i d t h for I t a l i a n guitar heads i n the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and was the usuai head w i d t h
adopted by the makers of Neapolitan mandolines b o t h i n Italy and i n the
n o r t h e r n centres. I n itself, of course, this is another example of the process
of a design t r a d i t i o n , and thereby an aesthetic code, being established
almost i n v o l u n t a r i l y by the n a t u r a i conservatism of i n d i v i d u a i makers
w o r k i n g w i t h i n a guild master/apprentice structure.
PLATE XXXI
7 Summary of analyses

The analysis of t h i r t y - t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t designs, as even the most patient

reader must by n o w a d m i t , represents a fairly fonmdaWe teak of
faet-digestion. Of course, each analysis ( w i t h the exception of Ex. X X I V ) is
i n itself an i n d i v i d u a i testimony supporting the thesis that geometry and
n u m e r i c a l proportion were customary considerations of the early l u t h i e r ,
but by c o m b i n i n g the results of these analyses i n one c o m m o n scheme -
a ' s u m m a r y c h a r t ' - a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n m a y become apparent. One
reservation m u s t be voiced, however, and t h a t is t h a t , w h i l e t h i r t y - t h r e e
instruments treated i n this w a y require rather committed reading ( w r i t i n g
and compilation aside), i n the context of three centuries' diversity of
stringed-instrument design, such a selection (necessarily restricted by the
criteria outlined i n Chapter 5, 'Selection of Examples ) c o u l d , perhaps, be
5

regarded as a m i n i m a l sample f r o m w h i c h to d r a w firm general con-

clusions. W i t h this proviso i n m i n d , the few trends w h i c h do appear to
emerge f r o m this collation are discussed, following the chart itself.
The chart is simply a visual s u m m a r y ( w i t h ali the usuai drawbacks of
any summary) of the information put forward i n the individuai instrument-
example texts. There are three major vertical divisions: the left-hand
c o l u m n (half-spaced) gives a simple d r a w i n g of the i n s t r u m e n t outline and
rose/sound-hole disposition ; t h e n follows the section consisting of Ave
columns w h i c h repeat the i n f o r m a t i o n f o u n d at the head of each example
analysis—that is, example n u m b e r , i n s t r u m e n t type and size, c o u n t r y
and centre of o r i g i n , date, maker's name, and present whereabouts;
finally, the last ten columns display, i n symbol f o r m (explained i n
Chapter 5, 'The Analyses'), the specifìc analysed i n f o r m a t i o n f o u n d i n
each example; this is the same sequence of symbols f o u n d at the
end of each i n d i v i d u a i i n s t r u m e n t text. I t should be added that the
decision to assign a symbol was not always a straightforward one—just as
the a w a r d of a medal for gallantry cannot signify, or describe, the manner
or even the true extent of gallantry operating, neither can the allocation of
a particular symbol t r u l y describe the extent, or q u a l i t y , of the scheme i t
denotes. I n the same w a y , it should not be t h o u g h t t h a t instruments
displaying a larger n u m b e r of symbols have more complete, or more
interesting, schemes t h a n those of few symbols ; indeed, the contrary m a y
w e l l apply, o n the grounds of p u r i t y and economy of means.
The order of instruments i n the s u m m a r y is the same as t h a t observed i n
the preceding text.
Our discussion of the chart itself m u s t perforce be statistical, and as
every politician k n o w s , statistics are really a question of v i e w p o i n t , often
taken, to quote A n d r e w L a n g , 'as a d r u n k e n m a n uses l a m p - p o s t s - f o r
support rather t h a n i l l u m i n a t i o n ' .
Considering, t h e n , the n u m b e r of variables present, and consequent
points of v i e w , the evaluation of any specifìc design trait must depend o n
establishmg certain controls, to enable comparisons to be made. As we
have already stressed, great c a u t i o n must be observed before d r a w i n g
SI/MARY CHART I
 SUMMARY OF ANALYSES

too-rigid conclusione given such a cross-section of i n f o r m a t i o n For

example, a particular type of geometry m i g h t conceivably occur only i n
a certain type of i n s t r u m e n t , the examples of w h i c h m a y belong to a
c o m m o n c o u n t r y of o r i g i n — i s t h e n the geometry u n i q u e to the type, or
typical of the c o u n t r y ? Of course, an acceptable answer to such a question
could only be arrived at by f u r t h e r specifìc investigation and comparison.
Given these conditions, a n d the S u m m a r y Chart as r a w m a t e r i a l ,
h o w e v e r , i n f o r m a t i o n m a y be c o l l a t e d for comparison w i t h i n three m a i n
structures w h i c h suggest themselves :

(a) i n s t r u m e n t type, t h a t is, a comparison of approach i n the t w o main

design categories of bowed and plucked instruments ;
(b) c o u n t r y of o r i g i n , a comparison of the design make-up of instruments
f r o m I t a l y , where so m a n y forms originated, w i t h instruments f r o m
the other centres of Europe ;
(c) chronology, a reordering of analysis results i n t o date sequence.

I n addition to these categories, w h i c h we w i l l be e x a m i n i n g shortly,

certain other design idiosyncrasies became apparent d u r i n g the course of
the analyses and the compilation of the m a i n S u m m a r y Chart. One of the
most cruciai parts of any of the preceding i n s t r u m e n t outlines, for
instance, was the exact disposition of the p r i m a r y l o w e r - b o u t arcs—the
are of o r i g i n and the adjacent 'corner' arcs. I t is interesting t h a t i n m a n y
cases the same f o r m u l a has been used w i t h a vesica piscis device f o r m i n g
the 'corner' arcs, linked by the are of o r i g i n . This arrangement was used i n
Exx. I I , I I I , V i l i , X I V , X V I I , X V I I I , X X I , X X I I , X X I I I , X X V , X X V I I I , X X X I ,
X X X I I , and X X X I I I , w i t h six of these schemes also employing the vesica i n
other situations. This is the prime use for the vesica piscis i n the design of
body outlines ( a l t h o u g h i t does also occur i n Exx. V i l i , X, X V I , X X , X X V I ,
X X V I I , and XXX i n a ' p l a n n i n g ' capacity). By l i n k i n g , i n this w a y , the t w o
symmetrical halves of the design f r o m the are of o r i g i n , the outline is given
a familiar r h y t h m (almost every i n s t r u m e n t type has a n example
exhibiting this lower-bout pattern), and a h a r m o n i o u s f o u n d a t i o n for
radius-linked p r o p o r t i o n . Perhaps the most beautiful and sustained
corner-are use of the vesica was f o u n d i n the Buechenberg chitarrone (Ex.
X X I I I ) , where the same vesica arcs, their radii a basis of the n u m e r i c a l
s c h e m e , w e r e used i n f r o n t p i a n , l o n g i t u d i n a l profile, and horizontal
cross-section.
I n fact, the vesica piscis occurred i n the vast m a j o r i t y of plucked
instruments, as did the commensurable approach to p r o p o r t i o n i n g .
The 'great circle', like the vesica, has a classic aesthetic appeal, and i t is
not surprising t h a t these t w o perfect figures are often f o u n d together. The
great circle itself was only ever f o u n d i n bowed instruments, never i n
plucked. This m a y w e l l be due to the different method of reconciling neck
and body i n the t w o categories. I n bowed instruments the body outline
and neck w i t h raised finger-board are considerably less design-integrated
t h a n the types of body and flush finger-board generally f o u n d i n plucked
instruments of the period. W h e n required, this allows the arcs of upper-
and lower-bout o r i g i n of bowed instruments to meet the are of a great
circle i n a ' t a n g e n t i a l ' relationship at b o t h extremes.
As m i g h t be e x p e c t e d , w h e r e g r i d - p l a n n i n g has been used more often
t h a n not a signifìcant c o n t a i n i n g rectangle is f o u n d , a l t h o u g h , of course,
these also occur independently. I t was interesting, too, to note t h a t the
i n s t r u m e n t group most consistent i n the ingredients of its design make-up
was t h a t of the guitars.
SUMMARY OF ANALYSES

But to r e t u r n to the m a i n categories of s u m m a r y : Chart 2 makes a

specifìc comparison between bowed and plucked instruments. The
left-hand c o l u m n denotes, by symbol, the type of geometry or proportion.
Vertical and horizontal linear p r o p o r t i o n are grouped together, b u t
counted separately, and the incommensurable symbols are also given a
corporate g r o u p i n g opposite the symbol of commensurability w i t h a cross
drawn through ( The next t w o columns give the n u m b e r of
incidences of those symbols among bowed and plucked instruments
respectively.

