> Index 3. ae ao Experiments Description oss | Experiment Remarks / 1 | To study the basic of vehicle frame and | CO! i o different components used in the automotive system 2 |To study the constructional details, | COV g . working principles and operation of the of the front and rear wheel drive Lines and differentials 3 |To study the constructional details, | CO? i ie working principles, and operation of the automotive transmission systems 4 |To study the constructional details, | C03 wo jis working principles, and operation of the automotive Clutches. S| To study the- constructional details, | CO4 1 \24 working principles and operation of the automotive steering systems and find the correct steering angle 6 |To study the constructional details, | COS 25 | 28 working principles, and operation of the automotive tyres & wheels. 7 |To study the constructional details, | C06 2» \a working principles and operation of the automotive suspension systems 8 | To study the constructional details, | CO6 32 | 36 working principles and operation of the automotive brake systemsf Beyond Curriculum s. No. Experiments Description CO's | Experiment |P88¢No. | Remarks / date [From | To} Signature 1 | To study and prepare report on the ary a constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive emi pollution control systems. To study the Latest technology in a 46 transmission systems including hybrid vehicles.EXPERIMENT NO: 1 ‘TO STUDY THE BASIC OF VEHICLE FRAME AND DIFFERENT COMPONENTS USED IN ‘THE AUTOMOTIVE SYSTEM ee SOO 1.1 Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions —_— OBJECTIVE: To study the basic of vehicle frame and different components used in the 4d automotive system. 1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: A working or non-working model of Layout of an Automobile, 1.3 THEORY: Components of an Automobile 1.3.1 Basic Structure: This is the unit on which are to be built the remainder of the units to turn it in to a power operated vehicle. It consists of frame, suspension system, axles, wheels and tyres. Frame:~ There are two distinct forms of construction ‘* The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the mechanical units are attached and on which the body is superimposed. The integral or frameless construction, in which the body structure is so designed as to combine the functions of body and frame, the units normally attached to the frame being attached directly is possible only in case of a closed car, since the roof, screen to the body. Frameless construct pillars, door pillars and rear panel are essential load taking parts of structure Suspension System:- Functions of suspension systems are To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components. To safeguard tire occupants from road shocks To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion Axles:- The weight carrying portions of the axles, whether it may be front or rear, may be considered as beam supported at the ends , loaded at two intermediate points and subjected to following loads, To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components. : To safeguard tire occupants from road shocks. To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion Wheels: ~ Wire spoke wheels have been used mainly on sports cars, primarily on account of their light weight and quickness in changing the wheel, however the pressed steel wheel has displaced these all ordinary purpose. Such a wheel consists of a central flanged disc pressed in to a rolled 1[Pagesection rim retained in position by welding. Light alloy wheels are currently used in case of luxury and sport cars. 1,3.2 Power Plant:- The Power plant provides the motive power for all the various functions which the vehicle or any part of it, may be called upon to perform. The power plant generally consists of an femal combustion engine which maybe either of spark-ignition, or of compression ignition type. 1.3.3. Transmission System:- Functions of transmission system are * To disconnect the engine from the road wheels when desired * To connect the engine to driving wheels without shock. * To reduce the speed permanently in a fixed ratio, * To tum drive through a right angle * To make a provision such that the driving wheels may rotate at different speeds while taking tums. Clutch:-Its purpose is to enable the driver to disconnect the drive from the road wheels instantaneously and to engage drive from the engine to the road wheels gradually white moving the vehicle from rest, Gear Box (Transmission):- The gear box or transmission provides the necessary leverage variation between the engine and road wheels, Bevel pinion and crown wheel:- They tum the drive through 90°and also provide @ permanent itated because of the fact that speed of reduction in speed .The permanent reduction is nece engine has to be maintained at optimum level at all times, yet a minimum value of torque has to be made available at the road wheels. Universal joint:—They provide for the relative movement between the engine and the driving wheels due to flexing of road springs. Differential:- While taking tums, the driving wheel is must run at different speeds. This is done with the help of differential. Instead of using the long propeller shafts and transmitting the power from engine to the rear axle, a number of alternative methods have been used 1.3.4. Main Parts of ILC Engine Cylinder Head:- A cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder. It holds the inlet, outlet ports, valves, and ignition system at suitable positions according to the type of engine. It forms the combustion chamber. Piston and Piston Rings:- The function of the piston is to compress the charge during the compression stroke and transmit the gas force to the crank through the connecting rod during the Power stroke. It is usually made of aluminum alloy, the piston rings are housed in the 2)Pagecircumferential grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston. It gives gas-tight fitting between the piston and cylinder and prevents the leakage of high-pressure gases Connecting Rod: Its function is to transmit the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the crank. It connects the piston to the crankshaft with bearings. Crankshaft:- The piston is connected through a gudgeon pin and a connecting rod to the crankshaft which forms a crank pair to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary ‘motion at the output shaft of the crank. The flywheel is keyed to this shaft. It connects the small end of the connecting rod to the piston. It is also known as a Piston Pin: gudgeon pin. Crankease:-It holds the crankshaft and the cylinder block can be bolted to it. It forms a lower cover to the engine. It serves as a sump for lubricating oil used for lubricating the engine parts, Flywheel:-It is mounted on the crank shall which stores excess energy during the power uring the other strokes and maintains a fairly constant output torque on stroke returns that ene! the crankshaft Carburetor and spark plug: Used in petrol engines Fuel pump and Nozzle: Used in Diesel engines excne EAA Box omen aero owrot Propeuen 1 ‘Suet = } td = | . PerRon wiSens opgoen “Tat Figure: 1.1 Layout of an Automobile 31Page=a ele ee ‘cranikpin Figure: 1.2 Components of LLC. Engine 1.4 RESULT & DISCUSSION: Hence the study of the basic of vehicle frame and system is done successfully. ferent components used in the automotive 1.5 VIVA QUESTIONS: QI. What are the main components of an automobile? Describe all of them briefly Q2. What is the necessity for cooling an engine? Q3. What is the function of hook’s joint? Q4. What is the function of fuel injector? QS. What air fuel ratio gives best fuel econom; Q6. How is the drive from propeller shaft tumed at right angles 4|PageEXPERIMENT NO: 2 TO STUDY THE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS, WORKING PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF THE FRONT AND REAR WHEEL DRIVE LINES AND DIFFERENTIALS, (ad 141 Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions eo EE 11 OBJECTIVE: To study the constructional details, working principles and operation of the of the front and rear wheel drive Lines and differentials. 