UNIT 3

HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

(a) Right of way
 Definition: The area of the land acquired for and development of a road along its alignment is known as right of way. The width of this
land is known as land width. Factors
 The land width is depends on the following factors:
(i) The category of highway and width of roadway and road margins.
(ii) Height of embankment or depth of cutting.
(iii) Drainage system and its size.
(iv) Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves.
(v) Reserve land for future widening.
 The values of normal and range of land width standardised by the IRC for various categories of roads are:
(b) Road margin
 Definition :The portion of land width on either side of the roadway of a road are known as Road Margins
 The various elements included in the road margins are shoulder, parking lane, frontage road, drive way, cycle track, foot path, guard
rail and embankment slope.
 The minimum shoulder width recommended by IRC is 2.5 m.
(c) Road way width
 Definition The top width of a highway embankment or bottom width of highway cutting excluding the side drains is called road way
width or formation width.
 Road way width comprises of the width of carriage way including traffic separator, if any, plus the shoulders on either sides.
(d) Carriage way
 Definition: The portion of road way constructed for movement of vehicular traffic is called carriage way pavement or crust.
 Factor governing the Width of the carriage way
1. Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes
2. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.
3.The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m
4.This require minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road. However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on either
side and 1.06 m in the centre. Therefore, a two lane read require minimum of 35 meter for each lane. The desirable carriage way width
recommended by IRC is given in Table.
(e) Shoulder
 Definition: The portions of the road way between the outer edges of the pavement and edges of the top surface of embankment or
inner edges of the side drains in cutting are known as shoulder.
Object
 Road shoulders serve the following objects:
(a) Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve a an emergency lane for vehicle compelled to be takes out of pavement or
road way.
(b) Shoulder also acts as service lanes for break down vehicles.
(c) They provide lateral stability to the carriage way.
(d) They serve as parking places for vehicles in case of emergency.
(e)They provide the space for erecting road signals.
(f) Side slopes
 Definition: The slopes given to the sides of earthwork of a road in embankment or in cutting for its stability are called side slopes.
(g) Berms
 Definition: The portion of land width left in between the toe of road embankment and the inner edges of borrow pit.
OR
 Definition :The portion in between the top edge of road cutting and the nearest edge of spoil banks on either side are known as berms.
(h) Spoil bank
 Definition: The banks constructed from surplus excavated earth on the side of road cutting parallel to its alignment, are known as spoil
banks.
(i) Borrow pits
 Definition: The pits dug along the alignment of a road for using their material in the construction of embankment are known as borrow
pits.
 Borrow pits should be dug at least 5m away from toe of embankment.
 Definition: The small portion of earth left undug in a borrow pit to measure the quantity of excavation work is known as mutam or
deadman.
(j) Kerbs
 Definition: The boundaries between the pavement and shoulders or footpaths are known as kerbs
 The kerbs may also be provided between the pavement and traffic separator.
(K) Formation level
 Definition: The reduced level of the finished surface of earthwork for a road in embankment or cutting is known as formation level.

SIGHT DISTANCE
 Definition: The distance along the centre line of a road at which a driver has visibility of an object, stationary or moving at a specified
height above the carriage way is known as sight distance.
Or
 Sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance.
 The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following conditions:
1. Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or road length visible to stop vehicle, in case of any obstruction on
the road ahead, without collision.
2. Driver travelling ahead should be able to overtake slow moving vehicles, at reasonable intervals, without causing obstruction or
hazard to traffic of opposite direction.
3. The driver entering a uncontrolled intersection, he should have sufficient visibility to enable him to control his vehicle in order to
avoid collision with another vehicle.
Factors affecting Sight Distance
1. The total reaction time of the driver
 Total reaction time of a driver is the time from the instance the obstruction is visible to the driver to the instance when he effectively
applies the break
 In the total reaction time vehicle moves at the speed at which the driver is moving or taken as the design speed.
 So, if the total reaction time of the driver is more, more will be the distance travelled and more will be the stopping sight distance.
2. Speed of the vehicle
 Speed of the vehicle affects the distance travelled by the driver in the total reaction time, more the speed more will be the distance.
This is known as lag distance.
 Similarly, the distance travelled by the driver after the application of the brakes More the speed more will the braking distance,
3. Friction between the Tyre and the road surface
 The friction between the Tyre and the road surface depends upon the type of road surface and the condition of the tyre. Also, it
depends upon the speed of the vehicle.
 More the friction, less will the stopping sight distance required but, if less is the friction, more it will be.
4. Brake Efficiency
 100% brake efficiency means the rotation of the Tyre is completely locked, but it will surely result in the skidding of the vehicle.
 Efficiency of the brakes are considered by reducing the original value of the friction in a range of 0.35 to 0.40.
5. Gradient of the road
 Gradient may be positive or negative and accondingly the required stopping sight distance will be less and more respectively.
 In case of upward(positive) gradient, a component of the gravity force will help in stopping the vehicle.

TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE

(i) Stopping or non-passing sight distance (SSD)
 Definition: The clear distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his vehicle to a stop before meeting a stationary object on the road is
called as stopping or non passing sight distance.
 In this case of a sommit curve, minimum stopping sight distance is the distance measured along the centre line of a road at which a
driver whose eye sight is 1.22m above the road surface can see the top of an object 15 cm high on the road.
 The total reaction time of the driver is based on the PIE theory. The total reaction time of the driver is divided int four parts i.e. P-I-E-V
 These four parts (i.e. P-I-E-V) are explained as follows:
1. Perception time (P)
 Definition: The time required to receive the sense by eyes or ears towards the brain though the nervous system and spinal cord is
termed a perception time of driver whole driving.
2. Intellection time (I)
 Definition: The time required to understand the situation occurs while driving is called a intellection time.
3. Emotion time (E)
 Definition: The time elapsed during fear, anger or any other emotional feelings with respect to the situation occurred while driving is
called as emotion time.
4. Volition time (v)
 Definition: The time taken by the driver to take the final action is called a volition time.
 The driver can also apply the brakes to avoid any present situation by the reflex action without thinking.
 The PIEV time of a driver depends upon the following various factors:
i. physical and psychological behavior of the driver
ii.Environmental conditions
iii. Type of the problem occurred
iv. Motive of the trip
v. Travel speed
vi. Fatigue
vii. Alcohol drinking and etc.
 For simple situations, the total reactions time of an average driver can vary from 0.5 second and it goes from 3 to 4 seconds or more
for complex problems or for critical situation occurred put forth.
(ii) Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
 Definition The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver on a two way road to enable him to overtake another vehicle ahead
with safety against the traffic from opposite direction is called overtaking or passing sight distance.
 The minimum over taking sight distance depends upon the following factors:
(i) Speed of overtaking, overtaken and the speed of the vehicle coming from the opposite direction.
(ii) Distance between the vehicles.
(iii) Rate of acceleration of the overtaking vehicle.
(iv) Skill and reaction time of the driver.
(iii) Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
 Definition: The distance which affords reasonable opportunities to drivers to overtake the vehicle ahead with caution is known as
intermediate sight distance
(iv) Lateral sight distance (LSD)
 Definition: The sight distance needed by the driver of a vehicle who see another vehicle approaching the intersection, reacts and
applies brakes to bring his vehicle to dead stop at the intersection without any collision or accident is called safe sight distance for
entering into a intersection or lateral sight distance.
 The lateral sight distance should be sufficient to satisfy the following three conditions:
(i) To enable both or at least one approaching vehicles to change their speeds to avoid collision.
(ii) To bring at least one or both the approaching vehicles to stop before reaching a point of collision.
(iii) To enable the stopped vehicles on minor road to start, accelerate and cross the main road before the approaching vehicle,
travelling at design speed on main road, reaches the interaction.
(v) Head light sight distance (HSD)
 Definition :The distance which is visible to a driver when driving during night under the effect of illuminated head lights of the vehicle
is termed as head light sight distance (HSD).
 HSD is somewhat to say critical for up-gradiands and ascending stretch of the valley curves.

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

 In case of horizontal alignment, topography of the site is very much important and horizontal alignment should be more consistent
with the topography through which alignment passes.
 Straight alignment induces monotony to the driver and because of this straight alignment, there is more possibility of accidents and
hence the flat curves are more preferable in conjunction with transition curves and possibly compound curve and reverse curves
without transitions should be avoided.
 In horizontal alignment, sharp curves are not be introduced at the ends of long tangents and sudden changes from the area of easy
curvature to the area of sharp curvature are to be avoided.
 Guard rail should be provided on high and long embankment so as to achieve the safety. Horizontal and vertical alignment should be
properly co-ordinated.
 A short straight stretch between two adjacent curves should be replaced by curve having larger radii or compound curve.
 The various factors which affect the design of horizontal alignment are as follows:
1. Design speed 2. Type of curve 3. Superelevation 4. Friction 5. Widening of pavement on curves.
 Comforable design speon on a horizontal curve are basically depend upon the radius of curve and superelevation of the carriageway.
 Definition: When the vehicle of moving on curve having constant radius (R) and constant speed, it exerts radially an outward force and
this outward force over the curve is called as centrifugal force (P)
P = (WV^2)/(126R)
Where, w = Weight of vehicle v = Speed of vehicle in Km/hr R = Radius of the curve in 'm' P = Lateral frictional force resisting
the centrifugal force over curve
P = (WV^2)/(126R)
(p/W) = (V^2)/(126R)
(P/W) is a ratio called as centrifugal ratio.
 Centrifugal force (P) acts at centre of gravity (G) of the vehicle produces an overturning moment about the point of contact betwees
the road surface and outer wheel ie. at 'A'.
 Overturning moment caused by centrifugal force (P) is resisted by the moment produced by the weight of vehicle acting at centre of
gravity (G).
 Overturning moment caused by centrifugal force= Pxh
 Restoring moment caused by weight (W) =(W/2)×d
 Of vehicles At am equilibrium, P×h = (W/2)×d
 Equation (3.8.2) shows that when the ratio (P/W) is 0.5 then height 'h' of the centre of gravity must be greater than the lateral distance
between the two vehicles before overturning take place.
h >d so as to avoid overturning
±↑↓Sum Fy = RA + RB - W
0 = RA + RB - W
For equilibrium, sum Fy = 0
RA + RB = W
 Note that lateral skidding will take place, when centrifugal force becomes equal to lateral frictional force (F).
At an equilibrium, P = (FA + FB)
P = μRA + μRB
P = μ(RA + RB)
P = μW
OR(p/W) = μ. Where μ = Coefficient of friction between wheel and road surface.
 In this way, overturning of vehicle and lateral skillding can be avoided, when (P/W) < d/(2h) and also frictional force (F)
 Modern vehicles have law centre of gravity hence high value of friction will occur before overturning take place.

DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

 It is more important and necessary to follow the general topography or ground profile while aligning the highway, but at some places,
the natural ground may be level and at other places the natural ground may be having slopes of varying magnitudes.
 Therefore the vertical profile of the mad alignment have to be considered while designing the vertical alignment in which it may have
level stretches and slopes or grades.
 So as to have smooth, comfortable vehicle movement's on the roads, it is more essential to have some changes in the grade by
providing the vertical curves.
 Vertical alignment is the elevation of the centre line of road and it consist of grades and vertical curves which keeps the comfort in
vehicle movements at higher speed.
 Vertical alignment influences on the following factors at high speeds:
(i) Vehicle speed (ii) Sight distance (iii) Stopping distance (iv) Acceleration and deceleration (v) Comfort in vehicle movements.
 The braking distance is reduced when there is an ascending gradient as+n% and now component of gravity is added to the braking
action.
 Component of gravity acting parallel to the surface added to the braking force, which is equal to W sin alpha = W tan alpha = (Wn)/100
 Work done kinetic energy (KE)
(fw + Wn/100) l = 1/2 × mv²
f = design co-efficient of friction
(fw + Wn/100) l = 1/2 × W/g× v²
l = (v²)/(2g( f + n/100))
 Similarly the braking distance is increased, when there in descending gradient of-n% and now component opposes the braking force
(fw - Wn/100) l = 1/2 × W/g× v²
l = (v²)/(2g( f - n/100))
 Hence the general equation for stopping distance is as follows:
Sight distance (SD) = vt +v²/2gf
where,t = reaction time g = acceleration due to gravity f = design co-efficient of friction
If speed is V kmph then,
SD in m = [0.278 vt+ (v²)/(254f)]
 Hence the general Equation (i) for stopping distance can be modified for n gradient as follows:
SSD in 'm' = ((vt + (v²/ 2g(f±n/100))
= ((vt + (v² / 2g(f - 0.001n))
 If ground is level, n= 0, and Equation (M) reduces to general Equation (1)
 it speed is V kmph and the gradient is n% then Equation (1) can be written as follows:
SSD in m = 0.278 vt + v² /254 (f ± 0.01n)
 Since SSD required on descending gradient is higher; it is essential to find critical value of the SSD for the descending gradient on the
reads with gradients and two way traffic.

ISD
 Definition: The distance which affords reasonable opportunities to drivers to overtake the vehicle ahead with caution is known as
intermediate sight distance.
 SD is taken as twice the safe stopping sight distance.

DESIGN OF INTERSECTIONS AND PROBLEMS

 A rotary intersection also called as traffic rotary is an enlarged road intersection.
 At rotary intersection, all converging vehicles are moving round a large central island in one direction ie. (clockwise direction).
 Hence design of rotary intersection is carefully done by considering various design factors.
 Design factors of Rotary
1. Design Speed
 Speed of Vehicles approaching an intersection becomes slow. down, when compared to the standard design speed of highway under
consideration.
 In urban areas, a speed of 30 km/ hr is adopted for design t rotary intersection. In India, especially in rural area, a spoo of 40 km/hr is
adopted for rotaries when one or m converging roads are important.
2. Shape of central island
 Shape of central island play a vital role in the design aspec Number of intersecting roads and the layout of the intersecting roads are
two important factor for the design f shape of central island.
 Fig. 3.21.1 shows the various shapes of island which considered to suit the various conditions. Each shape have in own significance and
importance along with certain limitations.
 A circular shape is more suitable and hence adopted when two equally important roads cross near about at right angle.
 It is often advisable to design elongated shape of island because elongated shape is more suitable to accommodate four or more
intersecting roads at the same time and hence the greater traffic flow can be allowed in the direction of elongation.
 More elongated shape and tangent shape are not mont suitable due to a tendency of traffic to move much faster.
3. Radius of rotary roadway
 There are different radii at different points for one-way rotary road round the central island. Radius of rotary roadway depends on the
shape of the central island.
 At Rotary intersection, it is not advisable to provide adequate super elevation and to be on safer side it is better to neglect and only
friction has to taken into design consideration.
e+f= V² / 127 R
Where e = super elevation f = design value of lateral friction coefficient V =Speed of vehicles R = Radius of horizontal curve
 In Equation (i), the super elevation (e) is totally neglected co the rotary roads. Hence Equation (i) can be written for rotary road design
as follows:
 f = V² / 127R R = V² / 127f
 Equation (ii) is used to design the radius of rotary roadway with consideration of design coefficient of friction (0 Fig. 3.21.1 shows
rotary intersection with various desig factors.
4. Weaving angle and Weaving distance
 Definition: Weaving angle is the angle between path of a vehicle entering into the rotary and path of another vehicle leaving from
rotary at adjacent road is called as weaving angle.
 Fig. 3.21.1 shows the weaving angle between two vehicle
 entering and leaving the rotary at the adjacent road.
 Between the two channelizing islands of the adjacent intersecting legs, there is weaving along with merging and diverging car
 The length of the rotary roadway in which the weaving operation along with merging and diverging taken place between two
channelizing islands of the adjacent intersecting legs is termed as weaving length.
5. Width of carriageway at entry and exit
 (i) Minimum width of carriageway at the entrance and exit should be 5 m.
 (ii) If the carriageway width of approach road is 7 m, and if radius at the entry is 25 m to 35 m, then entry width can be increased to 6.5
m and that for 10.5 m, it may be increased to 7 m and that for 14 m, it can be increased to 8 m.
6. Width of rotary roadway
 The minimum width of the roadway is the effective width of the rotary roadway or the effective width of the weaving section between
edge of the central island and adjoining kerb.
 The width of weaving section is designed by the following equation.
W = (e1 + e²) / 2 )+ 3.5
7. Entrance and exit curves
 Vehicle entering a rotary should slow down the vehicle well upto the design speed, hence radius of the entrance curve should be same
as the minimam recommended radius of the central island.
 Recommended radius at entry carve is 20 m to 35 m for design speed of 40 km/hr and that for 30 km/hr, radius is suggested as 15 m to
25 m.
 Three centred entry curves can be provided instead of simple circular curve so that heavy vehicle like buses, trucks etc can take right
angle turn easily at these curve for the design speeds
 Exit curves should have larger radius than the entry curves because vehicles leaving the rotary may accelerate to the speed of the
radiating roads.
 Extra widening should be provided at the entrance and exit curves. It is more convenient and reasonable to have or 2 times radius of
entry.
8. Capacity at the rotary
 Practical capacity of rotary depends on the minimum capacity of the weaving section. Let Q_{6} be the practical capacity of the
weaving section of a rotary in PCU/hr.
Qp = (280W(1 + e/W)(1 - p/3))/(1 + W/L)
Where,e = average width of entry e, and width of non-weaving section e2.
Here range of e/W is from 0.4 to 1
W = Width of weaving section ranging from 6m to 18 m
P = Proportion of weaving traffic
= (b+c)/(a+b+c+d) in the range 0.4 to 1
9. Channelizing islands
 Channelizing islands is the vital component part of rotary intersection. It is provided at the entrance of the rotary and a the exit of the
rotary
 Channelizing islands are provided to avoid undesirable weaving and turning and also to reduce the problematic a or to reduce the area
of conflict.
 The shape and size of channelizing island depends upon the radius of the rotary, the radii of the entrance and exit curves angles and
layout of the radial road and rotary.
 Channelizing islands are constructed with kerbs of heigh ranging from 150 mm to 210 mm.
10. Camber and Superelevation
 Actually in design of the curve, the superelevation is t considered. However the inward slope of camber act superelevation for the
traffic going around the central island
 The outer slope of the camber guides the vehicles turning towards the exit curve to the radiating road.
11. Sight distance and grade
 In the rotary design, the sight distance should be kept as large as possible. If it is not possible to keep large sight distance then sight
distance should be less than SSD i.e. safe stopping distance for the design speed.
 The minimum sight distance should be 45 m for design speed of 40 km/hr and that for 30 km/hr, it should be 30 m.
12. Lighting
 In Fig. 3.21.1, the point I, J and K shows the various positions of lights.
 Point J shows the additional light which are required to provide for central island larger than 600 mm diameter.
 Point K shows the position of light provided near the entrance curves if there is more mass movement of pedestrians.
13. Traffic Signs
 Traffic signs play a important role to regulate the flow of traffic in smooth manner, hence standard traffic signs called as traffic warning
signs should be shown or erected at all approaching roads to warn in advance.
 Red reflector or red light is located at about on 1 m above the road level at night.
 This red reflector or red light is placed on the nose of each directional island and also on the kerb of the central island facing the
approaching roads.
14. Provision for cyclists and pedestrians
 To regulate the traffic at rotary intersection, there must be a proper provision made for cyclist and pedestrians. In such case,
pedestrians crossing are provided and vehicles are controlled by stop signals.
 As far as possible, it is better to isolate the traffic of pedestrians and cyclists from the vehicle traffic using the rotary.
 In the design aspect, if the number of cyclists are less than 50 /hr, then cyclists can be allowed to mix up with the other traffic using
the rotary.
 If the number of cyclist are more than 50 per hour, then in such case, a separate cycle track is provided
 If number of pedestrians are more, then in such case, a separate foot path with guard rail is provided around the rotary on the outer
side; otherwise it is better to provide crossing facilities for pedestrian by constructing subway structure or over bridge; but this
structure is moreover costly.

ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC ROTARY

 Equal opportunity for all traffic turning right or going straight and those turning left across the rotary.
 Journey is more consistents and comfortable than any other intersection at grade.
 Fuel consumption cost is less at a traffic than at a signalized intersection where vehicles has to stop and proceed and hence require
more fuel.
 No controlling authority like traffic police and signals is required to control the traffic, because all the various traffic function are
operated by traffic rotary itself. Hence overall maintenance cost is alomst zero.
 More advantages for the number of intersecting roads in between 4 to 7.
 Less possibility of accidents events due to low relative speed.
 Traffic capacity of the rotary intersection in more than any other intersection at grade.It has total traffic capacity about 3000 vehicles
per hours.