SUMMARY CHART 2

Geometry Bowed Plucked

; 24 19

$ 5 8
E 4 7

7 —

GD 8 12

["•; 4 8
c 14 13

& 11 2
(0) (8) (1)

Ws) (3) (-)

U5) (-) (1)

The conclusions d r a w n from this comparison, a l l o w i n g for the 19 : 14
(1.357) ratio of bowed to plucked examples, can be listed t h u s :

ì ; ; proportionally fewer bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit

- -/ linear ratios ;
proportionally fewer bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit a
signifìcant containing rectangle;
proportionally fewer bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit
E grid-planning ;
proportionally more bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit
great-circle geometry ;
proportionally fewer bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit a
vesica piscis;
p N proportionally fewer bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit
1 •

c
planning arcs;
proportionally fewer bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit
commensurable proportions;
proportionally more bowed t h a n plucked instruments exhibit
incommensurable proportions (such as 0, ^ 5 , ^/3),

according to the instruments i n the survey.

 SUMMARY OF A N A L Y S E S 161

Similarly, S u m m a r y Chart 3 makes a specifìc comparison between

Italian and n o n - I t a l i a n instruments. A g a i n , the left-hand c o l u m n denotes
the type of geometry w h i l e the others give the b r e a k d o w n of the I t a l i a n
and non-Italian examples :

SUMMARY CHART 3
Geometry Italian Non-Italian

29 14

8 5

E 4 7

4 3

OD 13 7

Pi 9 3

c 20 7

7 6

(0) 6 3

1 2
(vfi)

(vS) — 1

The conclusions d r a w n f r o m this comparison, a l l o w i n g for a 2 1 : 1 2

(1.75) r a t i o , c a n be listed as follows:

p r o p o r t i o n a l l y more Italian t h a n non-Italian i n s t r u m e n t s exhibit

linear ratios;

Qj proportionally fewer Italian

a signifìcant containing t h a n ;non-Italian instruments exhibit
rectangle
p=j proportionally fewer Italian t h a n non-Italian instruments exhibit
'—' grid-planning ;
si\ proportionally fewer Italian t h a n non-Italian instruments exhibit
great-circle geometry ;
proportionally more Italian t h a n non-Italian instruments exhibit
a vesica piscis;
p v proportionally more Italian t h a n non-Italian instruments exhibit
* * planning arcs ;

G proportionally more Italian t h a n non-Italian instruments exhibit

commensurable proportions;
proportionally fewer Italian t h a n non-Italian instruments exhibit
incommensurable proportions (such as </>, ^ 5 ,

according to the instruments analysed i n the survey.

S u m m a r y Chart 4 is, i n effect, a reordering of the m a i n S u m m a r y
Chart 1 according to chronology. I t is interesting t h a t no major patterns
are immediately apparent; this suggests (if the selection of instruments is
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 SUMMARY OF ANALYSES

representative) t h a t the various design practices belong to a long-

established, fairly i m m u t a b l e t r a d i t i o n . W i t h i n this rather static picture,
however, it is possible to make a few tentative observations, and to hope
that by giving voice to t h e m they are not given undue emphasis. Commen-
surable proportions, for example, appear consistently, as do the i n c o m -
mensurable schemes, and yet, hearing i n m i n d the generally less
significant use of incommensurable proportioning i n the earlier schemes,
it m a y be inferred t h a t there is a slightly increased tendency for
incommensurably planned instruments to appear later o n i n the chart.
The vesica piscis and the use of p l a n n i n g arcs are likewise well spread
t h r o u g h o u t , and yet b o t h appear to ' b u n c h ' s l i g h t l y — t h e vesica f r o m the
t h i r d quarter of the sixteenth century to the second half of the
seventeenth, and the p l a n n i n g arcs i n the second and t h i r d quarters of the
seventeenth century. The same effect is seen w i t h the use of p l a n n i n g
grids, w h i c h appear to have been employed more extensively a m o n g the
later examples: indeed, w h a t are perhaps the most interesting grid
schemes b o t h occur i n eighteenth-century instruments (the Alletsee
English Violet, 1 7 2 4 , Ex. X V I I , and Vinaccia m a n d o l i n e , 1 7 5 3 , Ex.
X X V I I I ) . I t should, however, be remembered t h a t b o t h these examples
were quite new types of i n s t r u m e n t at their dates of m a n u f a c t u r e , and
their consequent nearness to their archetypes could also account for the
greater consciousness of their grid-planning.
Ultimately, it is of course for the reader himself to d r a w w h a t
conclusions he w i l l f r o m the preceding charts a n d summaries. The
numerous v a r y i n g factors make i t a complex k n o t to u n r a v e l , and there is
no certainty t h a t , were i t possible to have a different t h i r t y - t h r e e
instruments w h i c h w o u l d satisfy the necessary conditions, they m i g h t not
perhaps display differing trends.
Whatever the details m i g h t be, however, the body of facts d r a w n f r o m
these instruments presents irrefutable evidence and undeniable proof t h a t
geometry and n u m e r i c a l proportioning were Constant, conscious con-
siderations of the l u t h i e r t h r o u g h o u t the period examined, providing a
c o m m o n design f o u n d a t i o n , l i n k i n g his w o r k to t h a t of others f r o m w h o m
he m a y have been separated by t i m e , place, or speciality, but w i t h w h o m
he was united by a vital w o r k i n g tradition.