1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED : Models of (a) Rear Wheel Drive Line. (b) Front-Wheel Drive Line (c) Differentials, Drive Axles, and Four Wheel Drive Line. 13 THEORY: 1.3.1 Rear Wheel Drive Line: vehicle and the driven wheels are located at the rear, a configuration known as front-engine, rear- wheel driveline. The vast majority of rear-wheel-drive vehicles use a longitudinally-mounted engine in the front of the vehicle, driving the rear wheels via a driveshaft linked via a differential between the rear axles. Some FRL (front-engine rear-wheel-driveline) vehicles place the gearbox at the rear, though most attach it to the engine at the front. Some of the advantages of FRL are even better handling in dry ~ Rear-wheel drive (RWD) typically places the engine in the front of the weight distribution, weight transfer during acceleration, steering radiu conditions. better braking. towing, serviceability and robustness, RWD @ Engine © Transmission © Torque Converter O Finat Drive © driveshatt Figure 2.1: Rear Wheel Drive Line S|Page1.3.2 Front Wheel Drive - Front-whcel-drive lines are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven. The most popular lines used in cars today are the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. This line is typically chosen for its compact packaging; Since the engine and driven wheels are on the same side of the vehicle, there is no need for the passenger compartment to accommodate a prop-shaft between the engine and the driven wheels. As the steered wheels are also the driven wheels, FFL (front-engine, ine, rear Wheel- front-wheel-drive line) cars are generally considered superior to FRL. (front-enj drive line) ears in conditions such as snow, mud, or wet tarmac. Some of the advantages are inferior space, cost, improved drive train efficiency, placing the mass of the drive train over the driven wheels moves the centre of gravity farther forward than a comparable rear-wheel-drive layout, improving traction and directional stability on wet, snowy, or icy surfaces. FWD © Engine O Transaxle © Torque Converter Q Final Drive Figure 2.2: Front Wheel Drive Line ne:- In four-wheel-drive line vehicles, -3 Differentials Drive Axles and Four Wheel Drive L differentials are fitted to both front and rear axle assemblies. When a two-wheel-drive range is selected, the drive is transferred through the rear final drive and the differential gears to the rear axle shafts and road wheels. The differential gears allow the rear wheels to rotate at different speeds when the vehicle is turning while continuing to transmit an equal turning effort to each wheel. When a four-wheel drive is engaged, the drive is transmitted through both front and rear axle assemblies, and differential action occurs in both. However, in a tum, side-swiveling of the front wheels for steering makes the front wheels travel a greater distance than the rear wheels. Thi causes a difference in the rotational speeds of the front and rear wheels. Since there is also a difference between inner and outer wheels, each axle shaft now tums at a different speed Differences in speed can also arise from differences in tread wear between front and reat, or in tire inflation pressures. Since the front and rear propeller shafts are locked together at the transfer case, the difference in speed cannot be absorbed in the transmission, and the transmission drive line can be subjected to torsion stress. Bldanpinion small gear rotating cage ‘small gear outer half shaft 5 5 propeller shaft Figure 2.3: Differentials Drive Axles large gear Figure 2.4: Four Wheel Drive Line1.4 RESULT & DISCUSSION: Hence the study of the constructional details, working principles and 0 wheel drive Lines and differentials is done successfully. peration of the front and rear 1.5 VIVA QUESTIONS: QI. What advantages are there in case of front wheel drive? Q2. What is transfer box? Q3. What is the main advantage of for wheel drive vehicle? Q4. How is the length of Propeller shaft varied automatically? Q5. Explain the functioning of differential. Q6. How is the drive from propeller shaft tumed at right angles? BI PageEXPERIMENT NO: 3 TO STUDY THE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS, WORKING PRINCIPLES, AND OPERATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 11 Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions a 11 OBJECTIVE: To study the constructional details, working principles, and operation of the automotive transmission system 1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: Models of (a) Synchromesh ~ Four-speed Range (b) Four Wheel Drive and Transfer Case 13 THEORY: The most common transmission systems that have been used for the automotive industry are manual transmission, automatic transmission (transaxle), semi-automatic transmission, and continuously variable transmission (CVT). The first transmission invented was the manual transmission system. The driver needs to disengage the clutch to disconnect the power from the engine first, select the target gear, and engage the clutch again to perform the gear change. An automatic transmission uses a fluid coupling torque converter to replace the clutch to avoid engaging disengaging clutch during a gear change. A completed gear set, called planetary gears, is used to perform gear ratio change instead of selecting gear manually. An automobile or automotive transmission system consists of various devices that help in transmitting power from the engine through the drive shaft to the live axle of an automobile. Gears, brakes, clutch, fluid drive and other auto transmission parts work together for transforming the speed ratio between the engine and wheels of a vehicle. Types of Gearboxes: Sliding Mesh Gearbox Constant Mesh Gear Box Synchromesh Gear Box Epicycle Gear Box 13.1 Synchromesh —Four Speed Range Most modem manual-transmission vehicles are fitted with synchronized gear box o synchromesh. Transmission gears are always in mesh and rotating, but gears on one shaft can fieely rotate or be locked to the shaft. The locking mechanism for a gear consists of a collar (or dog collar) on the shaft which is able to slide sideways so that teeth (or dogs) on its inner surface bridge two circular ‘ines with teeth on their outer circumference: one attached to the gear, one to the shaft. When the Tings are bridged by the collar, that particular gear is rotationally locked to the shaft and determines {he output speed of the transmission. The gearshift lever manipulates the collars using a set of 9] Pagelinkages, so arranged so that one collar may be permitted to lock only one gear at any one time; when “shifting gears’, the locking collar from one gear is disengaged before that of another is engaged. One collar often serves for two gears; sliding in one direction selects one transmission speed, in the other direction selects another. In a synchromesh gearbox, to correctly match the speed of the gear to that of the shaft as the gear is engaged the collar initially applies a force to a cone-shaped brass clutch attached to the gear, which brings the speeds to match prior to the collar locking into place. The collar is prevented from bridging the locking rings when the speeds are mismatched by synchro rings. The synchro ring rotates slightly due to the frictional torque from the cone clutch. In this position, the dog clutch is prevented from engaging. The brass clutch ring, ‘gradually causes parts to spin at the same speed. When they do spin the same speed, there is no more (orque from the cone clutch and the dog clutch is allowed to fall in to engagement. With Continuing sophistication of mechanical development, fully synchromesh transmissions with three speeds, then four, and then five, became universal Figure 3.1 Speed Gearbox 1.3.2 Synchromesh gearbox na synchromesh gearbox, to correctly