DISADVANTAGES OF ROTARY
 Especially in urban areas where the pedestrain traffic is large the rotary cannot control the or regulate the traffic efficiently and it has
to cantrol by traffic police.
 Main purpose of rotary cannot be served if the vehicular traffic have to stop to cross the pedestrin traffic.
 Rotary need comparatively a large area of land for its design.
 The place wherer the space is limited and costly, design of rotary becomes unecomical.
 For mixed traffic, large number of cyclist and pedestrain traffic the design of rotary becomes more complex or troublesome to control
and regulated the traffic flow.
 Contruction of a rotary cannot be justified for very low volume traffic in most be the rural areas of india.
 For large number of cyclist and animal drawn vehicles the extra length to be traversed by crossing and right turn traffic becomes
critical.
 For too acute angles of intersection pf flow roads the design of rotaries is not suitable.

UNIT 4

MATERIAL USED IN HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION ?

The materials are for the construction of road pavements. Types of road material
1)Soil- Soil is defined as "Sediments of other unconsolidated. accumulation of soil particles produced by the physical and chemical
disintegration of rocks which may or may matter not contain organic
To provide the support to the rood pavement.
To provide good stability to the road pavement To provide good drainage to the rain water, percolating through the road pavement
2)Aggregates - The mater all weed for manufarmde of master ood concrete such as sand, grovet ek are called as aggregate.
3) Binders like cement and - The substance which primarily contist of umen or restain o laige proportion of bitumen are known are
Bituminous materiale
4) Cement Concrete - The product obtained by blurning and lushing to powder either the stone containing 20 to 40% clay and remai- ning
carbonate of lime or an intimate mixture of well propositing &careous and orgillaceous materiale is called cement.

SOIL SUB GRADE

 Definition: "Sub grade can be defined as a native said compacted to resist the load above it. A solid and well compacted sub grade is a
key to a successful project
 Above the sub grade, there is sub base which is a layer of gravel on the top of the sub grade Sub grade materials are typically
characterized by their resistance to deformation under load which can be either measure of their strength or stiffness.
 In general, the more resistant to deformation a sub grade is the me load it can support before reaching a critical deformation value
strength following test stiffness can be carried out by the
(i) California Bearing Ratio (CBR) (ii) Resistance Value (R-value) (iii) Elastic (resilient) modulus
 Sub grade's performance generally depends on three of its basic characteristics.
(i) Load bearing capacity (ii) Moisture content (iii) Stabilization with cement or asphaltic binder (iv) Additional base layers
(v) Strength and stiffness of sub grade soil
 In transport engineering, sub grade is the native material underneath a constructed road; pavement or railroad track. It is also called as
formation level.
Fig. 4:4.1(a) and (b) shows the subgrade in the cross section of constructed road pavement and rail road track.

Properties or Characteristics of a Sub grade Soil

1. Stability
 The sub grade soil should have the adequate into the permanent deformation under traffic has
2. Impressibility
The fibel unface of shade should be well compacted such that the it prevens the copeility voler beady traffic ad and provide the good
sport in the road pavement.
3. Durability
Subgrade soil is the most importam component of road po If the sagrade is weak, it affects on the durability of mad pavement.
Hence the bearing capacity of the subgrade sol det be adequate so as to have long term durability
4. Drainability
Drainability is also the important property of subgrade Sub grade should have excellest drainabilry otherwise is affects on the
strength of the pavement
Good drainage is ential so as to prevent excesive moisture and to decmais the potential frust action
5. Ease of compaction
Subgrade soil should have good compacting properties well compacted subgrade surface increases the strength and the dusty of
road parement. Ease of compactions higher dry density and strength.

CBR test
 It is the ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a circular plunger of 50 mm diameter and the rate of
1.25 mm per minute to that required for corresponding penetrations in the standard material. The ratio of usually determine for
penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5 mm.
 The test is perform in three steps the steps wise procedure is given below
 preparing representative sample 2) preparation of test specimen 3) penetration test

1) representative sample preparation

 Sieve the soil receive from the field using 19 mm is Sieve the soil passing through 19 mm IS sieve is used for preparing specimen .
Weight the portion written on 19 mm IS sieve and discard it
 Take an eIt is the ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a circular plunger of 50 mm diameter and the
rate of 1.25 mm per minute to that required for corresponding penetrations in the standard material. The ratio of usually determine
for penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5 mm.
 The test is perform in three steps the steps wiqual amount of soil passing 19 mm is Sieve but retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve at this to
the soil passing through 19 mm IS Sieve in order to make an allowance for material larger than 19 mm. this gives as a representive soil
sample you should have about 5 kg of this sample
2) depression of specimen
 The specimen can be prepared at field density or maximum dry density for preparation of semen at MDD. It is necessary to know the
MDD and corresponding OMC of the soil sample the procedure given here is for preparation remoulded specimen by dynamic
compaction using a light compaction method
 Take the exact calculated mass of soil from the representative sample, required to prepare specimen at MDD and add the calculated
quantity of water to bring the sample to OMC. Mix it thoroughly. If the sample found to contain appreciable amount of clay, it is better
to keep mixed with water to mature 18 to 24 hours. This will ensure uniform distribution of water throughout the soil mass
 Remix the soil before compacting Make three equal parts
 Place the spacer dise on the perforated base plate and keep a filter paper on the spacer dise.
 Weigh the empty mould and apply thin layer of oil on inside the mould. This will make it easier to remove the soil from the mould
 Fill one part of the mixed soil in the mould and compact by giving 56 blows uniformly using the rammer. Distribute the blows uniformly
over the cross-section. Similarly compact the two more layers giving 56 blows to each layer. Use a mechanical rammer if available.
 Remove the extension collar. Trim carefully the compacted soil level with top of the mould. The compacted soil should not protrude by
more than 5 mm above the top of the mould.
 Patch any hole developed during trimming the top surface o soil. Use small size material for that.
 Remove the mould and weigh it with the specimen. will help in calculating the bulk and dry density of the specimen.
 Remove the spacer disc. Place a filter paper on the perforated base plate, Invert the mould and clamp it on the base plate with
compacted soil surface in contact with the filter paper
3) Penetration test
 Keep the mould on the loading machine. Place the annular surcharge weight on top of the soil.
 By operating the loading machine manually, bring the piston on the surface of the soil. The piston should be seated under a load of 4
kg. This establishes full contact between the surface of the specimen and the piston.
 now place the additional surcharge weights over the annular weight.
 Adjust the plunger of the gauge, measuring the penetration of the piston over a rigid surface. Preferably on the wall of the mould. Set
it to zero.
 Set the other dial gauge measuring the load also to zero.
 Adjust the loading machine to give the rate of penetration of 1.25 mm/minute and then start it.
 Record the load dial gauge reading at the penetration of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 mm.
 When the penetration reaches 12.5 mm stop the machine. If the maximum load occurs before the penetration of 12.5 mm, record the
load and penetration.
 Raise the piston by manual operation and remove the mould.
 Repeat the penetration test as a check test on the reverse side of the specimen.
 Collect three samples of about 50 gm. Each in moisture cans, from the top 30 mm layer of the specimen and determine the mean
moisture content.
STONE AGGREGATES AND THEIR TYPES
 Definition: Aggregate The materials used for manufacture of mortar and concrete such as sand, gravel etc, are called as aggregate
which can be used as road materials or bitumen.
 Aggregates provide the concrete with its body and strength and act as filler material to give the homogenous mass of concrete along
with cement paste.
 Mostly, the aggregates were considered chemically inactive and acting as only filler material. But now it is recognised that many types
of aggregates form chemical bonds with cement paste
 Mainly two types of aggregates are used in concrete:
1) Fine aggregate -Definition: The aggregate having size less than 4.75 mm is called as fine aggregate.
2) course aggregate - Definition: The aggregate having size more than 4.75 mm is called as course aggregate.
 Sand comes under the category of fine aggregates and crushed stone or metal, called khadi or gitti in Marathi, comes under coarse
aggregate.
 Maximum size used is 80 mm and the range 80 mm to 4.75 mms is known as coarse aggregate and the 4.75 to 150 micron is termed as
fine aggregate. The size 4.75 mm is common to both the fine and coarse fractions

BASIC TEST ON STONE AGGREGATE

 Following tests are carried out in laboratory on the samples of mad aggregates to decide their suitability for its use in road
construction:
1) Abrasion test
 This test is carried out to find the hardness or resistance to wear.
 The abrasion test is carried out by anyone of the following three methods:
 (a) Los Angeles abrasion test (b) Deval abrasion test (c) Dorry abrasion test
 Out of above method Los Angeles test is the most commonly used method for abrasion test as its results have been correlated with
the performance studies.
(a) Los Angeles abrasion test-
Theory
 In this method, the percentage abrasion value is determined, which indicates a relative measure of the resistance of stone aggregate
to abrasion.
 The abrasion test by this method is carried out in a machine known as Los Angeles machine.
 The inside diameter of the hollow cylinder is 700 mm and its length is 500 mm.
 The abrasive charges consists of cast iron balls, each of approximate diameter 48 mm and weight 390 gm to 445 gm.
 The weight and number of steel balls to be used as abrasive charge have been specified based on grading of the stone aggregate
sample.

2)Impact test
 This test is performed to find the toughness of stone aggregate Le resistance to hammering effect, so that it suitability for the
pavement construction work can be decided.
 The impact test is designed to evaluate the toughness of stones. This test can be carried out in the following two ways:
 (a) The page impact test (b) The aggregate impact test Out of the above two methods the aggregate impact test is usually used, since
this method has been standardised by ISI

(a) The aggregate impact test

Theory
 The aggregate test is carried out by a machine known as aggregate impact tester
 It consists of a circular hase over which two vertical guide bars are mounted.
 The guide bars are connected at the top by a metal plate through which the adjustable stop for release of hammer and the locking pin
operate
 The hammer having weight 13.5 to 14 kg slides up and down the vertical guide bars, and can be held by the releasing claw fixed to the
lifting handle
 The height of the fall of the hammer can be adjusted to 380 +- 5 mm
 The cylindrical steel cup having internal diameter 102 mm and depth 50mm can be fixed firmly to the base.
 In addition, a metal measure and a tamping rod are used for preparing the test sample.