F I G . 1 3 2 . Fret c h a r t f r o m Luz y Norte
Musical b y Lucas Ruiz de Ribayaz,
M a d r i d 1 6 7 7 . (By courtesy of t h e
Biblioteca N a c i o n a l , M a d r i d )
Protagoras (c.485-451 BC) quoted by
9 7
Plato in Theaetetus.
8 Observations
Earlier i n this study we discussed the h i g h degree of symmetry evident
i n the design of musical instruments, and remarked that this was most
probably a design analogy w i t h man's o w n symmetry. I n fact, anthropo-
m o r p h i s m i n musical-instrument design goes further t h a n merely
m i m i c k i n g man's symmetry. The whole f o r m of a stringed i n s t r u m e n t is
q u a s i - h u m a n ; the u n d u l a t i n g contours of the guitar, for instance, are as
archetypally W o m a n as those of any palaeolithic Venus ; the d r a w i n g i n
Fig. 132 has ali the refulgent poise of a Picasso nude, and yet it was d r a w n
as a teaching aid i n Lucas Ruiz de Ribayaz's Luz y Norte Musical, a m a n u a l
for guitar and harp published i n M a d r i d i n 1677. This 'identification' is
also apparent i n the terminology we apply to the parts of stringed
instruments—they can have a head, neck, body, back, belly, r i b s ; the
scrolls have ears, and finger-boards can sometimes even have beards. To
be French is to understand these things more fully : the sound-post, that
vital transmitter of vibrations, lodged deep w i t h i n the recesses of the body,
is by t h e m called rame, the ' s o u l ' of the instrument. Of course, other
artefacts, such as ceramics and f u r n i t u r e , are also described i n such
terms ; after a l i , to r e t u r n to the Platonism of our geometries, ' M a n is the
measure of ali t h i n g s . ' This cruciai phrase once more brings to m i n d the
97
V i t r u v i a n figure encountered i n Fig. 5. Purely as a n expression of this
universal concept of measure and p r o p o r t i o n , but of no specifìc sig-
nificance for the i n s t r u m e n t concerned, i t is nevertheless a n interesting
exercise (Fig. 133) to superimpose u p o n Leonardo's man-in-circle-and-
square d r a w i n g the great-circle geometry of one of the early analyses
(Figs. 3 1 and 32). I n essence, it could be a n illustration to Pacioli's
remarks :
. . . f r o m the h u m a n body derive ali measures a n d their d e n o m i n a t i o n s , and i n i t is
to be f o u n d ali a n d every ratio a n d p r o p o r t i o n by w h i c h God reveals the i n n e r m o s t
secrets of n a t u r e .
I n m a n y cases the desire to humanize, or give expression to the
a n i m a t i o n w h i c h these instruments are felt to possess, is extended to their
endowment w i t h a h u m a n face carved i n t o their o w n head or peg-box.
This an anthropologist m i g h t w e l l regard as a vestigial f o r m of totemism ;
it is certainly a measure of the sense of mystery and magic w i t h w h i c h
music, and musical instruments, have been endowed by the m i n d of m a n ,
as is reflected i n ancient m y t h and later literature. I t is almost as t h o u g h
the idea of an i n s t r u m e n t , whose voice, intangible, fugitive, a vehicle for
h u m a n t h o u g h t and emotion w i t h i n the abstraction of music, h a v i n g no
familiar, human source, was a deeply disturbing one, needing a visual
focus, the carved head, as a psychological release.
The typical shapes of stringed instruments have resulted i n each case
f r o m an alliance of three considerations :
(i) acoustics—which dictate string l e n g t h , bridge position, and a certain
volume of air almost totally enclosed by a sound-box, one side of
w h i c h forms the sound-board ;
 OBSERVATIONS

. ....
f
v
1

FIG. 133

(ii) e r g o n o m i c s — w h i c h relate ali the foregoing to playing f u n c t i o n (this

explains w h y , for example, bowed i n s t r u m e n t s have i n c u r v e d
98

middle bouts w h i c h allow a b o w to traverse ali the strings);

(iii) aesthetics, perhaps the most difficult category to analyse; among
numerous factors it also embraces considerations of t r a d i t i o n ,
covering d e t a i l s w h i c h m a y o r i g i n a l l y h a v e s e r v e d a n a c o u s t i c or
ergonomie purpose, b u t have survived o n l y as 'characteristic'
features. P r i m a r i l y , however, aesthetics is a category w h i c h
harmonizes (and humanizes) the requirements of the other t w o , a
process, as we h a v e seen, w h i c h is expressed i n the g r a m m a r a n d
syntax of geometry and proportion.

If we examine the use of geometry i n instrument-design, we find, not

surprisingly, a r a t h e r different a p p r o a c h f r o m t h a t f o u n d in the geometries
of architecture or of p a i n t i n g . P a i n t i n g begins w i t h the predeterminate
ratio of its canvas rectangle w i t h i n , and often by, w h i c h the w o r k is
harmonized ; b u t u n l i k e architecture or musical instruments, p a i n t i n g ,
i n the period we are e x a m i n i n g , is not usually dealing w i t h h a r d , geo-
metrically defined borders and edges alone (although there are always
Guitars also have incurved middle bouts.
9 8

those of the frame itself), b u t w i t h emotional directions of force guiding This is thought to be due to their evolution as
the action, or c o n t a i n i n g the repose, of the subject-matter. A r c h i t e c t u r e , vihuela de pena from the vihuela de arco,
a bowed form. Ergonomically, of course, the
i n a sense, also begins w i t h a c o n t a i n i n g ratio or ratios, t h a t is, of elevation waist is stili extremely convenient for position-
(its fagade), of its section, and of its pian. The complexity arises w h e n these ing the instrument across the thigh.
 OBSERVATIONS

breed to f o r m volumes, w h i c h can be regarded as the products of ratios

But if there is complexity i n architectural p r o p o r t i o n i n g ( w h i c h no doubt
has been part of its fascination for theorists and practitioners alike), there
is also the satisfying p u r i t y of the transparency of the scheme. B y t h i s I
mean t h a t i n architecture something of the geometrizing of the designer is
usually apparent to a receptive observer, o w i n g to the usuai retention of
the r e c t i l i n e a r f o r m s of the o r i g i n a i g e o m e t r y . This is less so, and needfully
less so, i n p a i n t i n g , where, as observers, we should be aware solely of the
subject-matter set suitably h a r m o n i o u s l y , or suitably t o r t u o u s l y , by the
invisible agency of the p l a n n i n g geometry. A n d , of course, w h e n we view
stringed instruments, as w i t h other decorative art forms, we do so to
evoke similar aesthetic responses as we m a y w i t h either p a i n t i n g or
architecture. We enjoy the f o r m a n d , as we move the i n s t r u m e n t , the
changing contour, the colour and m u t a b i l i t y of w o o d and v a r n i s h i n the
play of l i g h t , the treatment of fine detail, and its balance and 'feel' as a
handled object. So, as w i t h p a i n t i n g , we may be excited and aware of
beauty and h a r m o n y , but totally u n a w a r e of such conscious proportional
p l a n n i n g as we perceive i n architecture, save perhaps the suspicion that
such integrity of f o r m was not just the result of arbitrary w h i m or feeling.
This is because the design geometrizing of instruments, like that of
p a i n t i n g , is an i n v i s i b l e one, and it is a method of a r r i v i n g at a h a r m o n y of
f o r m w i t h i n the prime consideration of economy of means.
I t is a n invisible process a n d , practically w i t h o u t exception i n the cases
examined, not regenerative. The one clear exception is, of course, the
simple f o r m of the A r n a u l t lute d r a w i n g (Ex. XX, c . 1 4 6 0 ) , w h i c h , if only
by v i r t u e of its being a n i n s t r u c t i o n for the construction of an i n s t r u m e n t ,
had to be generateable from a point. Geometrical p l a n n i n g most probably
started w i t h simple forms, such as the fifteenth-century A r n a u l t lute, b u t
the complexity and sophistication of sixteenth-century designs, and their
later developments, very soon precludes any possibility of their outlines
being reconstructed by a list of verbal or w r i t t e n instructions or formulae.
There w o u l d be no purpose to their being so, and indeed, positive reason
w h y they should n o t be thus conveyable and repeatable. Perhaps the
nearest any later example approaches generation f r o m a point is i n
Ex. X X I X , an I t a l i a n c i t t e r n , b u t even this body outline could not be
completed by a sequence of instructions. This clearly is no more a part of
the f u n c t i o n of musical-instrument geometry t h a n it is the f u n c t i o n of the
p l a n n i n g geometry of a p a i n t i n g .
This brings to m i n d a condition peculiar to the geometrical schemes of
musical instruments, namely, t h a t unlike almost every other artefact that
could conceivably be so planned, they have no true ' u p ' or ' d o w n ' , no
certain relationship w i t h gravity or the piane of the earth. W h e n w e
display instruments i n collections or i n books, the tendency is to give t h e m
the u p r i g h t , vertical axis of symmetry w h i c h we ourselves have (like the
drawings and fìgures given here), but i n use they are almost never seen i n
such a f o r m a i verticality, not even those instruments used i n the
' d o w n w a r d s ' gamba position.
 >