match the speed of the gear to that ofthe shaft as the gear is engaged the collar initially applies a force to a cone-shaped brass clutch attached to the gear, which brings the speeds to match prior to the collar locking into place. The collar is prevented from bridging the locking rings when the speeds are mismatched by synchro rings. The synchro ring ‘otates slightly due (othe frictional torque from the cone clutch. In this position, the dog clutch is Prevented from engaging, The brass clutch ring gradually causes parts to spin at the same speed When they do spin at the same speed, there is no more torque from the cone clutch and the dog clutch is allowed to fall into an engagement. With continuing sophis ication of mechanical 10| Pagefive, became development, fully synchromesh transmissions with three speeds, then four, and then universal. Shift Rail ¥ Synchronizer Shift Fork Blocking Ring Gear Dog Teeth YY | Output Shaft Input Shaft * Front Bearin: ront Bearing Counter Shaft Reverse Idler Figure 3.2 Synchromesh Gearbox 1.3.3 Four Wheel Drive and Transfer Case: A transfer case is a part of a four-wheel-drive system found in four-wheel-drive. The transfer case is connected to the transmission and also to the front also referred to as a "transfer gear case", and rear axles by means of drive shafts. It is transfer gearbox", "transfer box" or "joc box", Power flow-Neutral P. ion: When the transfer case gears are in from the front main transmission drives the transfer case input shaft and drive scale. Drive gear drives the idler shaft and the high-speed gear that free-runs on the front output shaft. Therefore, no Power can be delivered to either the front or rear axle, even when the gear. n neutral (Figure 3.3), power front main transmission is in Power flow-4L. position (Low gear all wheels): When the transfer case shift le the 4-wheel low position, it pushes the two sliding gears back into engagement \ low-speed gear teeth. The power flows from the main drive gear to the idler dr and to the idler low-speed gear. From the low-- to their respective output shafts to give speed r -ver is shifted into with the idler shaft ive gear and shaft, speed, the power flows through the two sliding gears eduction, Power flow-2H position (High Gear, into the 2-wheel high position, the two idler shaft low-speed gear, leaving th Rear Wheels): When the transfer case shift lever is shifted sliding gears are pulle d forward out of engagement from the front output sliding gear in neutral and pulling the rearoutput sliding gear farther forward into engagement with the clutch teeth of the main drive gear. This locks the main input shaft directly to the rear wheel output shaft. The power flows directly from the transmission to the rear axle without any reduction of speed. The front output sliding gear remains in @ neutral position, the idler shaft drive gear turns the high-speed gear free on the front output shaft, and there is no power to the front axle. Power flow-2H position (High Gear, Rear all Wheels): When the transfer case shift lever is shifted into the 4-wheel high position, it pulls the rear output and front output sliding gears forward info engagement with the clutch teeth of the main drive gears. This locks the rear output shaft directly to the main input left, and the front output shaft to the high-speed idler shaft gear. The Power from the transmission flows from the drive gear in two directions. Direct drive to the rear axle flows through the rear output shaft. Direct drive to the front axle flows through the shaft drive gear, high-speed gear, and front output shaft Input Shaft Drive fom Transmission) Idler Shaft Drive Gear Front Output shaft (Front Aale Drive) Qear Axle Ider shaftlow- High Speed Gear Figure 3.3 Transfer case gear train in neutral 14 RESULT AND DISCUSSION: Hence the study of the constructional details, working Principles and operation of the Automotive Transmission systems is completed. 121aaa) 1.5 VIVA QUESTION: QI. Why gear box is used in a vehicle? Q2. What is a synchromesh device? Q3. What is transfer box? Where it is used? Q4. What is a synchronizer? Q5. Why synchromesh device is usually not employed for the reverse gear? (Q6. What may be the possible reason when the gear slips out of engagement? a 7 2 Q7. What should be the cause when the vehicle is running with excessive noise in the gear box’hs 46 @= NM 8 EXPERIMENT NO: 4 AND TO STUDY THE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS, WORKING PRINCIPL! OPERATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE CLUTCHES 1.1 Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions, 1.1 OBJECTIVE: To study the constructional details, working principles, and operation of the automotive clutches. 12 APPARATUS REQUIRED: A working or a non-working model of clutches ing shaft to a driven shaft, so 1.3 THEORY: A Clutch is a machine member used to connect the di that the driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus provides an interruptible connection between two rotating shafis. Clutches allow a high inertia load to be stated with small power." A popularly known application of clutch is in automotive ine and the gearbox. Here the clutch enables to crank vehicles where it is used to connect the en; and start the engine disengaging the transmission and change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels 1.3.1 Single Plate Clutch:- This is the common type of clutch used in automobiles. It consists of a two- member flywheel and pressure plate. The flywheel is mounted on the engine crankshaft and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs and is free to slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated. Single plates clutch has only one clutch plate, ‘mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft. The clutch pedal is used to engage or disengage the clutch when the clutch is engaged, the clutch plate is gripped between the flywheel and pressure plate. The friction linings are provided on both sides of the clutch plate. Due to friction between the flywheel, clutch plate, and pressure plate, the clutch plate revolves with the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves, the clutch shaft also revolves, which is connected to the transmission, Hence, the engine power is transmitted through the crankshaft to the clutch shaft. When the clutch pedal is back against the force of the springs and the clutch plate pressed, the pressure plate mov. becomes free between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Thus the flywheel keeps rotating as long as the engine is running. As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be disengaged, otherwise, it remains engaged due to the spring forces. 14| Page7. Flywheel — Clutch plate with friction lining Beay Springs is i) (withdraw! finger) Knife edge Figure: 4.1(a) Diagram of Single Plate Clutch Figure: 4.1(b) Single Plate Clutch 15| Page1.3.2 Multiplate Clutch:- A multi-plate clutch consists of more than one clutch plate es aa penoet al clutch plates is increased, the friction surface also increases. The increased junber oF tin surfaces increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit torque. The plates are alter pen ace the engine shaft and gearbox shaft. They are firmly pressed by the strong coil ings |ana assembled. Each of the alternate plates slides on splines on the pressure plate. A BY Ki te tc works in the same way as a single plate clutch while the flywheel is rotating, the pres ela rotates and presses against the friction plate. This causes the clutch plate to rotate, wie ples rotates the clutch shaft, When the pedal is pressed, the flywheel continues to eae rt Rout plate is released. This happens because they are not fully pressed by the pressure pl sts. Thus the clutch shaft also stops rotating. A multi-plate clutch may be dry or wet. When the clutel edad operated in an oil bath, itis called a wet clutch, When the clutch is operated dry, itis called a dry clutch, Clutch pedal Clutch phates f Flywheel y, Pressure