3) Shape test
The shape test is carried out to get rough idea of the relative shapes of the aggregates. The evaluation of the shape of the particles is made
in the form of following three terms
(a) Flakiness index
 The percentage by weight of aggregate whose smalle dimension or thickness is less than 0.6 times their mea dimension is known as
the flakiness index of aggregate.
 This test is not applicable to the aggregate sizes smaller than 6.3 mm. Such particles easily breaks under the load, therefor there use in
pavement construction particularly for surface course must be avoided.
 The flakiness index for the aggregates to be used in road construction should be less than 15 and in no case, it should exceed 25.
(b) Elongation index
 The term elongation index is used to indicate the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest dimension or length is greater than
one and 1.8 times their mean dimension
 This test is not applicable to aggregate sizes smaller than 6.3 mm
 The elongated particles are likely to break under smaller loads
 In the construction of pavement, the aggregates having elongation index value greater than 10 to 15 are generally avoided.

4) Aggregate Crushing Test

 This test helps to determine the crushing strength of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) 1963. The aggregate crushing value
provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied crushing load.

BITUMINOUS MATERIALS OR BITUMINOUS BINDERS

 Definition: The substance which primarily consist of umen or contain a large proportion of bitumen are known as bituminous
materials.
 In the construction of bituminous road, following type of bitiminous materials are used.
1. Bitumen
 Definition: A hydrocarbaneous material of either natural or pyrogenous origin, found in gaseous, liquid, semi-solid or solid in state and
completely soluble in carbon-disulphide is called bitumen.
 Bitumen in paving mixes should be in proper proportion.
 Bituminous material should maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions.
 It should be maintain sufficient flexibility and avoid cracking of bituminous surface.
 It should have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix.
 Bitumen is extensively used for constructing different bituminous road pavements.
 It is used as a stabilizer for constructing stabilized earth road.

2. Asphalt
Definition: "A material or mechanical mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral matter" is known as asphalt.
 (a) Natural asphalt
Asphalt when found as a natural deposit, it is known as natural asphalt. Natural asphalt may be either lake asphalt or rock asphalt.
 (b) Residual or petroleum asphalt
When asphalt is prepared by distillation of crude petroleum in a refinery process then it is called residual or petroleum asphalt

3. Tar
 Definition: The residual product obtained by destructive distillation of organic matter such as coal, oil, wood, etc is known as tar.
 The road tar contains 72 to 95% of bituminous contents.
Types of tar
The Indian Standard Institution has specified the following 5 grades of road tar for its use for different bituminous road
constructions under suitable climatic conditions:
 (i) RT, It is recommended for painting road pavements under exceptionally cold weather.
 () RT: It is recommended for painting road pavements under normal.
 (iii) RT, It is recommended for surface painting and renewal coats, premixed top course and light carpets.
 (iv) RT: It is recommended for premixed macadam in base course.
 (v) RT5: It is recommended for grouted macadam.

4. Road oil
 Definition: The term road oil is used to indicate slow curing liquid asphalt
 Road oil is petroleum distillate from which volatile and light fractions are largely removed.
 The road oils set very slowly.
 The road oils range from a liquid road oil having poor binding characteristics to a very viscous material having excellent characteristics
and requiring heat to become workable.

5. Primers
 A primer may be a road oil, a cutback asphalt or a low viscosity road tar.
 The main function of primers is to penetrate into the road surface and to coat the blind age or aggregate thoroughly so that when
bitumen is applied, it can stick to the stone aggregates in a better way.
 The rate of application of primer varies from 110 kg per 100 for normal condition to 150 kg per 100m for rough or loose surface.

TEST ON BITUMEN
The following laboratory tests are carried out on bituminous materials to judge its suitability as a bending material:
1)Penetrations test
Theory
 (i) In order to known the hardness or softness of bitumen which is used for road construction, this test is carried out.
 (ii) In this test, the sample is prepared by softening the material to a pouring consistency between 75°C to 100°C above the
approximate softening point determined by ring and ball apparatus.
 (iii) The test is carried out with a standard penetrometer as shown in Fig. 4.14.1. weight with a needle loaded with 100 gm

2) Ductility test
 To determine the ductility of bitumen, the sample is cast is standard briquette mould whose cross-section at the minimum width is 10
mm × 10 mm
 The ductility value is expressed at the distance in centimeter to which a standard briquette of bitumen can be stretched before the
thread breaks
 The test is conducted at a temperature of 27°C ± 0.5°C at the rate of pull of 50 mm ±2.5 mum per minute.
 The ductility values of bitumen may vary from 5 to over 100 different grade of bitumen.
 Usually ductility value of bitumen should not be less than 50 for satisfactory performance.

3) Softening point test

Theory
 1. This test is carried out to find out the temperature at which the bituminous material attain a particular degree of softening for
deciding its suitability for the construction work of a road pavement.
 2. Softening point of a bituminous material is usually determined by ring and ball method.

4) Flash and Fire point test

This test is carried out to know the temperature at which the pour of a hitamisous material for a moment catches fire. In other
words, this test produces a signal of the critical temperature at and above which suitable precautions can be taken so as eliminase
fire hazards while heating the bituminous material

5) Viscosity test
This test is conducted out so as to find out the resistance to flow of the gives bituminous material From this test, suitability of this
material in the construction work can be understood. In this inst, viscosity is considered as a measure of resistance to flow of the
bituminous material. For this test, ser viscometer is used to find out viscosity.

BITUMINOUS PAVING MIXES

 The bituminous paving mixes should be prepared to be economical with proper gradation of aggregates and adequate proportion of
bitumen so that all the desired properties of mix is fulfilled.
 Bituminous concrete or asphaltic concrete is used in the surfacing course for flexible pavement layers and this is one of highest and
costly types.
 Following are the various desirable properties of good bituminous mixes :
1. Stability 2. Durability 3. Flexibility 4. Skid resistance 5. Workability
 Bituminous mix have good stability means there is good resistance of paving mix to deformation under traffic load. Cohesion is the
main factor which influence the mass viscosity of bitumen binder.
 The resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive action is the durability of the bitumen mix.
 Flexibility of the mix is a property of the mix which measures the level binding strength.
 The resistance of the finished pavement against skidding is called as skid resistance which is a function of surface texture and bitumen
content.
 The ease of mix with which it can be laid and compacted is called as workability of mix.
 Following are the various factors which are most important for a rational design of a bituminous mixes:
(i) Selection of aggregates (ii) Selection of aggregate grading (iii) Determination of specific gravity (iv) Proportioning of
aggregates (v) Preparation of specimen. (vi) Stability tests on compacted specimens. (vii) Determination of specific gravity of
compacted specimen. (viii) Selection of optimum bitumen content.

MARSHALL STABILITY MIX

 Marshall test is generally applicable to hot mix design bitumen and aggregates. Maximum size of aggregates taken in test is 25 mm.
 Note that most of the bituminous concrete mix is usually designed by Marshall tests or method in India.
 This test is used in the design of bituminous paving mixes and hence it is more suitable for the paving jobs.
 In test deformation of flow is measured in units of 0.25 mm between zero load to maximum load carried by the specimen.
 In Marshall stability test, the apparatus consists of the following:
i. Cylindrical mould of 10.16 cm diameter ii. Height of mould is 6.35 cm I iii. A base plate iv. Collar v. Compaction pedestal
vi. Hammer
 Hot specimen (temperature of 175 to 190°C) is compacted by 4.54 kg load with 45.7 cm height of all.
 The compacted specimens are cooled to room temperature in the moulds and then removed from the moulds by using a specimen
extractor.
 The specimens are kept under water at 60 +1°C for 30 to 40 minutes.
 These specimens are then taken out one by one and then placed in Marshall test head and tested to find the Marshell stability value.
 Marshell stability is the maximum load taken in kg before failure occurs and flow value is the deformation of the specimen in 0.25 mm
units applied upto the maximum load.
 If the average height of specimen is not exactly equal to 63.5 mm then in such case, the correction factors is given in table 4.14.2 are
to be applied so as to determine the corrected Marshall stability value of each specimens.
 The above procedure is repeated on specimens made with other values of bitumen with suitable rise of bitumen above 0.5% to 8% by
total mix weight

VISCOSITY BASED GRADATION OF BITUMEN -

 Viscosity also called as degree of fluidity. Grading the higher grade, stiffer will be the bitumen the grade of VG-30 bitumen is mainly
used to construct extra heavy duty bitumen pavements which require to endure substantial traffic loads. It can be used in lien of 60/70
penetration grade
 Following table 4.14.1 shows the viscosity based gradation of bitumen.
 1. VG-10 Bitumen
Such type of grade of bitumen is extensively used in spraying applications like surface dressing and paving in very cold climate in ben
place of old 80/100 penetration grade.
VG-10 bitumen is also used to prepare bitumen emulsion and modified bitumen products.
 2. VG-20 Bitumen
Such type of grade is used for paving in cold climate and high altitude regions like mountinious areas or hilly areas.
 3. VG-30 Bitumen
It is mainly used to construct extra heavy duty bitumen pavements subjected to heavy traffic loads. It can be used at a place of old
60/70 penetration grade.
VG-30 is one of grade of bitumen mainly used to construc extra heavy duty bitumen pavement which require to endure substantial
traffic loads VG-30 can be used in lieu of 60/70 penetration grade.
 4. VG-40 Bitumen
Such type of grade is used in highly stressed areas like intersections, near toll booths and truck parking lots in lieu of old 30/40
penetration grade.
Suffer bitumen mixes can be produced due to higher viscosity which improves the resistance to showing and other problems like
higher temperature and heavy traffic loads.

 MODIFIED BITUMEN ( CUTBACKS)-

1) Emulsion
 A liquid product obtained by vigorously stirring up a mixture of two unmixable liquids is known as enmulsion
 A bituminous emulsion contain 58% to 65% by weight of bituminous material
 This can be used at normal temperature without heating and suitable for damp surfaces.
2) Cutbacks
 The solution of a bituminous material in a volatile solvent is known as cutback. A cut-back asphalt contains nearly 80% bituminous
material and 20% solvent.
 The solvent usually used are gasoline, kerosene or creosote oil.
 Classification of cutback-
 Cutback are classified into the following three grades according to 1S217-1951 for their use in different bituminous pavements:
(i)Grade A: It is light and is recommended for use as aprimer
(ii) Grade B: It is medium and is recommended for surface dressing and resurfacing operations
(iii) Grade C : It is heavy and is recommended for premix type road construction.
3) Crumbed rubber modified bitumen (RMB)
 CRMB means Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen CRMB is hydrocarbon binder obtained through physical and chemical interaction of
crumb rubber with bitumen and some specific additives.
 Crumb rubber is obtained by recycling of used tyres.
 Flextal range of CRMB gives hinders which are stable and easy to handle with excellent and enhanced performances.
 CRMB can be used in making runways.

4) Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)

Polymer modified bitumen is one of the specially designed and engineered bitumen grade. When the polymer is added into a
normal bitumen, then it becomes polymer modified bitumen, which provide extra strength, high cohesiveness and resistance to
fatigue, stripping and deformations. It is most favorable material for infrastructure.
Properties or characteristics of PMB
Following are the various properties of PMB:
(i) It has higher rigidity (ii) It has higher and increased resistance to deformations. (iii) It has higher and increased resistance to
cracks and stripping. (iv) It has better water resistance properties. (v) It has high durability. (vi) It has high cohesiveness and
resistance to fatigue.
Uses of PMB
Following are the various uses of PMB
(i) PMB is used in making pavement, roads for heavy duty traffic and home roofing solutions to resist the extreme weather
conditions (ii) It is specially used for the development of very stressed pavement. (ii) It is used for roads subjected to high and
heavy traffic. (iv) It is used for high loading (v) It is used for high temperature amplitude. (vi) It is used for more durable
pavement and draining pavement
Advantages of PMB
Following are the various advantages and specific functions of PMB
(i) It provides good storage stability. (ii) It has excellent ageing resistance. (iii) It has strong adhesion with aggregates
(iv) It has high stiffness at high temperature. (V) It has enhancing properties and ability for reducing cost
Disadvantages of PMB
Although the polymers all improve bitumen properties to some extent, there are still some drawhacks limiting the future
development of bitumen polymer modification such as
(i) High cost (ii) Low ageing resistance (iii) Poor storage stability of polymer modified bitumen
5) Formed Bitumen
 When the water is injected into the hot bitumen, the water evaporates abruptly, causing foaming of the bitumen in the saturated
steam
 The bound bituminous material which accumulates during the rehabilitation and reconstruction of roads is being reused more and
more frequently and this process can be done in cold- mixing plants by adding the milled asphalt material to a new aggregate mix or
directly in-site work using suitable cold- recycling machinery. Hence use of foamed bitumen as a binding agent for this procedore has
recently generated.
 Foamed bitumen is the innovative binder for cold recycling in situ and in plant. It has storage capability upto 3 months. It is used in the
rehabilitation and new construction of road
Advantages of foamed bitumen
Following are the various advantages of foamed bitumen
(i) It has exceptionally high durability of layers (ii) It has economic viability. (iii) It is saving of natural resources. (iv) There is
reduction of CO, emission (v) It provide reduction of construction times.

TYPES OF CUTBACK
1. Rapid Curing (RC)
 These are bitumens, fluxed or cuthack with a petroleum distrillate such as nephta or gasoline which evaporates rapidly after using in
construction and leaving the bitumen binder.
 Penetration value of RC cutback is 80 to 120.

2. Medium Curing Cutbacks (MC)

 It is the bitumen fluxed to greater fluidity by blending with a intermediate boiling point solvent such as kerosene or light diesel.
 It evaporate relatively at slow rate.
 MC products have good wetting properties and hence it is possible to cost the fine grain aggregates and sandy soils.
3.Slow Curing Cutbacks (SC)
 It can be obtained either by blending with high boiling point gas oil or by controlling the rate of flow and temperature of the crude
during the first cycle of refining.
 Such cutbacks harden or set slowly because it is a semi-volatile material.

ADVANTAGES OF CUTBACKS CONVENTIONAL BITUMEN

 1. Cutback bitumen are suitable for use as a primer.
 2. Cutback bitumen can be more suitable and hence used in sprayed sealing applications particularly in cold weather. It can be used in
manufacture of premix asphalt which can be used in patch repairs.
 4. Viscosity of cutbacks can be reduced by volatile solvent.
 5. When cutback mix is used in construction work, the volatile gets evaporated and the cutbacks develops the excellent binding
properties.
 6. To increase fluidity at the lower temperature, the binder is blended with a volatile solvent.

UNIT 5

TYPES OF PAVEMENT
Following are two basic type of road pavement
(a) Flexible pavement
 Definition: The road pavement can cho their shape to some extent without rupture are k as flexible pavement.
 The common examples of flexible pavements an bituminous pavements, gravel pavements, water macadam pavement etc.
 In India, the flexible pavement are favoure mainly e following reasons
(i) is cheap and easy in construction
(ii) Local available material can be used for a construction
(iii) Require less supervision.
(b) Rigid pavement
 Definition: The road pavements which cannot change their shape without rupture are known as rigid pacement.
 Common example of rigid pavement is cement concrete pavement.

DESIGN FACTOR
1. Maximum wheel load
 Configuration of wheel load of tractor with trailer is shown in Fig 523. Fig. 5.24 shows the configuration of heavy duty vehicle
 As specified by IRC (Indian Roads Congress), the maximum legal axle load for highways is 8170 kg with a maximum equivalent single
wheel load of 4085 kg.
 Total load influences the thickness requirements of pavements and tyre influences the wearing course. Therefore the magnitude of
vertical pressure at any depth of soil sub- grade mass depends on the total load and surface pressure.
2.Contact pressure
 The total depth of pavement is not influenced by the tyre pressure.
 Stresses caused by steel tyred wheels of bullock carts are maximum, hence very strong and hard aggregate for the wearing surface is
required. But the stresses at a lower layers of pavement caused by wheels of bullock cart are negligibly small.
 The wheel load is generally assumed to be distributed over a circular area. There are three terms in use with respect to tyre pressure
are (i) Tyre pressure (ii) Contact pressure (iii) Inflation pressure.
 Contact pressure can be determined by the following relation Contact pressure = Load on wheel / Contact area or area of imprint.
3. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)
 Dual wheel assembly to the rear axles of the road vehicles is provided for two main reasons:
(i) To maintain the maximum wheel load within the specified limit.
(ii) To carry greater load.
 Equivalent single wheel load can be determined based onequivalent stress criterion or equivalent deflection. Multiple wheel loads are
converted into equivalent single wheel load and converted value is used in pavement design.
 Then according to deflection criterion, the equivalent single wheel load is that single wheel load of same contact pressure which
impart the same value of maximum deflection at the depth Z. In same manner, with the elp of stress criterion, the equivalent single
wheel load is that single wheel load which produces same value of maximum stress at the required depth "Z" as the dual.
 Equivalent single wheel load is usually found by the equivalent stress criterion with graphical method.
4 Equivalent wheel load factor
 For designing flexible pavement, McLeod has developed a proceder by which equivalent load can be determined.
Assumption made by McLeod
 "Designed pavement thickness for a given wheel load support one million repetition of load during the life of pavemen Hence, for one
load application, the thickness of the pavement quiend is only 1/4" the designed pavent thickness for 10 load repetitions.
 For the purpose calculating the equivalent load factors, the graph of repetitions against flexible pavement thickness is ploted by
McLeod as shown in Fig. 5.2.7.
 The respective repetitions are read from the graph for vario loads is pavement thickness of 25 cm and 25 cm thick is an average
thickness for highway pavement on an ordinary soil sub-grade.
 For example, wheel load of 2268 kg and the failure mumber of repeations for 25 cm thick pavement are considered standard.
5. Radius of relative stiffness
 Stresses due to curling and warping depend on the ratio between the length of the slab L and the radius of relative stiffness 1. the
radius of relative stiffness is provided by equation.
l = root((E * h ^ 2)/(12(1 - mu ^ 2) * k), 4)
6. Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
 Westerguard employed the strength parameter of soil subgrade in rigid pavement analysis considering it as modulus of subgrade
reaction k.
 The modulus of subgrade reaction k is proportional to the displacement. The displacement level A is taken as 0.125 cm for calculation
of k.
 If p is the pressure sustained in kg / c * m ^ 2 by the rigid plate of diameter 75 cm at a deflection of 0.125 cm, then the modulus of
subgrade reaction k is given by the following relation
k = p/A = p/0.125 kg / cm ^ 3

COMPUTATION OF DESIGN TRAFFIC

(A) Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
 Definition: The multiplier for converting the number of commercial vechicles of different axle loads an axle configurations to the
number of standard axle-load repetitions is termed as vehicle damage factor (VDF).
VDF = Equivalent of standard axles/commercial vehicle
 The vehicle damage factor depends upon the:
(i) Axle configuration (ii) Axle loading (iii) Terrain (iv) Type of road
and hence the vehicle damage factor varies with the axle configuration, type of load, axle loading, terrain from region to region.
(B) Lane distribution factor (LDF)
 Definition: A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction as it affects the total equivalent standard axle load is
called as lane) distribution factor.
 It is taken as 0.75 as per IRC 37-2001.
 Distribution of commercial traffic in each direction and in each lane is required so as to compote the total equivalent standard axle
load applications which to be considered in the design.
 For design of pavement, for two lane one way traffic, IRC recommends to use 0.75 x Two way traffic, where 0.75 is the lane
distribution factor Mathematically.
W18 = DDxDLxW18
# Vehicle Distribution
(i) Single lane roads
 The design should be based on tal number of commercial vehicles in both direction
(ii) Two lane single carriage way roads
 The design should be band ce 75% of the commercial vehicles in both directions.
(iii) Four-lane single carriageway roads
 The design should be hated en 40% of the total number of commercial vehicle in both direction
(iv) Dual carriage way roads
 Design of dual two lane carriage way roads should based on 75% of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction For dual
theme-lane carriage way and dual four-lane carriage way the lane distribution factor will be 60% and 45 respectively
(C) Traffic growth rate
 Traffic growth rate is an essential input in the prediction of traffic volume, which is further ined in the variety of applications such as
highways grometric and pavement design and improvements
 The traffic growth rate can be estimated by following way
(i) It can be estimated by studying the past trends of methods of traffic growth.
(ii) It can also be estimated by enablishing the econometne models
 (iii) When sufficient and adequate data is not available, the it is recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5% may be
adopted in the design of pavement or raod.

STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Following are the various terms which causes the flexible parent under maximum wheel load, dual or mutiple wheel load yuivalent
single wheel load, repetition of loads, tyre pressure.
(1) Vertical Stress
 Following equation shows the vertical s and can be dermined under a uniformly distributed circular load based on "Boussineq's theory
see Fig. 5.2.8 for better understanding
 sigma z = p[1 - (z ^ 3)/((a ^ 2 + z^2)^3/2)]
Where, sigma z= Vertical stress at depth z
p = Surface stress
Z =bullet Depth at which sigma z determined
a = Radius of loaded area.
 Using the above equation, the variation of vertical stress with pth is plotted as given.
In addition to vertical stress and strain (rutting), the shear stresses and strain, radial stresses and strain. Shrinkage stresses and strain
(cracking) and temperature stresses and strain (cracking) are developed.
(2) Contact Pressure
 It has been observed from the Fig. 5.2.10, the influence of tyre pressure is predominating in the upper layers. The total load exhibits a
considerable influence on the vertical stress magnitude because the effect of tyre pressure diminishes at a greater depth. Hence high
quality of material is required in upper layers in pavements.
 With constant tyre pressure, the total load governs the stress on the top of sub grade within allowable limit. The stresses under the
steel tyred wheels are very high and it require the use of very strong and hard aggregates for the wearing surface of the pavement.
 The wheel load is generally assumed to be distributed over a circular area, it has been seen that contact areas in many cases are
elliptical in shape.
 Contact pressure is more than tyre pressure when the tyre pressure is less than 0.7N/mm² (or 7 kg/cm) Contact pressure can be
determined by following relation:
Contact pressure=Load on wheel /Contact area

COMPONENTS AND FUNCTION OF RIGID PAVEMENT

 The cement concrete pavement slab can very well act at wearing surface as well as an effective band course.
 Hence ally the rigid pavement strate costs of the following components.
Functions of pavement components -
(1) Soil subgrade
(i) These subgrade is a layer of natural soil pergand to receive the lyns of pavement materials like graslar hase and concrete slab placed
on it.
(ii) Sub-grade provide the support to the granular base course and
cement concrete slab.
(iii) Sub-grade carries entire load of rigid pavement including the traffic load.
(2) Sub-base course or Granular base course
Sub base course are made of broken stone, bound or unbound aggregate. Sometimes a layer of stabibred soil or selected granular soil
is also used in sub-base course.
(i) Providing a good base or sub-base course layer under the cement concrete slab, increases the pavement life considerably and hence
works out more economical in the long run.
(ii) It improves the bearing capacity of sub-grade
(iii) It improves the drainage and keep check on capillary rise of sub-soil water.
(iv) It provide a stress transmitting medium to spread the surface wheel loads in such manner as it prevent shear and consolidation
deformation
(3) Wearing course or cement concrete slab
(i) The purpose of the wearing course is to give smooth riding surface
(ii) resists pressure exerted by tyres and takes up wear and tear due to traffic movement.
(iii) It also offers a water tight layer against the surface water infiltration
(iv) The cement concrete act like a base course as well as wearing course.
(v) It prevents pumping and protect the sub-grade against fast action.

DESIGN GUIDELINE FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT AS PER IRC:

 It is fourth updated revision of design guideline for flexible pavement which has been done based on the feedback meorived on the
performance of bituminous pavements in general and that of bituminous layers in particular.
 Some of the important salient features or design guideline for flexible pavement of the fourth revision as per IRC: 37-2018 .are as
follows,
 Recommendation of better performing bituminous mixes and binders for surface and base/binder courses.
 Guidelines for selection of appropriate elastic moduli for bituminous mixes used in the surface and other courses
 Recommendation of minimum thicknesses of gramlar and cement treated sub-hases and bases and bituminous layers from functional
requirements
 The procedure for the estimation of the effective resilient modulus CBR of subgrade
 Provision for the use of geo-synthetics materials
 Rationalization of the design approach for stage construction.
 The local climatic conditions, cost and availability of materials, their durability and past pavement performance in their respective
regions for selecting a suitable pavement composition are taken into consideration.
 Users of the guidelines can use their skills, experience and engineering judgment.
 All the organizations using guidelines should keep a detailed record of the year of construction, subgrade CBR, so characteristics,
pavement composition and specifications. traffic, pavement performance, overlay history, climatic conditions, etc., and provide
feedback to the Indian Roads Congress for further revision.
 The mechanistic empirical design approach, which was used in the second and third revisions of IRC-37 is kept as it was, in IRC:
37-2018 for the design of flexible pavements.
 The vertical compressive strain on top of the subgrade is comidemd in these guidelines to be the critical mechanistic parameter for
controlling subgrade rutting
 Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the bottom bituminous layer is taken as the causative mechanistic parameter.
 Tensile strain and tensile stress at the bottom of the Cement Treated Bases (CTB) are considered to be the critical parameters to
control.

DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT :

The following are the four basic designs have been involved and influenced by the properties of material and the environmental effect
on these properties.
1.Plain Concrete :
 This type of design is used for short slab of pavement. This design is less costly to construct the pavement.
 It saves the cost and therefore used most frequently for roads subjected to light traffic and also used for residential streets.
 It also used at place where bearing capacity is found to be ultimate.
2.Reinforced concrete :
 This type of pavement design includes steel mesh or mat and most commonly used for most of the traffic and climatic conditions.
3.Continuously reinforced concrete :
 This type of pavement design contains heavier steel and widely used for urban express way.
4.Prestressed concrete :
 This type of pavement has long lengths which are prestressed in compression by tendons or jacks.
 It is more costly and widely used for urban express highway.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT OR DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR RIGID PAVEMENTS-
 Following are the design parameters for the rigid pavements
1. Traffic parameters
(a) Traffic intensity
 Because of continuous loading of traffic on the pavement, fatigue effects of concrete should be involved in the concrete. Fatigue
effects is less for low intensity traffic.
 The following expression may be adopted for prediction of traffic intensities (heavy or low) on main highways.
T = p * (1 + r) ^ (n + 20)
 Note that, traffic intensities is very less than the that at the end of design life, hence design life is taken as 20 years after construction.
2. Characteristics of concrete
 Crushing strength is the important parameters in the design of a concrete pavement slab. Concrete has a very high compressive
strength or high crushing strength.
 Due to high crushing strength of concrete, the concrete is rarely fails in compression in a rigid pavement.
 According to IRC (Indian Road Congress) specification, minimum modulus of rupture is 4 kg/cm ^ 2 or 4 MN/(m^2) Note that the
flexural strength is calculated as the modulus of rupture.
3. Design of slab thickness of pavement
 Design of slab thickness of pavement depends upon the stress condition, analysis of stresses and temperature stress:
(a) Stress condition
 There are two most common factors such as traffic loads and temperature variation high develops the stresses in the pavement, hence
these two factors are considered in the design of pavement thickness.
 There are three different portions such as corner, edge and interior which are identified for the analysis.
(b) Stress analysis
Following are the stresses likely to be developed in rigid pavements
i) Edge stresses
 These are developed due to traffic load stress in edge region is determined with the correlation analysed by Westergaard and modified
by Teller and Sutherland as follows:
aleph le= 0.529 * p/(h^2) * (1 + 0.54mu) (4 * log10(1/b) + log10(b) - 0.4048)
(ii) Temperature stress
 By using Westergaurd's analysis and Bradbury's coefficie temperature stress is obtained as follow
(iii) Corner stresses
 By using Westerguaard's analysis modified by Kelley, the corner stresses can be obtained as follows
4. Environmental parameters
 The difference in top and bottom of concrete pavement surfaces because of solar radiation is called as temperature differential which
is a environmental parameters consider in the design of pavement. Value of temperature differential can be obtained from guidance
5. Foundation surface characteristics
 Smoothness or roughness indicates the characteristics of foundation surface which determines the resistance to the slab movement
during expansion and contraction. IRC classification for surface characteristics with respect to the type of foundation
6. Foundation strength
 Definition: A pressure per unit deflection of the foundation as determined by plate bearing plate is called as modulus of sub-grade
reaction (k).
 In the design of rigid pavement, the foundation strength is determined by the modulus of sub-grade reaction (k).
 IRC recommends the limiting design deflection for concrete pavements is considered as 1.25 mm and k-value is found out from the
pressure sustained at 1.25 mm.
7. Poisson's ratio (u) and modulus of elasticity (E)
 As the modulus of elasticity is increases, the poisson's ratio (14) decreases. Hence the following values are suggested for concrete with
flexural strength within the range of 38 to 42 kg/cm².
 Suggested values for design purposes;
Poisson's ratio (a) = 0.15
Modulus of elasticity (E) = 3 * 10 ^ 5 * kg/cm ^ 2 or 300MN/(m^2).
8.Coefficient of thermal expansion (a)
 Coefficient of thermal expansion depends on the type of aggregate. The value of coefficient of thermal expansion (a) vanis with the
type of aggregate.
alpha = 10 * 10 ^ - 6 PC is adopted for the design purposes

WRITE A EXPLANATORY NOTE ON TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN CASE OF CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT-

 It is the property of a cement concrete slab to expand when there is a rise in temperature and contracts when there is fall in
temperature.
 If the cement concrete slab is subjected to free expansion and free contraction (ie, free deformation or natural deformation); then
there will not be any changes in its length and therefore no temperature stress will be developed due to rise or fall in temperature.
 In case of rigid pavements, the concrete slab resists the free deformation due to its own weight or due to action of frictional forces.
However, the stresses are developed because of temperature variation.
 Hence stresses are so developed due to variation temperature are classified in the two types mentioned a below:
(i) Warping stresses
 Definition: The stresses so developed because of differential changes or variations in the top and bottom surfaces of the slab is termed
as warping stresses.
 Note that whatever temperature change occurs on the top surface do not transmits its intensity immediately through the complete
slab thickness.
 There is various changes in the top and bottom surfaces and warping or bending in the slab caused by temperature variation or
difference.
(ii) Frictional stresses
 The temperature of the top and bottom surface is equal at such stage when temperature of the concrete remains same or constant for
long period of time. Due to this constant temperature, there is uniform expansion or contraction (i.e. lengthening or shortening) of the
slab and at this stage warping is zero.
 Concrete slab is in contact with the sub grade below it, hence slab movements are resisted by the friction held between the bottom
surface of the slab and the sub grade.
 Following Equation gives the frictional stresses,
sigma_{t} = (gamma_{e}*Lf)/(2 * 10 ^ 4)

DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR CONCRETE PAVEMENT AS PER IRC 58-2015