9 Conclusions

Thus far, our studies have introduced us to the mathematical outlook of

previous periods of our c u l t u r e , where we have encountered its perennial
preoccupation w i t h the Platonic n u m b e r cosmology. W e have examined
ancient methods of geometrizing, and modes of p r o p o r t i o n , w h i c h we
later observed, noted, and expounded f r o m the the designs of thirty-three
historic musical instruments. The resulting i n d i v i d u a i discussions were
t h e n collated and examined as a w h o l e , and certain observations,
i n t u i t i o n s , and such tentative conclusions as could safely be d r a w n , were
voiced. I n this w a y , the originai thesis, t h a t geometry and proportional
systems were used by the luthiers of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and
eighteenth centuries, has been established, b u t this answer to an i n i t i a l
enquiry n o w prompts t w o f u r t h e r inevitable questions: since i t is not
apparent to a casual observer t h a t geometry or n u m e r i c a l proportion have
been applied to stringed instruments, why t h e n did luthiers use such
systems i n t h e i r d e s i g n s , a n d , s e c o n d l y , why h a s no w r i t t e n r e f e r e n c e or
record of their proportional considerations ever come to light ?
Of course, i n the absence of historical d o c u m e n t a t i o n , neither question
can be given a conclusive answer ; instead, explanation w i l l have to be
given by r e a s o n and deduction, rather t h a n answer by scientific proof.
A reply to the first q u e s t i o n — w h y systems of proportion and geometry
were used by the early l u t h i e r — w i l l have to be compounded f r o m three
m a i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e practical, the aesthetic, a n d , f o r w a n t of m o r e
suitable t e r m i n o l o g y , the metaphysicaL
There are m a n y practical reasons for employing such a design process.
The stringed instruments we have been e x a m i n i n g , w i t h the acknow-
ledged exception of the more elaborately festooned models, are ali
practically definitive examples of the o l d , perhaps o v e r w o r k e d , design
aesthetic of ' f o r m following f u n c t i o n ' ; their economy of f o r m and parts,
and limitations of decoration, are ali ensured by the m a i n a c o u s t i c a l
consideration of lightness and freedom of v i b r a t i o n . Therefore, their
f u n c t i o n , and consequently m u c h of their beauty, depends not on
elaboration or decorative distraction, b u t o n a perfect, fully considered,
i n i t i a l conception of pure linear f o r m — a design method w h i c h demands
adherence to some very rigid prerequisites. The understanding of some of
these design factors, i n the pure abstract terms of geometry, can therefore
only be a n enormous practical asset to the luthier. Occasionally i n s t r u -
ments survive w h i c h were obviously made w i t h little or no understanding
of this knowledge, possibly as 'amateur' or at any rate as non conoscente
instruments. Some have found reprieve, either by accident of fate, for
their curiosity value, or for the possible reason that they m i g h t even have
sounded w e l l ! Just such an ill-formed example is g r u d g i n g l y granted an
appearance here i n Fig. 134.
It must also be a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of these g e o m e t r i c a l
and proportional principles lends assurance and a sense of conviction
to the designer i n t h a t most difficult area—decision-making. As Jay F I G . 134. Violin, nai've design
CONCLUSIONS

H a m b i d g e suggests i n t h e preface t o h i s Elements of Dynamic Symmetry,

Knowledge of a basic l a w gives a feeling of sureness w h i c h enables the artist

to p u t i n t o realization dreams w h i c h otherwise w o u l d have been dissipated i n
uncertainty.

Thus, geometry and p r o p o r t i o n , as principles of design, must have been

a n i n v a l u a b l e shorthand system to the early l u t h i e r . T h e k n o w n
interrelationship of parts of a design allows it to be adapted to different
pitch sizes of Constant p r o p o r t i o n — a characteristic of great importance to
the instruments of the Renaissance, where the m a n y differing pitch
members of an i n s t r u m e n t family required constancy of t i m b r e , as w e l l as
the more obvious visual u n i t y .
The aesthetic resources of geometry and n u m e r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n have
a l r e a d y b e e n a l l u d e d t o , a n d , i n d e e d , o b s e r v e d at w o r k i n m a n y o f the
analyses examined earlier. Their use i n a design archetype, by an adept,
produced a restrained simplicity, a 'rightness' of repose, w h i c h is usually
called beauty, a beauty b o r n of the u n i f y i n g limitations of order, selected
f r o m the infinite possibilities of mathematics. This restrictive process,
unlike the unfettered chaos of r a n d o m ' i n t u i t i v e ' design, had method, and
h a v i n g m e t h o d , was communicable at a certain level of understanding to
o t h e r p r a c t i t i o n e r s , t h u s establishing a design code w h i c h w o u l d g u a r a n -
tee a universal h a r m o n i c approach to shape a n d , i n t u r n , emphasize a
universal criterion i n beauty of f o r m .
Finally, i n a metaphysical sense, the use of geometry i n the f o r m u l a t i o n
of a musical-instrument design is the n a t u r a i development of a single idea,
and a single r o o t ; for b o t h music and geometry, t w o of the four Platonic
arts, are u n i t e d by number. I n embracing geometry and mathematical
proportion i n his creation, the l u t h i e r also embraced an ancient and
sacred t r a d i t i o n , a canon of measure, w h i c h i n a sense was a consecration
of both artist and w o r k . If for Blake 'Mathematical f o r m is eternai
existence', so, too, for the initiates of this canon, f o r m g e n e r a t e d f r o m
mathematics was likewise eternai perfection, a n d , as such, the o n l y
w o r t h y exemplar for the spiritual structure of an i n s t r u m e n t of music.

I do n o t , h o w e v e r , t h i n k the attempt to teli m a n k i n d of these matters a good

t h i n g , except in the case of some few w h o are capable of discovering the t r u t h for
themselves w i t h a little guidance. I n the case of the rest to do so w o u l d excite i n
some a n unjustified contempt i n a t h o r o u g h l y offensive fashion, i n others certain
lofty a n d v a i n hopes, as if they h a d acquired some awesome lore.