Throw out be ~ plate 3 ne shalt hana 1 = 5 gQ Pp pare , Friction fining Zz \ \ | \ Chute shat \ Clutch spring \ Spigot s Figure: 4.2 Multiplate Clutches 13.3 Coil-Spring Cluteh:- The coil spring clutch shown in figure uses coil springs as pressure springs (only two pressure spring is shown). The coil-spring clutch has a seriee of aul springs set in a circle. At high rotational speeds, problems can arise with multi coil spring clutches owing to the al forces both on the spring themselves and the lever of the release mechanieny 16| PageFywtgel " ry wi oy / ‘and dire absorb shock, as cloths engaged Figure: 4.3 Coil Spring Clutch 1.3.4 Diaphragm—Spring Clutch:- The diaphragm spring clutch shown in figure. The diaphragm spring clutch has consistently eliminated bolt springs which means it very from coil spring clutch by type of spring used. Flywheel Locating studs Clutch Clutch cover Cluteh plate bearing By Diaphragm spring - ‘Sprihgs Pressure plate aring Release, between hub pin fork and disc Figure: 4.4 Diaphragm Spring clutch 17 [Page1.4 RESULT & DISCUSSIO! ails, working principles and operation of the front and rear Hence the study of the constructional det -sfully wheel drive Lines and differentials is done suc 1.5 VIVA QUESTION: QI. What is the functioning of a clutch? (Q2.What are the essential properties required for a clutch facing materials, Q3.Where and why we use multi plate clutches Q4.Derive mathematical expressions for the torque transmitted in a Multiplate clutch with n no of plates Q5.Why is the clutch friction plates perforated? Q6. Why do.we have springs in clutch friction plates?EXPERIMENT NO: 5 TO STUDY THE WORKING PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE STEERING SYSTEMS AND FIND THE CORRECT STEERING ANGLE ee | Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion L.S Viva Questions. 11 OBJECTIVE: To study the constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive steering systems and find the correct steering angle. 12 APPARATUS REQUIRED ; Models of Manval Steering Systems, and Power steering Systems 13 * To achieve correct steering, two types of stecring mechanisms are used 1. Davis Steering Mechanism 2. Ackermann Steering Mechanism 3s only turning pairs. The sliding pair has more friction than the tuming Pair and hence Davis mechanism will wear out after a. cevtain time. Therefore, Ackermann mechanism is preferred to the Davis mechanism, Figure $ | shows the Ackermann mechanism. It Consists of a track rod connected to the links, which are integral with the stub axles. When the vehicle is in a straight-ahead position these links make equal angles with the centreline of the car. In order to achieve the instantaneous centre, the inner wheel moet tum through a greater angle than theoretically at the centre line of the car. This arrangement is known as the Acketmann principle or Hinkage and can also be applied ifthe track rod is placed in font ot the axle, Centre of rotation Figure: 5.1 Ackerman Steering Mechanism 19|Page1.3.1 Steering Geometry Parameters: 1, Camber: Tilt of the wheel plane from the longitudinal plane. CAMBER Tire Centerlin True Vertical 1 - Camber + Camber Figure: 5.2 Camber 2. Castor: Tilt of the king pin with reference to the transverse vertical plane Castor Combined angle CASTER — Centerline of the ‘Upper | lower ball joints (steering axis) _- Axle Tube Figure: 5.3 Caster 2 PageKing Pin inclination is the tilt of the kingpin from the longitudinal vertical plane CONTER Une OF Kinane stecming KNUCKLE String star srinove GnouNo LeveL, THRUST BEARING KINGPIN INCLINATION, VERTICAL UNE ANGLE MEASURED IN. DeGneRs, Figure: 5.4 Kingpin Inclination ‘4. Toe-in oF toe-out: Toe-in is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer together at the front than at the rear when the vehicle is stationary on the other hand, the wheel may he wea closer atthe rear than atthe front in which case the difference of the distances between the front wheels at the front and at the rear is called toe-out Toe Out i Front of Car Toe In Figure: 5.5 Toe-in and Toe-out 1-32 Steering Gearbox:- The steering gear converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into the Straight-line motion of the linkage. There are two basic types of steering gears, the pitman-arm ‘Spe and the rack and pinion type. Either type can be used ina manual steering system or a power steering system. The pitman type has a gear box at the lower end of the steering shaft. The rack and 21|PagePinion ype have smal gear (a pinion) atthe lower end ofthe steering shaft. The action isthe same in cither system. When the steering wheel and shaft are turned by the driver, the rotary motion is ‘changed into straight-line motion. This causes the front wheels to pivot or swing from one side to the other to steer the car. One job of the steering gear is to provide a mechanical advantage. In a machine or manual device, this is the ratio of the output force to the input force applied to it. This ‘means that a relatively small applied force can produce a much greater force at the other end of the device. 1. Worm and Wheel 2. Cam and Double Roller 3. Worm and Nut 4. Recirculating Ball-type 5. Rack and Pinion 13.3 Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Manual Steering Systems, e.g. Fitman-arm steering, Rack &Pinion steering:- The Pitman arm is a steering ‘component in an automobile or truck. The pitman arm shaft is attached to the steering box by a spline and nut. As the driver tums the steering wheel, the steering box mechanism moves the steering linkages via the pilman arm shaft either left or right, depending on the direction in which the steering wheel is tumed. The steering box provides the change of angle at 90° to the steering linkage. The idler arm 's attached to the chassis and is positioned parallel to the pitman atm. The track rod connects the Pitman arm shaft to the idler arm shaft, In this way, any movement in the pitman arm shaft i directly applied to the idler arm shaft. The primary components of the rack and pinion steer fg system are: rubber bellows, pinion, rack, inner ball joint or socket, and tic-rod. This rubber bellow is attached to the Rack and Pinion housing. It protects the inner joints from dirt and contaminants In addition, it retains the grease lubricant inside the rack and pinion housing, There are identical posite side connection. The pinion is connected to bellows on the other end of the rack for the op; the steering column (WHEEL P:VOT POINT) ~ STEERING GEAR KIDS — semen Figure: 5.6 Pitman Arm Steering Component 22| PageFigure: 5.7 Rack & Pinion Steering 1.3.4 Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Power steering Systems, e.g. Rack and Pinion Power Steering System: The use of electronics in automotive stecring systems enables much more sophisticated control to be achieved. The electric steering is more economical to run, and easier to package and install than hydraulic power steering systems. Electrically Powered Hydraulic Steering, or EPHS, replaces the customary drive belts and pulleys with a brushless motor that drives a high-efficiency hydraulic power steering pump in a conventional rack and pinion steering system, Pump speed is regulated by an electric controller to vary pump pressure and flow. This provides steering efforts tailored for different driving situations. The pump can be run at low speed or shut off to provide energy savings during straight-a head driving. An EPHS system is able to deliver an 80 percent improvement in fuel economy when compared to standard hydraulic steering systems. Electrically assisted steering or EAS is a power-assist system that eliminates the connection between the engine and stecring system There are four primary types of electric power-assist steering systems: 1. Column-assist type. In this system, the power assist unit, controller, and torque sensor are attached to the steering column, 2. Pinion-assist type. In this system, the power assist unit is attached to the steering gear pinion shaft. The unit sits outside the vehicle passenger compartment, allowing assist torque to be increased greatly without raising interior compartment noise. 