 It is a latest version of IRC 58-2015 with a aims at rationalizing the design procedure by bringing with current trends in design
considering cumulative fatigue damage caused by the combined effect of load and pavement temperature.
 The guideline also consist of the procedure for design of pavement with widened outer lane, tied concrete shoulder, pavements
bonded to stabilized sub-base as well as design of longitudinal, expansion and contraction joints.
(a) Salient features of design current guidelines for design of rigid pavement are as follows
(1) Consideration of flexural stress under the simultaneous action of load and temperature variation for various categories in the
design of pavement
(2) Consideration of sum of cumulative fatigue damages due to by single tandem and tridem axle load application caused by tensile
flexural stresses at the top and the bottom of the pavement slab in the design of rigid pavement.
(3) Consideration of in-built permanent curl in the analysis of flexural stresses.
(4) Guidelines for pavements without concrete shoulders and with tied concrete boulders are mentioned in the design.
(5) Concrete slabs with unbounded as well as bonded cement bound sub-base are considered in the design.
(6) Design of pavements with widened outer lanes has been introduced in the design.
(b) Concreter pavement types
(1) Debonding layer of polythene sheet over DLC-
(i) PQC: Pavement Quality Concrete (125 micron PVC sheet)
(ii)DLC (Dry Lean Concrete)
(iii) Drainage layer
(iv) GSB (Granular sub-base) as separation layer
(v) 500 mm of sub-grade with minimum CBR of 8%
(2) Deboning layer 30 mm to 40 mm BC 2-
(i) PQC-BC2 30 mm to 40 mm
 (ii) Cement treated aggregates
(iii) Drainage layer
(iv) GSB as separation layer
(v) 500 mm of sub-grade with a minimum CBR of 8%
(3) Factors governing design-
Following are the various factors governing the design of rigid pavement
(1) Design period
(i) Design commercial traffic volume
(iii) Composition of commercial traffic in terms of single, tandem,tridem and multi-axles, axle load spectrum.
(iv) Tyre pressure,
(v) Lateral placement characteristics
(vi) Directional distribution
(vii) strength of foundation and climatic consideration
(4) Axle load characteristic-
 The legal axle load limits in India are 10.2 tonnes (100 KN) for single axle, 19 tonnes (186 KN) for tandex axle and 24 tonnes (235 KN)
for tridem axles. But it has been observed that much heavier load is carried over the national highways than the legal limits.
 Data on axle load spectrum of the commercial vehicles is needed to estimate the repetitions of single axle, tandem axles and tridem
axles in each direction during design period.
(5) Wheel Base Characteristics
 Wheel bases of trucks of different models generally range from 3.6 m to more than 5 m, where as commonly used spacing of
transverse joints is 4.5 m.
 In this way, axles with spacing of more than 4 to 5 m will not contribute to top-down fatigure cracking.
 However, if the actual spacing of transverse joints is different from 4.-5m, design traffic for estimation of top-down cracking damage
may be selected appropriately.
(6) Design Period
 Life span of rigid pavement may be designed for 30 years or more.
 But factors like traffic volume uncertainty of traffic growth rate, the capacity of the road and the possibility of augmentation of
capacity by widening should be considered for design period.
(7) Traffic Consideration
Following points are taken into accountin traffic consideration
(i) Design lane
 The lane carrying maximum numbered heavy commercial vehicles is termed as design lane.
 Each lane of a 2-way, 2-lane highway and the outer lane of multi-lane highway can be considered.
(ii) Design traffic
 Average daily traffic should normally be based on 7 days, 24 hour count made by IRC: 9. As per IRC: SP: 84, annual growth rated of
commercial vehicles shall be taken to be a minimum of 5%.
 In case of new highway link, where no traffic count data is available then data from road of similar classification and importance may
be used to predict the design traffic intensity.
(8) Temperature consideration
Temperature differential and zero stress temperature gradient is considered in the design of rigid pavement.
(9) Embankment soil and characteristics of sub grade and sub base
 CBR of embankment soil placed below the 500 mm select sub grade determined for estimating the effective CBR of sub grade and its
K-value for design.
 The nature of embankment foundation strata like expansive clay, marine clays, black cotton soil, soft clays etc should be studied so as
to take special measures in the design.

CONSTRUCTION JOINTS IN CEMENT CONCRETE (CC) PAVEMENT / RIGID PAVEMENT

Reasons for providing joints
(i) Joints are essential in concrete road to allow for expansion, contraction and warping of the road slab due to temperature variations.
(ii) They are also sometimes required when there is abrupt break in the construction.
(iii) OR, the day's work is not ended at specified joints in order to make proper bond between the old and new construction work of
the road slab.
Requirement of good joints in cement concrete parement
Following are the various requirement of a good joints
(i) Joint should not permit infiltration of rain water and ingress of stone grits or protrade
(ii) Joints should not disturb or protude the general level of the pavement.
(iii) Joints should not move freely.
(iv) There should be sufficient gap so as to allow the free expansion or contraction due to atmospheric variation in temperature.

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
 Drainage of roads is a system by which efficient collection, removal and disposal of surface and sub-surface water can be done such
that the stability of road pavements can only be maintained by keeping the road surface and its foundation bed in dry condition..
 The entrance of water in the sub-grade or any other layer of the road pavement can be prevented by road drainage system.
 This chapter will give you the basic knowledge of various road drainage system and their importance in the design and maintenance of
roads.
 Provision of sufficient drainage is an important factor in the location and geometric design of highways. Drainage facilities on any
highway or street should adequately provide for the flow of water away from the surface of the pavement to properly designed
channels.
 Inadequate drainage will eventually result in serious damage to the highway structure. In addition, traffic may be slowed by
accumulated water on the pavement, and accidents may occur as a result of hydroplaning and loss of visibility from splash and spray.
 The importance of enough drainage is recognized in the amount of highway construction dollars are spent for corrosion control and
drainage structures, such as culverts, bridges, channels and ditches.

SURFACE DRAINAGE
 Definition: When a system in which the surface water of road is collected and disposed within right of way of a road, then it is called
surface drainage
 This system prevent the surface water to flow from the pavement surface to the shoulders and in the sub-grade or any other layer of
the road pavement
Functions of surface drainage-
1. To collect the drained off water from the surface of road.
2. To keep the road surface dry from water.
3. To travel the collected water by gravity into the near by natural nallah or stream or river.
4. To increase the stability of road pavement.
(a) Side gutter
 Definition: The drains provided parallel to the road side so as to collect and dispose the surface water are called as side gutter.
 Surface drainage is efficiently done by providing a side gutter or side drain in embankment and in cutting as shown in Fig. 5.18.1(a) and
The section of side gutter is normally trapezoidal, sometime it is found to be triangular in cutting
 Side gutter are usually provided parallel to roads when the designed depth of side drains is less and road is subjected to light traffic.
Function-
 The main function of side gutter is to collect the surface water. These gutters ultimately join the natural stream i.e. nalla ce river.
 These side gutters can be cheaply and easily constructed and maintained but it provide an unpleasant look due to deep dat hence
undesirable where traffic is heavy.
(b) Catch water drains
 Definition: An additional gutters or drains provided parallel to the road at an higher level and slope for collecting and disposing the
surface water are known as catch water drains.
 Since the quantity of water flowing down the sloping ground is more, it acquires a high velocity as it approach the gutter. This may
result in eroding the ground and may also damage the gutter. Hence catch water drains are provided especially on sloping ground
which approaches to the road side gutter.
Function -
 The catch water drain intercepts the large quantity of the surface water flow and also breaks the continuity of flow and thereby
reduces the velocity of water and thus prevent the erosion and hand slides and thereby protect the road pavement. Catch water also
help in reducing the size of side gutters or side drains.
 Sectional area of catch water drains are generally 0.9 mx 0.9 m and should be constructed normally at 4.5 m from the road edge.

SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
 Definition: When the system by which sub soil water from underside of a road pavement is collected and removed then it is called
sub-surface drainage or sub-soil drainage.
 Sub-surface drainage is specially used to control the moisture content of the road sob-grade.
 If the moisture content accumulating in the sub-soil is excessive, then road structure becomes weak. Hence it is more essential to
control the moisture of the road sub-grade
 The factors which increases the sub-soil moisture content are:
(i) Rise in ground water table.
(ii) Seepage of water from adjoining areas
(iii) Capillary action which causes the rise of moisture above ground water table.
(iv) Percolation of surface water through joints and cracks.
 The factors which causes the rise in sub-soil moisture or sub-surface moisture can be well controlled by providing longitudinal drains,
cross drain and impervious bituminous layer which specially controls the capillary rise.
Functions of sub-surface drainage
1. To control the moisture content of the road sub-grade.
2 To maintain the bearing capacity of the sub-grade soil by preventing the entry of water into it.
3. To educe the capillary rise, sometimes due to capillary action, the water rises into the sub-grade from the ground water. It can be
controlled by introducing a cut-off layer of granular material or impervious bituminous layer.

UNIT 6
CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES
Bridges can be classified into various types based on the various factors.
1. Based on use of material
i.Masonry bridgesi ii.Steel bridges ii. iii.Timber bridges iv. R.C.C bridges v.Prestressed concrete bridges
2. Based on function / purpose
i.Foot bridges ii.Highway bridges iii.Aqueducts and viaducts iv. Railway bridges v. Grade separator bridges.
3.Based on loading
 i. Class A bridges ii. Class B bridges üi Class AA bridges
4.Based on life
i. Temporary bridges ii. Permanent bridges
5. Based on span length
i. Culverts ii. Minor bridges iii. Major bridges iv. Longer span bridges
6. Based on road level
i. Deck bridges ii. Through bridges iii. Semi-through bridges
7.Based on alignment
i.Straight bridges ii.Curved bridges iii. Skew bridges
8. Based on structural form
Beam type bridges
a) R.C.C tee beam b) Balanced cantilever c) Steel girder d) Plate and box girder bridges e) Portal frame bridges f) Truss bridges (N and
warren type bridges) g) Slab type bridges
Arch type bridges
a) Open spandrel b) Rib type bridges c) Filled spandrel
Suspension bridges
a) Ramp bridges b) Sling bridges c) Trestle bridges
9.Based on linear water way
i. Culvert: upto 6m ii.Minor bridges: 6m to 30m iii. Major bridges: more than 30m iv. Important bridges: more than 110m.
10. Based on high flood level (HFL)
i. Submersible bridges ii. Non-submersible bridges.
11. Based on level of bridge floor
(i) Through bridges. (ii) Deck bridges. (ii) Semi-through bridges.
12. Based the movement of bridges
(i) Flying bridges (ii) Swing bridges. (iii) Lift bridges. (iv) Bascule bridge. (v) Traverse bridges. (vi) Transporter bridges. (vi) Cut boat
bridges.