Plato's words (Letters, vii) give a beautifully distilled answer to our

r e m a i n i n g question, t h a t of w h y no w r i t t e n reference of the luthier's use of
this knowledge has ever appeared. For here we must be dealing w i t h a
conscious pact of secrecy—a secrecy w h i c h has almost always accom-
panied b o t h the study of mathematics and the pursuit of any specialized
art or craft.
This study has examined m a n y instruments, a sizeable p r o p o r t i o n of
w h i c h can be regarded as being near to their archetypes—that is, the
design originals w h i c h have emerged r e g u l a r l y , u p o n social o r m u s i c o -
logical demand, t h r o u g h o u t the three h u n d r e d years of musical history
covered by the chosen examples. A n d yet, despite this prolonged tradition
of design, no sketches or w o r k i n g constructions, w h i c h reveal the v i t a l
design processes, w o u l d appear to have survived. Even the Stradivari
archives i n Cremona, w h i c h house the master's r e m a i n i n g moulds and
 CONCLUSIONS 169

paper patterns, offer no direct clues. These patterns indicate a n interior

'rib p i a n ' outline, and not the final outline of edge, w h i c h has been proved
to be proportionally p l a n n e d ; neither c a n any outline are constructional
compass marks be f o u n d o n the ones I was able to examine closely. I can
therefore only conclude t h a t these are w o r k i n g patterns, one stage
removed f r o m the o r i g i n a i 'constructed' design o u t l i n e , w h i c h one
suspeets m a y have been destroyed once suitable templates had been made
f r o m the 'master' d r a w i n g . (For a fuller discussion of the Stradivari v i o l i n
moulds, see Appendix B, p. 172.)
One, I t h i n k , unique o r i g i n a i d r a w i n g w h i c h does survive, a l t h o u g h
f r o m a n earlier epoch, is, of course, the lute d r a w i n g by Henricus A r n a u l t
(discussed here as Ex. XX) w h i c h , as w e have already said, was of form
simple enough to be repeated by a list of w r i t t e n instructions ; neverthe-
less, nowhere i n his discourse does the chatty Henricus m e n t i o n the fact
that his design is enthroned w i t h i n a c o n t a i n i n g vesica piscis. Was this,
t h e n , so commonplace a figure t h a t it was n o t w o r t h y of m e n t i o n ? Was he
u n a w a r e of it? Or was i t simply n o t 'a good t h i n g ' t o m e n t i o n such
phenomena ?
A glance at Appendix A w i l l demonstrate not only the contemporary
preoccupation w i t h 'mathematical matters', b u t also the extent to w h i c h
painters, architects, and music theorists were w i l l i n g openly t o discuss
geometry and p r o p o r t i o n . Here is the basic d i c h o t o m y : for o n the one
h a n d we have a r t i c u l a t e , h u m a n i s t t h e o r i s t s and s c h o l a r s opening wide
their hearts and minds to this ancient number-cosmology, w h i l e o n the
other w e have a n equally ancient crafts t r a d i t i o n , whose secrets were
zealously guarded, communicated only w i t h the utmost trust and gravity
by master to pupil initiated to the same t r a d i t i o n , and thus b o u n d by its
conditions. W h i l e i n a practical sense Neoplatonic n u m b e r dilettantism
could be i n d u l g e d in—albeit superficially—by a w e a l t h y p a t r o n or
a m a t e u r of a r c h i t e c t u r e au courant w i t h the latest t r e a t i s e s , no such d e s i g n
dabbling was possible i n the secret arts of lutherie (even w h e n i t was
sufficiently respectable) a n d a n y u n i n i t i a t e d amateur activity w o u l d
n a t u r a l l y be restricted to the 'innocent' copying of profoundly considered
forms.
W h a t , t h e n , was the nature of the craft societies w h i c h were able to
reserve the secrets of t h i s t r a d i t i o n ? These w e r e t h e guilds o r , as they w e r e
sometimes, a n d here perhaps more aptly, k n o w n , the 'misteries'. The
guild system was a vital part of society, regulating every aspect of
business, m a i n t a i n i n g standards of excellence, protecting the livelihoods
of citizens, a n d c o n t r o l l i n g trade a n d i n d u s t r y . W i t h i n a complex
hierarchical structure of guilds of Arti Maggiori ( w h i c h , i n Renaissance
Florence, was led by VArte de Giudici e Notai—the Guild of Judges a n d
Notaries), Arti Mediane, a n d Arti Minori, m a n y of t h e artisans w o u l d
belong to a mercers' or merchants' g u i l d — o n the same principle that value
added tax is levied today, i n t h a t the craftsmen bought r a w material(s) and
sold a manufactured commodity. This explains w h y numerous researches
have failed to uncover evidence of a specifìc ' l u t h i e r s ' g u i l d ' . A t a more
prestigious time i n its history ( w h e n it was stili i n technological advance of
m a n y contemporary skills, a n d n o t yet regarded as a reproductive,
mechanical craft), the art of lutherie m i g h t w e l l have been incorporated i n
the guild of painters, as were the harpsichord-makers, Ruckers included,
of the L o w Countries, i n the famous Guild of St Luke (although i n such a
case there was also a practical reason of trade protection to consider,
Flemish harpsichords being finished and decorated by p a i n t w o r k ) .
C O N C L U S I O N S

We k n o w f r o m labels such as that of the early Stradivari violin of 1666

(Ex. XII) that a pupil or apprentice was r e g a r d e d as alumnus or 'foster-son'
of his maestro, i n whose house and at whose table he w o u l d probably live,
u n t i l he achieved his o w n capo maestro. A t such a time w h e n the
apprentice's skills were proven, and judged w o r t h y by both master and
g u i l d council, then w o u l d he be admitted into the g u i l d on payment of the
necessary fees, or tokens of w o r k . Most likely, it w o u l d be at this stage, his
sensibilities prepared, t h a t he w o u l d have been initiated, almost certainly
verbally, i n t o t h e g e o m e t r i c a l m y s t e r i e s of h i s a r t , and s w o r n t o a s e c r e c y ,
w h i c h after a l i , w o u l d be i n his o w n interests. Thus he became a n
independent master, able, if he had the innovative understanding of an
originai creator, to prepare his o w n patterns and designs according to the
sacred principles w h i c h had been entrusted to h i m , or if n o t , he simply
remained as the propagator of the models inherited f r o m his master. Either
way, the tradition b o t h regenerated and protected itself. Its great strength,
and p a r a d o x i c a l l y m u c h of its weakness, lay i n the conservatism of this
tacit process, w h i c h thus built up universal aesthetic standards, a n d , by
the apprentice's indoctrination and acceptance of its principles, condi-
tional to his o w n mastership and obligatory guild membership, quietly
and inexorably established a monopolism of design philosophy.
Here, t h e n , is the final mystery of the lost tradition of design, w h i c h I
have sought by this study to unveil. The decline of this t r a d i t i o n , as a
l i v i n g doctrine understood by its practitioners, inevitably accompanied
the dissolution of the social structure of the guilds, w h i c h had fostered and
maintained i t . Their fate or transformation d u r i n g the desolate struggles
of the industriai r e v o l u t i o n marked the end, as we have seen, not
just of five or six centuries of guild patriarchy, b u t of a spiritual philosophy
of w o r k w h i c h h a d linked and harnessed the nobler thoughts of
generations of creative minds.
Thanks to the enlightened genius of a few individuai artists, however,
these forms do survive i n r e m a i n i n g instruments as the inspiration and
model of later generations of copyists. But no matter h o w illustrious the
talents of its present-day practitioners, the art of lutherie w i l l never again
achieve the same grace of enlightenment, of genuine creativity, unless it
can r e t u r n to its true centre, an understanding of the lost principles that
nourished the genius we n o w mindlessly, or rather, soullessly, seek to
replicate.