3. Rack-assist type. In this system, the power assist unit is attached to the steering gear rack. It is located on the rack to allow for greater flexibility in the layout design. 4. Direct-drive type. In this system, the steering gear rack and power assist unit form a single unit. The steering system is compact and fits easily into the engine compartment layout. The direct assistance to the rack enables low friction and inertia, which in turn gives an ideal steering feel.— Vet ee wy (a > SEZ sete { \ Rotary fF controlvaive | Pressure [= Fluid Lines pee Tire all ini aes, Pi | cine Hydraulic gear" Tierod || piston Rack os Figure: 5.8 Power Steering Component 1.4 RESULT & DISCUSSION Hence the study of the constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive steering systems is done successfully. 1.5 VIVA QUESTIONS QI. State the requirements of a steering system Q2. What is the material used for front axle ? How it is manufactured? Q3. What is stub axle? Q4. What is the function of a king pin? Q5. What is steering axis? Q6. What is wheel alignment? Q7. Define under steer and over steer. Q8. What is power steering? 24|PageEXPERIMENT NO: 6 TO STUDY THE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS, WORKING PRINCIPLES, AND OPERATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE TYRES & WHEELS SSS 1.10bjective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions 11 OBJECTIVE: To study the constructional details, working principles, and operation of the automotive tyres & wheels. 1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: Models of a) Various Types of Bias & Radial tyres _(b) Various Types of wheels 1.3 THEORY: 13.1 Bias Tyre:- Bias tire (or cross ply) construction utilizes body ply cords that extend diagonally from bead to bead, usually at angles in the range of 30 to 40 degrees, with successive plies laid at n allows the opposing angles forming a crisscross pattem to which the tread is applied. The desig entire tire body to flex easily, providing the main advantage of this construction, a smooth ride on rough surfaces. This cushioning characteristic also causes the major disadvantages increased rolling resistance and less control and traction at higher speeds. Belted bias:- A belted bias tire starts with two or more bias-plies to which stabilizer belts are bonded directly beneath the tread. This construction provides a smoother ride that is similar to the bias tyre while lessening rolling resistance because the belts increase tread stiffness. The plies and improve performance compared to non-belted bias tires. The s of a bias tire belts are at different angles, whi belts may be cord or steel. Bias / Crossply construction Treas \’ Cores Chater Figure: 6.1 Bias Tyre 2S )Page1.3.2 Radial tyres:- construction utilizes body ply cords extending from the beads and across the tread so that the cords are laid at approximately right angles to the centreline of the tread, and parallel to each other, as well as stabilizer belts directly beneath the tread. The belts may be cord or steel. The advant. control, and lower rolling res s of this construction include longer tread life, better steering tance, Disadvantag of the radial dire include a harder ride at low speeds on rough roads and in the context of off-roading, decreased "self-cleaning" ability \d lower grip ability at low speeds. Radial construction Tread bg Beas Chater Sidewat Figure: 6.2 Radial Tyre 1.3.3 Solid: Many tires used in industrial and commercial applications are non-pneumatic, and manufactured from solid rubber and plastic compounds via molding include those used for lawn mowers, skateboards, golf carts, scooters, industrial vehicles, cai are operations. Solid tires and many types of light S, and trailers. One of the most common applications for solid tires is for ‘material handling equipment (forklifts). Such tires press. are installed by means of a hydraulic tire 1.3.4 Semi-pneumatic: Semi-pneumatic tires have a hollow center, but they are not pressurized They are light-w st, puncture-proof, and provide cushioning. These tires often come as a complete assembly with the wheel and even integral b: ight, low “all bearings. They are used on lawnmowers, wheelchairs, and Wheelbarrows. They can also be rugged, typically used in industrial applications, and are designed to not pull off their rim underuse 1.3.5 Constructional details, working princi les and operation of the Various Types of wheels:~ It must be strong enough to carry the mass of the vehicle and withstand the forces that are generated during use. Some are made from steel. They are pressed in 2 sections - the wheel center, with a ange or disc that is drilled for the wheel fasteners, and the rim. They are then welded together 26 [Pagel wheels, Others are made from cast aluminum alloy. Alloy wheels are lighter man similar to and since aluminum is a better heat conductor than steel, alloy wheels dissipate heat from brakes and tires more quickly than steel wheels. The wheel center must accurately locate the wheel rim centrally on the axle. It must also provide the required distance from the centerline of the wheel, to the face of the mounting flange. This is called offset. Offset is important because it b centerline into clase alignment with the larger inner hub bearing, and reduces the load of the stub axle, This allows the inside of the wheel center to be shaped to provide space for the brake assembly, usually located inside the wheel. Ventilation slots allow air to circulate around the brakes. In some cases, wheels are directional to assist the airflow. The rim must be accurately shaped and dimensioned, and strong enough to support the tire under the load of the vehicle and the forces generated by the motion of the vehicle. Passenger cars normally use rims that are of well based, or drop-center design, The drop-center is used for mounting and demounting the tire onto the rim, When inflated, the tire is locked to the rim by tapering the bead seat towards the flan; by safety ridg t of sudden deflation, or blowout, safety idges prevent the tire from movin while it is being braked. Well-based rims tires, The rims are referred to as 15-degree drop center rims because the bead seats are good gnp, and an airtight seal betwee flexible S of humps, close to the flange. In the ev down into the well. This helps maintain control of the vehicle icles for also be used on heavy commercial vel ge. The taper gives red at 15 degrees towards the fl the tire beads, and the rim, The low flanges and drop center allow the spec tubel nner to that used on smaller passenger car tires. The stiff sidewalls of larger cross-ply tires me demounted in this way, and many 4-wheel-drive and commercial vehicles demountable flange rim. When all of the air is removed from the tire, one Mang: 80 the tire can be demounted: Wheels are fastened to the hubs by wheel studs and nuts. They are highly stressed by loads from the weight of the vehicles, and the forces generated by its motion and they're made from heat-treated, high-grade alloy-steel. The threads between are close-fitting and accurately-sized. All-wheel nuts must be othenwise, the wheel could break tree from the hubs truck tires to be mounted and demounted in a similar n n they cannot be mounted and ca Mat-base, can be removed tuds and nuts correct torque, Figure: 6.2 Spoke and Alloy Wheel irae14 RESULT & DISCUSSION:- Hence the study of the constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive tyres & wheels is done successfully 1.5 VIVA QUESTIONS:- QI. What is a light alloy? Q2. What are inset, zero set and outset wheels? Q3. How is the vehicle weight supported in case of a wire wheel? Q4. What are the advantages of a wire wheel? QS. Why wire wheels cannot be used to mount a tubeless tyre? Q6. How does a tyre wear in case of (1) over-inflation (11) under-inflation? Q7. How tyre is designated?EXPERIMENT NO: 7 ‘TO STUDY THE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS, WORKING PRINCIPLES, AND AUTOMOTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEMS. OPERATION OF TI eS .1Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions nn To study the constructional details, working principles and operation of the 1.1 OBJECTIVE: automotive suspension systems. 1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:- Models of (a) Front Suspension System. (b) Rear Suspension System, 13 THEORY:- 1.3.1 Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Front Suspen: The shock absorber is contained inside the strut, and is a direct-acting telescopic type shock absorber. The coil spring is mounted over the strut, inside the suspension tower. The strut has an upper mounting point in the suspension tower. For the front steerable suspension, the strut’s upper mounting is bushed, or bearing-inounted, to allow for the steering movement. The control arm s fixed (or ‘held in place’) in the vehicle configuration, by bushes. The lower control arm is mount attached to the vehicle body and holds in place the strut, brake assembly, and drive shafts. Another sts of: coil springs; Example: This non-driven or ‘dead’ axle front suspension arrangement cons shown below lower wishbone and upper wishbone as s Figure: 7.1 Front Suspension System 29| PageFigure: 7.2 Front Suspension System Layout 1.4.2 Rear Suspension System:- The front of the leaf spring is attached to the chassis st the rigid spring This spring eye is bushed with either rubber bushes or, in the case of heavy vehicles, steel ha bushes, The axle housing’is rigid between each road wheel. This means that any deflection to one cide ic transmitted to the other side. The swinging shackle allows for suspension movement by h, as the vehicle moves over uneven ground. The allowing the spring to extend or reduce in len: top of the shock absorber is attached to the chassis, and to the spring pad at the bottom. Tt Is @ direct-acting shock absorber. The U-bolts attach the axle housing to the leaf spring. They have a clamping force that helps to keep the leaf spring together. Leaf springs are usually made of tempered steel. They hold the axle in position, both laterally and lon jtudinally. The leaf spring usually made up of a number of leaves of different lengths. The top, or longest leaf, is normally referred to as the main leaf Figure: 7.3(a) Rear Suspension System Layout 30\Page14 1.5 Figure: 7.3(b) Rear Suspension System RESULT & DISCUSSION:- Hence the study on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive suspension systems is completed. VIVA QUESTIONS QI. What do you understand by pitching and rolling of a vehicle Q2.What is a function of a spring in automobile suspension’ Q3.What is a function of a shackle with a leaf spring Q4. What is a function of a shock absorber? What are helper spring: g Q6.What is the effect of moisture on the leaf springs? Q7.What is wishbone type suspension? Q8. What forces are supported by leaf springs?EXPERIMENT NO: 8 S ANI TO STUDY THE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS, WORKING PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE SYSTEMS. SS oun | 1Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions << 11 OBJECTIVE:- To study the constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive brake systems 1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:- Models of (a) Hydraulic & Pneumatic Brake systems. (b) Drum Brake System, (c) Disk Brake System. (d) Antilock Brake System. 1.3 THEORY:- 13.1 Hydraulic & Pneumatic Brake systems:- The Hydraulic brake system is a braking system that uses brake fluid usually includes ethylene glycol, to transmit pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near the driver, to the actual brake mechanism, which is near the wheel of the vehicle. The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, Scooters, and mopeds, consists of the following: Brake pedal or Brake lever Pushrod, also called an actuating rod Reinforced hydraulic lines Rotor or a brake disc or a drum attached to a wheel Master cylinder assembly includes: Piston assembly is made up of one or two pistons, a return * spring, a series of gaskets or O-rings and fluid reservoir. In the Hydraulic brake system when the brake pedal or brake lever is pressed, a pushrod applies force on the piston in the master cylinder causing fluid from the brake fluid tank to run into a Dressure chamber through a balancing port which results in an increase in the pressure of the whole hydraulic system. This forces fluid through the hydraulic lines to one or more callipers where it Works upon one or two extra calliper pistons protected by one or more seated O-rings which Prevent the escape of any fluid from around the piston. The brake calliper piston then applies force to the brake pads. This causes them to be pushed against the rotating rotor, and the friction between pads and rotor causes a braking torque to be Benerated, slowing the vehicle. The heat created from this friction ig dispersed through vents and channels in the rotor and through the pads themselves which are made at Particular heat-tolerant ‘materials like Kevlar, sintered glass. The consequent discharge of the brake pedal or brake lever lets the spring(s) within the master cylinder assembly return that assembly piston(s) back into Position. This reduces the hydraulic pressure on the calliper lets the brake piston in the calliper assembly to slide back into its lodging and the brake pads discharge the rotor. If there is any leak in the system, at no point does any of the brake fluid enter ot leave 32| Pagereren os Master Cylinder Brake Pedal Brake On Figure: 8.1 Hydraulic Brake Systems 1.3.2 Pneumatic or Air Brake System:- The Pneumatic or Air Brake System is the brake system used im automobiles such as buses, trailers, trucks, and semi-trailers. The Compressed Air Brake System ts a different air brake used in trucks that contains a standard disc or drum brake using compressed air instead of hydraulic fluid. The compressed air brake em works by drawing ‘clean aur from the environment, compressing it, and hold it in high-pressure tanks at around 120 PSI. Whenever the air is needed for braking, this air is directed to the functioning cylinders on the brakes to activate the braking hardware and slow the vehicle. Air brakes use compressed air to increase braking forces. Figure: 8.2 Air Brake System 33| Page.cking plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel Drum brakes consist of a ba .d an automatic or self-adjusting system. 1.3.3 Drum Brake Systen cylinder, return springs, an n material or brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the frictio Brake Shoes: Like the disk pads, lining riveted or bonded to it “The backing plate is what holds everything together. It attaches fo the axle and joes, and assorted hardware. Backing Plate: forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shi Brake Drum: Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on the inside where the hoes make contact, Just as with disk rotors, brake drums will show signs of wear as the brake linings seat themselves against the machined surface of the drum. Wheel Cylinder: The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each side. hoe. When brake Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with a brake sI uushing the shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel pressure is applied, the pistons are forced out pt cylinders must be rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking re Return Springs: Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the pres: is released from the wheel cylinder. If the springs are weak and do not return the shoes all se the linings will remain in contact with the the way, it will cause premature lining wear beca drum Self Adjusting System: The parts of a self-adjusting system should be clean and move freely to insure that the brakes maintain their adjustment over the life of the