Geometry . . . tends to d r a w the soul to t r u t h ,

a n d be productive of a philosophical
attitude of m i n d , directing u p -
w a r d the faculties t h a t n o w
w r o n g l y are t u r n e d
earthward."
Appendix A Some early sources of geometrical and
proportional information

G E N E R A L W O R K S DANIELE BARBARO
M . Vitruvii Pollionis de architectura libri decem, Latin edition,
FRA LUCA PACIOLI Venice 1567
de Divina Proportione, Venice 1509 Italian edition, Venice 1556
Summa de Aritmetica, Geometria, Proportioni e Proportionalità
Euclid, vernacular edition, 1494 (lost)
Latin edition, 1509
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
FRANCESCO G I O R G I
de Harmonia Mundi, Venice 1525 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI
della Pittura [1435]
GlANGIORGIO T R I S S I N O
PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA
Vltalia liberata dai Goti, 1 547
de Prospettiva Pingendi [1470-90]
SILVIO BELLI
POMPONIUS GAURICUS
Della Proportione, et Proportionalità, 1573
Quattro libri geometrici, Venice 1 595 de Sculptura [1503]
PETRUS B U N G U S ALBRECHT DÙRER
Numerorum Mysteria, 1585 Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zyrkel und Rychtscheyd
JOHANNES KEPLER [1525]
Mysterium Cosmographicum, 1596 Vier Buecher von Menschlicher Proportion, Nuremberg 1528
Harmonia Mundi, 1619 Latin edition, Nuremberg 1528
French edition, Paris 1557
Italian edition, Venice 1591
A R C H I T E C T U R E
Portuguese edition, 1599
LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI Dutch edition, A r n h e i m 1622
de re aediflcatoha [c.1450], 1485, 1550 G I O V A N N I PAOLO LOMAZZO
Trattato dell'Arte della Pittura, Scultura, ed Architettura [1584]
ANTONIO FILARETE
Idea de Tempio della Pittura [1 590]
Trattato di architettura [e. 1462]

FRANCESCO D I G I O R G I O M A R T I N I
Trattato di architettura civile e militare [after 1482]
M U S I C
PIETRO CATANEO
A N I C I U S M A N L I U S SEVERINUS BOETHIUS ( C A D 475-524)
I quattro primi libri di architettura, Venice 1554
de Musica, Venice 1492
GIACOMO BAROZZI D A VIGNOLA
FRANCHINO GAFURIO
Regole delle cinque ordini, 1 562
Theorica Musice, 1492
P H I L I B E R T DE L ' O R M E Practica Musicae, 1496
Le premier tome de Varchitecture, 1567 Angelicum ac Divinum Opus Musice, 1508
de Harmonia Musicorum Instrumentum, 1518
ANDREA PALLADIO
SEBASTIAN VIRDUNG
Quattro libri dell'architettura, Venice 1570
Musica Getuscht, Basle 1511
M A R T I N O BASSI
M A R T I N AGRICOLA
Dispareri in materia d'architettura, et perspettiva, Brescia 1572
Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch, W i t t e m b e r g 1528
SEBASTIANO MONTECCHIO
De Inventario haeredis, Venice 1574 GlOSEFEO Z A R L I N O
Istitutioni Harmoniche, 1558
VINCENZO SCAMOZZI
Sopplimenti Musicali, Venice 1558
Idea delVarchitettura universale, 1615
Dimostrationi Harmoniche, 1571
M I C H A E L PRAETORIUS
E D I T I O N S OF V I T R U V I U S
Syntagma Musicum, 1619
CESARE C E S A R I A N O
M A R I N MERSENNE
de architectura libri decem, Como 1521 Harmonie Universelle, 1636
Appendix B The violin moulds of Antonio Stradivari
w i t h reference t o E x x . X I I a n d X I I I

The painstaking care taken by Stradivari i n filing and annotating

the hundreds of patterns in paper and wood which were amassed et
during a lifetime of ceaseless experimentation, together with the
reputation that his achievements brought h i m , ensured that
much of his workshop material has survived. Unfortunately, i n
passing through the practical hands of later luthiers, it has in part
meant a working survival, and consequently some of the usable
originai moulds and patterns, for example those of the violon-
cellos, have been separated from the collection and since lost. The
remaining body of material, which constitutes a unique record of
a master luthier's workshop-practice, has now been catalogued,
and is preserved in the Museo Civico i n Cremona.
Among the instrument examples dealt with here are two violins
by Stradivari (Ex. X I I and Ex. XIII) and a mandoline (Ex. XXVII)
attributed to him, and whose authorship was further confìrmed by
its correspondence to a paper pattern (no. 4 2 0 ) in the archive.
Matching the violin outlines to their generating moulds was less
straightforward, there being eleven surviving full-size violin
moulds in the collection.
These moulds, or forms, which ali appear to be made of
walnut-wood, are the internai structures on which the instru-
ment, here the violin, was assembled. Being an internai form, its
outline accordingly corresponds to the inside of the ribs, that is to
say about 3 or 4 m m inboard of the final outline which we see i n
the completed instrument. Fig. 1 3 5 , a line drawing of a violin FIG. 1 3 5 cr
mould, shows this outline. The six breaks in the otherwise familiar
form, one at the top, a, one at the bottom, b, and four, c, d, e,f, mould where the main curves of the ribs change direction into the
where the corners should be, are the gaps where blocks of wood counter-curves of the corners, these corners coming to the points
forming the top, bottom, and four corner-blocks, which serve, as it of the mould-plan corners at their intersection with the two inner
were, as foundation work for the subsequent construction, would inscribed lines produced. These sets of parallel lines did not appear
be located. These blocks would be temporarily glued in position to have any consistent relationship to the geometry of the outline,
and their outer, rib-butting, surfaces shaped to complete the or between themselves. It has been thought that the distances
outline following six small prepared patterns (indicated here by between the two pairs of lines gave the radii of the small arcs of the
the dotted lines). The ten holes drilled through the mould are used corners. This I did not find to be consistently so in either the violin
in the gluing of the shaped ribs to the blocks providing, with a moulds or the patterns for the larger instruments. It would also be
suitable dowel, binding string, and outer-shaped mould, a means difficult to understand w h y , if this were the case, this information
of exerting pressure between the rib and the block under adhesion. should be carried forward on to the mould when the curves for the
There are a number of markings to be found on the moulds. cutting of the blocks are most conveniently obtained from the
They are ali inscribed w i t h an identifying letter or letters doubling small patterns mentioned above, and made by Stradivari for use
as descriptive shorthand, for example 'SL' is secunda lunga, 'PG' is with the form. The mould, it should be remembered, is after ali a
prima grande, 'B' buona, etc, and some also bear a written date. On tool, a practical device for constructing the instrument, itself at
the centrai inscribed axial line there customarily appear also the least a generation's remove from the geometrical construction, on
marks, made w i t h dividers, which by their opening give two paper, of the outline design.
measurements—the heights to which top and bottom blocks are The inner, mould outline, and the outer, seen, edge-line, are of
to be made, the difference in height (usually 2 mm) between these course concentric, the arcs sharing the same centres, but the radii
blocks giving the scarcely noticeable taper to the rib-height line. of the inner outline being, in the case of the convex-curve arcs,
The remaining markings are the two pairs of horizontal parallel reduced, whilst the radii of the concave-curve arcs, conversely,
lines, indicated in Fig. 1 3 5 between ed and ef. These are something are increased in length. The one instance of deviation from this
of a mystery. They may be drawn i n this way merely to ensure the rule of concentricity between mould- and edge-outline in Stradi-
precise and symmetrical cutting i n the mould of the rib-block vari's work with violins occurs i n the small-radius curves of the
locating niches, for they coincide w i t h their upper and lower upper corner of the middle bouts where, particularly in the later
extremities. They then also become the simplest means of locating patterns, there is a tendency of the rib outline to 'crease' inwards
the small corner patterns during use. The two outer lines, the and not to flow through the component arcs with the same single
extreme upper and extreme lower of the four, indicate the outer line of curve that is given the overall edge outline.
ends of the corner-blocks and also coincide with the point on the Nevertheless, i n studying the mould outlines, it was hoped that,
 APPENDIX B 173