linings. If the self-adjusters stop working, you will notice that you will have to step down further and further on the brake pedal before you feel the Brakes begin to engage. Disk brakes are self-adjusting by nature and do not require any type of mechanism. Shoe retuming Hydraulic slave cylinder Brake lining material springs Brake drum Bleed nipple Shoe adjustment Hold-dowapin Figure: 8.3 Drum Brakes 34] Pagefound so far. Disk brakes are used rand jumbo jets. Disk brakes wear longer, are Tess Jess prone to grabbing or pulling, and stop 1.3 Disk Brake System:- The disk brake is the best brake we have to stop everything from cars to locomoti affected by water, are self-adjusting, self-cleaning, etter than any other system around. The main components of a disk brake are the Brake Pads, Rotor, Caliper, and Caliper Support. Brake Pads:-There are 1wo brake pads on each caliper. They ae reenstructed of a metal “shoe” with the lining riveted or bonded 10 it ‘The pads are mounted in the caliper, one on each side of the rotor. Brake linings used to Be made primarily of asbestos because of its heat cer, due to health risks, asbestos sorbing properties and quiet operation; howev' has been outlawed, so new materials are now be The disk rotor is made of iron eing used. Rotor: wwith highly machined surfaces where the brake pads contact it, Just as the brake pads wear o¥t Iso undergoes some wear, usually in the over time, the rotor form of ridges and groves where the brake pad rubs against it, Piston Caliper wheel attaches here Brake Pads Rotor Figure: 8.4 Dise Brakes, 1.3.5 Antilock Brake System An anti-lock braking system abbreviated as ABS is a braking system or security system which prevents the wheels on an automobile from locking up while braking. The wheels revolving on the road let the driver maintain steering control under heavy braking by preventing a skid and allowing the wheel to continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver steering inputs. The ABS offers better vehicle control and may reduce ending distances on dry and especially slippery surfaces. It can also boost braking distance on loose surfaces such as snow and gravel 35) Pag14 Figure: 8.5 Antilock-braking System (ABS) RESULT & DISCUSSION : Hence the study on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive brake systems is completed. VIVA QUESTIONS: QI. What is the principle of automotive brake? 4 efficiency are not used in automobiles Q2. Why brakes with more than 80% 2 Q3. What is fading of brak Jace? Q4. How does skidding takes pl: QS. What is leading shoe? Q6. What is the purpose of brake shoe adjuster?FEC C66 EXPERIMENT NO: 9 TO STUDY AND PREPARE REPORT ON THE CONSTRUCTION DETAILS, WORKING PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE EEMISSION / POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS '1Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Result & Discussion 1.5 Viva Questions 11 OBJECTIVE:- To study and prepare report on the construction details, working principles and operation of the automotive emission / pollution control systems 1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED :- Model of automotive emission / pollution control systems 13° THEORY: There are four areas in the automobile, which can emit pollutants into the atmosphere. ase and the exhaust system. The fucl tank and the Carburetor emit fuel vapours, the erankease gives out the partly burnt-ar-fuel mixture blown off through the piston rings, while the emissions from the exhawet system include unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides. These exhaust constituents ible 9.1. Obviously, the atmospheric pollution can be approaches have These are the fuel tank, carburetor, the crank cause many serious diseases as shown decreased by controlling these areas of the automobile. To do this, two different been followed: 1. To reduce the formation of pollutants in the emissions by redesigning the engine ventilating system, carburetor and fuel tank. The combustion chamber, along with fuel system cooling system, ignition system and the exhaust system are also redesigned thus improving upon, the combustion efficiency which reduces the emissions. 2. To destroy the pollutants after these have been formed. The details of both these approaches have been discussed in the following articles. Table 9.1 Constituent Disease by Air Pollution S.No. | Constituent Disease 1 ja © | Heait/Biood circulatory problems 2 I Hydrocarbons (HC) - Lung diseases 3 | Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Asthma / Bronchitis 4 [Lead (Pby Blood Cancer - 5 [Sespended Particulate matter (PM) | Asthma / Bronchitis 37 | PageThis is achieved by the following: 1.3.1 Reduction of Formation of Pollutants: 1. Closed crankcase ventilation 2. Fuel tank and carburetor ventilation 3. Redesigning the engine: ') combustion chamber fi) cooling system iit) fuel supply system iv) ignition system 132 Closed Crankease Ventilation: ‘There are ‘wo variations of this system viz. the positive Grankcase ventilation and the fixed orifice system. In the former, filtered air from the carburetor air cleaner is introduced in the crankcase from where it carries away the blow by gases and the nd the other similar elements during the course of time, clog the PCV valve or the orifice which may decrease and ultimately stop the flow of the blow by gases altogether, which would affect the engine performance very seriously. A Coating of oil on the air cleaner filter, apart from various engine troubles, it dicates that service of the system is needed urgently, which mainly requires the cleaning of the PCV valve or the orifice, Positive CRANKCASE VENTILATION System POU Valve Gdsed System Minimum flow at idle/lou speed Breather hose Sealed oit filler cap Flow orifice spring Plunger Figure: 9.1 PCV Systemsyystem vapours from 1.33 Evaporative Emission Control Systems (EVAP):- It prevents toxic ler sy os spo = entering the atmosphere. It consists of parts non-vented fuel tank cap whic! prev ps nee from entering the atmosphere, air dome is hump formed at the top of the tan Ton ‘ ¢ line/valve w charcoal canister which stores vapours when the engine is not running, pare teers sh controls the flow of vapours from the canister to the intake manifold that al reaches operating temperature and is operating above idle speed. EVAP System WE i Figure: 9.2 EVAP Systems 134 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR):- The purpose of the exhaust gas recirculation valve (EGR) valve is to meter a small amount of exhaust gas into the intake system: this dilttes the air/fuel Nemrane 22 88 (0 lower the combustion chamber temperature, Excessive combustion chamber temperature creates oxides of nitrogen, which is a major pollutant. While the EGR valve is the Imost effective method of controlling oxides of nitrogen, in it's very design it adversely affects engine performance. The engine was not designed to run on exhaust gas. For this reason the aeanuit Of exhaust entering the intake system has to be carefully monitored and controlled. This is Sccomplished through a series of electrical and vacuum switches and the « ehicle computer. 