thus effectively offered a new set of parameters within the same

scheme, some further information might emerge regarding either
the proportional scheme or the geometrical construction pro-
cedure. Lengthy analysing and cross-referencing of the many
mould outlines, however, failed to reveal a convincing construc-
tion procedure, that is, one which could proceed from a point. I n
fact, given the Constant variation in dimensions between parts
and the subtle changes i n proportions throughout the patterns
examined, it is seemingly impossible even to imagine a system
which could at once offer the necessary flexibility and yet retain
the structural integrity of a guiding principle. Moreover, by the
time Stradivari carne to work his particular miracles of sophistica-
tion, the form of the violin—its broad layout, so to speak—had
long been established and, indeed, had long travelled the path of
evolution from its design archetype, a route undoubtedly originally
charted by constructive proportional thought, but one increas-
ingly guided by a more expressive, intuitive impulse.
The attempt to match the outlines of the two Stradivari violins,
the 1666 (Ex. XII) and the 'Emiliani' of 1703 (Ex. XIII), w i t h their
design patterns was an interesting piece of historical detection-
work. The earlier instrument presented little difficulty, the mould
o u t l i n e a n d edge-line fitting together as s n u g l y as t h e successive
layers of a Russian doli. The mould i n question was that marked by
the maker w i t h the letters 'MB'—modello buono—and, not surpris-
ingly, is thought to be the earliest of the surviving moulds.
The relationship between mould- and edge-outline, and their
'shared' geometry, can be seen here in Fig. 136, a d r a w i n g of t h e the four points of intersection produced by the horizontal mould
'MB' form and the analysis of the 1666 instrument combined. No lines w i t h the vertical line of axis. It must be stressed that the
signifìcant addition to the geometrical scheme was uncovered by above relationships, ali of minor significance, arose from the 'MB'
the cross-referencing, but, apart from the expected schematic mould alone, and did not apply to the other violin moulds
resonances, one or t w o n e w facts did emerge. One s u c h w a s t h a t examined.
the circle, centre C (the centre of the model, BC = CD), which The search for the mould of the 'Emiliani' was less rewarding,
intersects the four counter-curve are centres (a, a\ b, and b'), was the outline failing to correspond entirely to any one mould. The
of radius measured 115.5 m m , that is, one-third mould length mh. three major divisions of upper, middle, and lower bouts found
This radius was in turn approximately five times the length of the resonances i n various patterns, including those marked PB' and
C

radii of the mould-outline counter-curve arcs. Another circle, also 'S' (of 1703), but were not consistent with one alone. It is
centred at C, but of diameter 114 m m (115.5 m m ?), that is, radius therefore to be deduced that the 'Emiliani's' mother-mould has
57 m m , touches the outline curve of the middle bouts and two of regrettably since been lost.
Appendix C Body-outline chart of summary for
development of four Cremonese violins

The following is a chart, for direct cross-reference, giving the comparative values of the
component-arc radii of the violins' body outlines, together w i t h an indication of their
proportional status. A complete analysis of the individuai body- and head-schemes,
with a proportional exposition, is, of course, included in the relevant sections of the text.
The diagram, Fig. 137, indicates the constituent arcs common to the four examples,
which are then listed in the extreme left-hand vertical column of the chart. The amounts
are given i n m i l l i m e t r e values, followed by a schematic q u a l i f i c a t i o n or interpretation
expressed t h u s :

( ) primary scheme
[ ] secondary or tertiary scheme
— no proportional significance.

Radius Andrea A m a t i Nicola A m a t i A n t o n i o Stradivari A n t o n i o Stradivari

of are 1564 c.1670 1666 1703
small model

BG 171.5 (0 )6 135.5 (00 136 (00 135.5 (0i)

GM 65.5 (0 )4
68 (Ì0O 68 (Ì0O 68 (i0i)(C
MN 79 — 84 (0) 83.5 (-0(84)) 83.5 (0)
NS 21 — 30 [ l ì Br. i n . ] 18 fife in.] 17 (C)

sx 9.5 (0) 12 ft.Br. i n . ] 10 — 10 —

XY 25 (* ) 2 30 [ l i Br. i n . ] 24 [1 Br. i n . ] 24 %
—
YZ 70.7 [ C ] 68 (Ì0i) 92.5 — 85 (C)
ZT 15.4 ( 0 0 18 fi Br. i n . ] 18 g B r . in.] 17 (C)

TR 29 — 18 fi Br. i n . ] 18 [ j B r . in.] 17 (C)

RP ì 7H 7 r r-1 104 — 103.5 — 102(.25) ( C )
PH J 70.7 LCJ 71.5 [3 Br. i n . ] [ C ] 71.5 [3 Br. i n . ] [ C ] 71 [CI
HD 171.5 (fc) 219.5 ( 0 ) 2 220 (0 ) 2 219.
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Index