39} Ps1.3.5. Air Injection System:- Since no intemal combustion engine ts 100% efficeent. there will always be some unbumed fuel in the exhaust This increases hydrocarbon emessons To climinate this source of emissions an air injection system was created. Combustion requires fuel, oxygen and heat. Without any one of the three, combustion cannot occur Inside the exhaust manifold there is sufficient heat to support combustion, if we introduce some oxygen than any unbumed fuel will ignite. This combustion will not produce any power but it will reduce excessive hydrocarbon emissions. Unlike in the combustion chamber, this combustion is uncontrolled, so if the fuel content of the exhaust is excessive, explosions that sound like popping will occur 40 [Pageeae pea SORE, ATED yalsr Figure: 9.4 Air Injection $ 136 Catalytic Converter System: Automotive emissions are controlled in three ways; one is to promote more complete combustion so that there is less by products. The second is to reintroduce excessive hydrocarbons back into the engine for combustion and the third is to provide an additional area for oxidation or combustion to occur. This additional area is called a catalytic converter. The catalytic converter looks like a muffler. It is located in the exhaust system ahead of the muffler. Inside the converter are pellets or a honeycomb made of platinum or palladium. The platin or palladiums are used as a catalyst (a catalyst is a substance used to speed up a chemical process) 41] Pagecnpsnion caratyst TOEUMMATE COE He beter TAL pie emissions 40 co, y HEAT SHIELD | STANLESS STEEL | cassie SOWERTE 0 Cena AND CeRasc ONEYOOMB CATALYST STRUCTURE EXHAUST GAS He Postman co FOR OXYGEN NO, SENSOAPLUG Figure: 9.4 Catalytic Converter Systems 14 RESULT & DISCUSSION : Hence the study on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the automotive emission / pollution control systems is completed. 15 VIVA QUESTIONS QI. How does an automobile contribute towards pollution of the atmosphere? QWhat is closed crankcase ventilation? Discuss in details various changes in the fuel supply system of engines for controlling emission? G Describe clearly how the engine exhaust gases to convert the pollutants there in into harmless constituents, IS. Q5. Name the areas of automobile emitting pollutants and also name the main pollutants in the engine exhaust 6. WI hat are PCV and what purpose it serves?“" 131 Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV):- Consistent with the definition of hybrid EXPERIMENT NO: 19 py THELATEST TECHNOLOGY IN TRANSMASsion U 10 Sa YEHICLES. WW SYSTEMS INCLUDING sptive 12 Apparat required 13 Theory 14 Result & Discussion 1§ Viva Questions 108% * a 1, OBIECTIVE:-To study the latest technology in tansmission systems including hybrid vehicles I | APPARATUS REQUIRED:- Labelled diagram of the {ransmission systems of a hybrid vehicles, TORY: 4 hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources, Possibe combinations ico deellecric, gaslinely wheel, and fuel cell (ECybattry. Typically, one energy source is sree and the other is Conversion of a fuel to energy. The combina two power sources sy support wo separate propulsion systems. Thus to be a True hybrid. the vencle must have at east two modes of propulsion. For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in um dives several electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid. But if the week has electrical energy storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vets. These wo power sourees may be pared in series, meaning that the ens engine charges the bateries ofan electric motor that powers the car, or in parallel, with both mechenieme driving the car directly. i above, the hybrid clecric vehicle combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor. An altemate arra wement is a diesel engine and an electric motor (Figure 10.1). As shown in Figure 10.1, a HEV’ is formed by netging components from a pure electrical vehicle and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electri¢ Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows regenerative braking for an EV: the MG installed in the HEV enables regenerative braking, For the HEV, the M/G is tucked ditectly behind the engine. In Honda hybrids, the M/G is connected directly to the engine. The transmission appears next in line. This amrangement has two torque producers; the M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline “rene The battery and M/G are connected electrically. HEVs are a combination of electrical and ‘chanical components. Thrce main sources of electricity for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and ‘rte Each device has a low cell voltage, and, hence, requires many cells in series to obtain the voltage demanded by an HEV 43|Pagepure Etectricat = nnn Components of a Hybrid Vehicle that combines a pure gasoline with a pure EV Figure pafterence in the sures the FC provides high ener: lies both 1c of Energy can be explained as. y but low power, jodest power and energy. bur low energy, 2 the battery supp! whe capacitor supplies very large power include anode, cathode, and clectrolyte (shown i ical coll Md to describe the current Jand external to the cell is use qme components of an clectrochen FouctOD), The current flow both internal loop: 1s chemical enersy to elect! Figure 10.2: Circuit for a cell which is convert aapPaceseme or negative charges is clockwise and forms a cl ~ oe ‘electrolyte in the cell al issue for both w i vr Change Discharge cycle, Overcharging can be traced mene co spose re Bouares oF Limtatons on hatteries. The fist imit which scheta ay Ag he minimum allowed State of Charge As a resull, not all tre installed bat panery I pe use. The battery feeds energy to other clectrical equipment. wnicr usually te ye a broad 1 ee This equipment can use pond ee of input voltage, but cannot accept a low voltage. iy ep imit is the minimum voltage allowed from the battery sec the Jacob Lohner, (1890), a coae ‘or an clectric Vehicle that Would be less noisy 1 ge se OO Jesign for an electric Vehicle from Austro.H commaytoently graduated from the Vienna Technical ¢ wo baa ened @ pair of electric Motors mounted in the fre eo Could travel up to 38 miles ybrid Electric vehicte:-Toyota is the most ws Present of Oh cars. AS Well as the specialist hybrid rang omy of their existing model lines, including several Lexus (now owned and manufactured by Toyets) vehicles. They have also stated that it their intention to release a hybeid version of every nate model they release in the coming decade. As Well as cars and SUVe there are a selene umber of hybrid motorcycles, pickups, vans, and other road going vehicle sailable to the Mmwumner and the Hstis continually increasing ‘Nn builder in Vienna, Austria, foresaw than the new gas-powered cars. He lungarian engineer Ferdinand Porsche, ollege. Porsche's first version of the ont wheel hubs of a conventional car Prominent of all manufacturers when it ¢ they have produced hybrid versions of 14 Future of Hybrid electrical vehicle ~ Since petroleur nited and will someday run out of supply. In the arbitrary year 2037, an estimated one billion petroleum-fueled vehicles will be the work!’ roads. for the "400 mil S". So year 2037 “gasoline runs out year” means, petrokum will no longer be used for personal mobility. A market may develop for solarepowered EVs of the size of scooter or golf cart, Since hybrid technology applies to heavy vehicles, hybrid buses and hybrid trains will be more significant on soline will become prohibitively expensive. The world nced to have solutions on otherwise useless. © 135 Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains:~ In case of parallel hybrid drivetrains, the ICE and an electric motor (EM) supply the required traction power. The power from ICE and EM are added together by a mechanical coupler, Figure 10.3. Generally, the mechanical coupling is of two types Torque coupling: In this case the coupler adds the torques of the ICE and EM together and delivers the total torque to the driven wh The ICE and EM torque can be independently ‘controled. The ‘speeds of the ICE, EM and the vehicle are linked together with a fixed relationship and cannot be independently controlled because of the power conservation constraint Speed. are ti ‘oupling: In this case the speeds of the ICE and EM can be added together and all torques kod together and cannot be independently controlled as|PageIl — Figure 10.3: General Configuration of a Parallel Hybrid Drive Train [d_ RESULT & DISCUSSIO} iene he sty on the latest technology in transmission systems including hybeid vehicles completed 18. VIVA'QUESTION QI. What is a hybrid? nd hybrid vehicle? Q2. What is difference between electrical Q3. What is difference between gasoline and hybrid vehicle? (4. Who invented the first hybrid vehicle? Q5. Explain the parallel hybrid drive train.