Ciciliano, Battista, 39, 40, 4 1 , 44, 107, Golden Section (0), 16, 17, 26, 35, 4 1 ,
Academy, 7
112,158,162 45, 46, 67, 68, 7 1 , 73, 76, 80, 87, 96,
Al Kindi, 12, 13
Cocho, Christopho, 147, 150, 154, 155, 98, 110, 112, 118, 158, 162, 174
Alard, 141
158, 162 Goldt, Jacobus Henricus, 122, 158, 162
Alard violin, 73
Alberti, 14 colascione, 27 Greek Lyre, 141
Alexander, 9 Conservatoire de Musique, Paris, 128, Grosset, Paul Francois, 52
1 4 1 , 142, 150, 158, 162 Guersan, Louis, 52ff, 87, 9 1 , 158, 162
A l e x a n d r i a ( U n i v e r s i t y o f ) , 7, 9, 10
Conservatoire Royal de Musique, Brus- Gwilt, Joseph, 2 1
alla gobba, 3 1 , 107
Alletsee,Paulus, 17,9 5 fi, 1 5 8 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 sels, 3 1 , 39, 62, 100, 114, 158, 162
Amati, Andrea, 66 ff, 7 1 , 72, 73, 76, 83, Copernicus, 8, 14 Hajdecki, Major, 55
158, 162, 174 Cremona, 7 1 , 75, 79, 100, 132, 168, Halfpenny, Eric, 110
Amati, Hieronymous and Antonius, 71 172 Hambidge, Jay, 18, 144, 168
Amati, Nicola, 66, 71 ff, 75, 76, 77, 158, Cremonese inch, 77, 84 Hamburg, 48, 122, 144, 158, 162
Cremonese School, 37, 65, 66, 7 1 , 75, Hamburger Citrinchen, 141
162, 174
Andrea, Giovanni d ' , 55 80, 82, 83, 153, 174 Hardanger fiddle, 90
a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m , 164 (see also p. 75 Cupid, 90, 103 harp, 27
n. 49) Cuypers, Johann Theodorus, 8 7 Hayes, Gerald, 3 1
Apollo, 62 Hellwig, Giinther, 48
Archimedes, 9, 10 Herodotus, 5
Danks, Harry, 95
A r i s t o t l e , 5, 12 Hieber, Giovanni, 1 0 7 , 1 1 4 f f , 1 1 9 , 1 5 8 ,
del Gesù (Guarnerius), 82
Arnault, Henricus, 107fT, 110, 1 1 1 , 162
diaposon, 5, 4 1 Hipkins, A. J. and Gibb, W., 141
112, 115, 119, 138, 158, 162, 166,
Diaz, Belchior, 147, 1 4 8 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 5 , 158, Hoffmann, 122
169
162 hurdy-gurdy, 27, 52
Ashmolean Museum, 35, 55, 56, 59,
Donaldson Collection (R.C.M.), 52, 55, Huygens, Constantin, 106
66, 67, 1 4 1 , 142, 158, 162
100, 144, 158, 162
Athelhard of Bath, 12
Dòrfler, Josef, 147 Ionie, 2 1 , 26, 32, 37, 42, 60, 69, 73,
Augustus, 10
double-bass, 27 77, 80, 130, 158, 162
Baines, Anthony, 48, 55, 59 Diirer, Albrecht, 14, 19
Barbaro, Daniele, 1 1 , 13 Jauck, 1 2 2
baryton, 27, 90 Eisel, 90 Jaye, Henry, 2 1 , 4 4 ff, 52, 5 3 , 6 7 , 8 7 , 9 1 ,
battente, 136, 154 Emiliani violin, 66, 79, 132, 158, 162, 1 0 1 , 1 5 8 , 162
Beauty, 1 , 1 5 173 Johnson, Samuel, 106
Betts violin, 79 English Violet, 17, 9 1 , 95, 158, 162,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 107, 158, 163 Kepler, J., 14, 17
162 Euclid, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14 Khowarizmi, al, 12
Bisiach, Leandro, 35 Eudoxus of Cnidus, 9 Kinsky, G., 95
Blake, W., 168 Evelyn, John, 110 Kithara, 141
Bohemia, 9 1 , 158, 162 Kline, Morris, 4
Bologna, 106, 110, 118, 158, 162
Fibonacci, 16, 17, 18
Bonanni, Filippo, 90 Lambda, 8
fiedel, 3 1 , 35
Borbon, Gaspar, 100 ff, 158, 162 Leeuwen Boomkamp, Carel van (Collec-
Boyden, David, 35, 55, 59, 60 Fludd, Robert, 6, 7
Frei, Hans, 107, H O f f , 114, 115, 118, tion), 87, 95, 158, 162
Brescia, 3 1 , 35, 55, 62, 63, 82, 141 Leonardo, 8 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 2 4 , 5 5 , 1 6 4
119, 122, 158, 162
Brescian School, 2 1 , 67, 148 Longo, Mango, 147, 153ff, 158, 162
Brunswick inch, 22, 39 ff, 42, 7 1 , 72, 73,
76, 79, 92, 98 Gafurio, Franchino, 5, 6 Mace, Thomas, 44, 65, 110
Buechenberg, Matteo, 107, 118 ff, 125, Galileo, 14 Maggini, Paolo, 2 1 , 56, 67, 82 ff, 148,
128,139,158,159,162 Ganassi, Silvestro, 39, 40 158, 162
Burwell, Mary, 110 Gasparo da Salò, 59 ff, 63, 82, 148, 158, Majer, Joseph, 90
162 Maler, Lucas, 106
Caesar, 10 Gaultier, Jacques, 106 mandala, 19
Castello Sforzesco, 35, 147, 158, 162 Gemeentemuseum (The Hague), 87, 95, mandolino, 127
Cawse, John, 48 158, 162 Mandolino Coristo, 132
Celoniati, Gian Francesco, 103 Genova, Battista, 103 ff, 158, 162 mandolas, 136
Chanot, F., 66 Gherard of Cremona, 13
Charles IX, 66, 67 mandolones, 136
Ghiberti, 13 Maria, Giovanni, 35 ff, 4 2 , 44, 4 5 , 5 2 ,
Chartres, 13 Guilds, 169, 170 55ff, 67, 82, 83, 1 0 1 , 158, 162
chitarra battente, 136, 147, 153 Giorgio, Francesco d i , 10, 12 Mattheson, 90
chitarroni, 118 gnomon, 144 Medici, Catherine de, 66
178 INDEX

Mersenne, Marin, 65, 127 Raphael, 62 Vasari, Giorgio, 55

Micheli, John, 19 Rauche, Michael, 122, 125, 158, 162 Venice, 1 , 14, 35, 3 9 , 4 0 , 55, 114, 118,
'misteries' (see guilds) rebec, 100 128, 150, 158, 162
Mozart, Leopold, 95 reciprocai, 144 'Venetian head', 37
Muses, 3, 16 Ribayaz, Lucas Ruiz de, 164 Venus Aphrodite, 90, 164
'music of the spheres', 6 Roman theorbo, 118 Vesica Piscis, 18, 19, 36, 4 1 , 60, 63, 68,
Ruckers, 169 83, 84, 93, 96, 1 0 1 , 109, 1 1 1 , 112,
Neoplatonist, 1 4 1 , 169 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 124,
Norman, Barak, 86 ff, 158, 162 125, 139, 144, 145, 148, 149, 150,
North, Roger, 65 Sacconi, Simone, 132 1 5 1 , 154, 155, 158, 159, 160, 1 6 1 ,
Sanctus Seraphim, 21 162, 163, 169
orpharion, 27 Savart, F., 66 Victoria and Albert Museum, 44, 48,
Orpheus, 1 , 48, 153 Schelle, S., 122 118, 122, 158, 162
Sconvel(t), Nicholas, 106, 110 vihuela, 27, 147, 148, 165
Pacioli, Fra, 16, 17, 164 scordatura, 90 Vinaccia, Antonio, 137
Padua, 118 Sesostris, 5 Vinaccia family, 127, 136
Palladio, Andrea, 1 , 15 sesquialtera, 5, 40 Vinaccia, Johannes, 136ff, 158, 162,
'pearl-mould', 110 sesquioctava, 40 163
cf> (phi), see 'Golden Section' sesquitertia, 5, 40, 41 violetta, 95
Philolaos, 6 Settala, Manfredo, 31 violino piccolo, 65
phyllotaxis, 18 Sforza, Ludovico, 55 violoncello piccolo, 65
77, 9, 16 Simpson, Christopher, 40 violoncino, 86
Piero della Francesca, 17 sordine, 100 violone, 27
Pierray, Claude, 52 Stainer, C , 44, 86 Virchis, Girolamo d i , 141
Pirkheimer, Wilibald, 14 Staufer, ]., 66 Vitruvius, 1 , 10, 1 1 , 2 1 , 164
Plato, 4, 7, 8, 9, 16, 164, 168, 170 Stradivarius, Antonio, 6 6 , 7 5 f f , 79 ff, 86, Voigt, Martin, 48
Praetorius, Michael, 106, 118, 141 100, 132 ff, 1 4 1 , 158, 162, 168, 169, Vuillaume, Jean Baptiste, 141
Proclus, 8 170, 172, 173, 174 Warwick County Museum, 110, 158,
Protagoras, 164 162
Ptolemy I , 9 Wittkower, Rudolf, 2, 13, 14, 17
Tieffenbrucker, Gaspar, 55
Pythagoras, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 15, 39 Tielke, Joachim, 48 ff, 52, 9 1 , 103, 142, Zanetto, Pelegrino d i , 31ff, 36, 37, 44,
144ff, 1 5 8 , 1 6 2 80,158,162
quadrivium, 4