COMPONENTS PARTS OF BRIDGE STRUCTURE

Bridge structure
1. Foundation 2. Abutment 3.Pier and pier cap 4. Bearing 5. Railing 6. Expansion joint 7. Bridge girder 8. Approaches 9. Wing walls 10.
Earth filling or earth embankmentComponents Parts of Bridge Structure
Bridge structure
1. Foundation 2. Abutment 3.Pier and pier cap 4. Bearing 5. Railing 6. Expansion joint 7. Bridge girder 8. Approaches 9. Wing walls 10.
Earth filling or earth embankment

BASIC COMPONENTS OF BRIDGE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A) Foundations
 Definition: The lowermost part of a bridge constructed on the hard strata and performing the function of taking the load of
superstructure and transfer it to the sub-soil hard strata is called as foundation.
 Function
i. To sustain the entire load of bridge structure. ii. To distribute the load of various components like carriage way, abutment, piers etc
over a large area.iii. To provide the suitable base for entire bridge structure. iv. To resist the overturning and tilting effect of the
abutments and piers. v.To provide the complete stability to the bridge structure.
B) Sub-structure
 Definition: It is the lower part of bridge including the various structural components like abutment, piers etc along with their
foundation supporting the super structure of bridge.
 Function
i.Sub-structure along with their all components supports the superstructure of bridge. ii. It distribute the loads to the soil strata
through foundation. iii. It provide the access to the road / rail traffic to the level of bridge super structure through approaches.

C) Super Structure
 Definition: It is the upper part of a bridge including the various structural components like beam, girders, arches suspention cables,
bridge floor, parapet wall, roadway ete carrying the communication route.
 Functions
(i) It keep the roadway safe with parapet wall. (ii) It provide the roadway or carriage way as a communication route (iii) It connects the
two roads on its either side for road or rail traffic. (iv) It provide the safety and convenience for traffic.

PIERS
 Definition : Vertical intermediate supports to the various spans of a bridge is called as piers. Piers can be a R.C.C or stone masonry
structure.
 Function of pier
i. The main function of pier is to transfer the load from superstructure to the sub-soil through foundations.
ii. It divides the length of a bridge into suitable number of span with minimum obstruction of the river.
 Requirement of piers of bridge
 1. It should be strong enough to sustain the load. 2. It should be constructed without affecting the economy. 3. It should be
constructed easily. 4.It should have less maintenance cost. 5.It should be able to resist the lateral and longitudinal thrust of water. 6.
It should be constructed with durable and long lasting material.
 Types of pier of bridge
(i) Solid piers
When the piers are solid and impermeable then it is called as solid piers. Solid piers are classified into two types:
(a) Solid masonry pier
 When piers are constructed in stone masonry, concrete brick masonry etc, then it is called as solid masonry pier.
 Now-a-days plain concrete blocks (Pre-cast block) are being used to construct the piers. Such type is generally used for moderate
height of bridges.
(b) Solid R.C.C pier
 When the solid piers are constructed with reinforced cement concrete, then it is called as solid R.C.C piers.
 Such type of piers are generally rectangular in cross-section with cut water and easy waters. It does not require bed blocks to place the
bridge girder on piers.
 Now-a-days; a typical type of solid R.C.C pier is Dump-well pier which is commonly used in dump-well pier, there are two end column
connected together with a thin reinforced concrete web named as diaphragm wall.
(ii) Open piers
 When there is no solid sections throughout the length and allowing the water to pass through the structure then it is called as open
piers.
 Following are the various types of open piss:
(a) Cylindrical pier
 When open piers are constructed with mild steel or cast iron cylinders filled with cement concrete, then it is called as cylindrical pers.
 Such type of piers are suitable for bridges having moderate heights. Cylinders are sunk into the river bed upto a solid foundation.
(b) Column piers or column bents
 When the piers are made up of two or more R.C.C columns constructed in row and connected to each other by providing table
bracings, then it is called as column piers.
 Such type is used for high bridges.
(C) Pie piers or pile bents
 Such type of piers are constructed in number of steel or R.C.C piles driven into the unstable ground provided with cap at their top cap
pot the main girder.
 Somtic bracings are provided above the river bed in order to make the pile piers more stable.
 Sach type is most suitable for unstable ground.
(d) Trestle piers or Trestle bents
 There are two types of trestle namely (i) R.C.C trestle bent and (ii) Stool trestle bent. R.C.C trestle bent consist of column provided with
a bent cap at the top.
 Such types are suitable for bridges where water flow is slow and river bed is sufficiently having firm strata.

ABUTMENTS
 Definition: Abutments are the end support of a bridge superstructure.
 Function of Abutments
i. It transmits the load of superstructure of a bridge to foundation. ii.It provide support to the superstructure. iii. It retains the earth
work of embankment of the approaches. iv. It provide the final formation level to the bridge superstructure.

WING WALLS
 Wing wall are constructed at the both ends of the abutment in order to retain the earth filling of bridge embankments.
 Generally the wing walls are provided with steadily decreasing cross section. There is independent design of wing walls. Mean
thickness of wing wall at any section is one third of its height.
 Water face of wing walls is generally kept vertical.
 Functions of wing walls
i. It provide a smooth entry and exit at the bridge waterway. ii. It support and protect the embankment. iii.It protect earth banks from
the water currents.
 Types of wing walls
1. Straight wing walls
 When the wing walls are constructed with respect to the alignment of abutment or parallel to the abutment then it is called as straight
wing wall.
 Such type of wall are constructed parallel to the abutments and most suitable for culverts and small bridges or railway bridges.
 These are also constructed across the drains of low banks.
2. Return wing walls
 When the wing walls are constructed at perpendicular to the abutments and parallel to high embankment and firm banka then such
wall is called as return wing walls.
 Such type of walls are most suitable for the approaches of high embankment.
3. Splayed wing walls
 When the wing walls are constructed on acute angle varies from 30° and 45° with abutment then it is called as splayed walls.
 Such type of walls are most suitable for small as well as big bridges and for curved road approaches it is also suitable in the situation
where the width of road is to reduces while crossing the bridge.
PRELIMINARY DATA TO BE COLLECTED DURING INVESTIGATION OF SITE FOR BRIDGES
 Investigation of the bridge site is the preliminary stage or initial stage which should be carefully done by taking various details like
topography, hydrological data, subsoil conditions, etc in order to avoid many expansive errors and make the project economical and
strong as per as the strength and durability is concerned.
 There are four stages of investigation in case of major bridges to be carried out in proper way.
1. Reconnaissance survey
 It is the survey in which number of probable sites satisfying the various factors for the purpose of the aligning and locating the bridge
are determined.
 The complete length of the river across which the bridge to be constructed should be studied. Finally sites are selected satisfying the
most suitable and desirable factors.
 Following are the various factors are to be considered in reconnaissance survey:
i. Study of present or available map of the site area. ii. Behaviour characteristics and hydraulic data of the river or stream iii.
Topography of low ground or valley. iv. Nature and load of road traffic or railway traffic at the bridge site. v. Site visit to possible
areas in order to know the local features and problems by discussing with local peoples of villages or towns.
2. Preliminary survey
 It is the survey in which a number of probable sites satisfying the various factors for location and alignment of a bridge are found out.
 Complete details of comparative advantages and disadvantages of the proposed site or probable site are obtained in this survey.
 Following are the various details to be obtained in preliminary survey.
i.Present status and future traffic for proper design of a bridge ii.Nature and subsoil conditionsiii.Length of bridge and approaches
iv. Width of river and its nature of flow v.Availability of skilled and unskilled labour. Vi. Availability of suitable construction material
near by the site vii. Transportation facilities of construction material and various constructional activities viii.Time and duration
required for construction of bridge. ix. Construction and maintenance problems on the site.
3. Detailed Survey
 It is the survey and study in which the final decision of selection of bridge site is taken for the further progress
 Following are the various details of investigation to be done
i Detailed ground survey and topographical survey ii. Analysis of hydrological data iii. Methods for soil exploration and its testing
iv.Duration of construction of bridge project v.Analysis of present and future traffic to decide the type of bridge vi. Details of structural
analysis and its design. vii. Total cost of construction viii.Budget to be sanctioned ix. Return on investment of project
4. Project report
 It is the final stage of proposed project of bridge site.
 It consists of the following drawings.
i.Index map ii.Plan of contour survey showing Vanous details of topographic feature. iii.Site plan iv. Working drawing v. Cross-section vi
Longitudinal section vii Catchment area map viii. Soil profile
 After preparing the necessary and essential details, the further step of sanctioning the project is done.

ECONOMICAL SPAN
 Economic span is one for which the total cost of the bridge is minimum. For the most economical span, the cost of the superstructure
equals the cost of the substructure, with the following assumptions:
1. The cost of the superstructure is proportional to the squat the span. 2. The spans are of equal length. 3. The cost of each abutment
is the same 4. The cost of railings, parapet, approach is constant.

AFFLUX
 In case of bridges; 'the construction of piers and abutments cause obstruction to the natural flow of river or stream. Doe to this, there
is increase of velocity of flow under the bridge during maximum flood discharge and there is sudden rise or heading up of water level
on the upstream side of the bridge.
 This sudden rise of water level on the upstream side is termed as 'afflux' and it is much important and desirable to keep its height as
far as possible to 150 mm.
 In short, the maximum increase in water level due to obstruction in the path of flow of water is called as afflux. Afflux actually denotes
loss of head and its magnitude is represented by the difference in total energy level on upstream and the downstream of the works.
Afflux is generally limited to 1 meter, but may be kept higher if permissible. To adopt for waterway is given by the following formula
representing Lacey's wetted perimeter.
P = 4.83√Q
P= Lacey's wetted perimeter, and
Q= Maximum flood discharge.

HFL
The level of the highest flood ever recorded or the calculated level for the highest possible flood is called Highest Flood Level (H.F.L)

SCOUR DEPTH AND CLEARANCE

 The depth upto which a flowing stream erodes soil is known 25 scour depth. The vertical cutting of river bed is called scour. The total
scour depth is determined by adding scour components which includes the long-term aggradations and degradation of the river bed,
general scour at the bridge and local scour at the piers or abutment.
 When the velocity is greater than the limiting velocity, then this greater velocity erods the particle of bed material and scour occurs.
 The depth of water in the middle of the stream when it is carrying the peak flood discharge is called as normal scour depth. This
normal scour depth can be determined by actual soundings at or near the proposed site for the bridge during or immediately after a
flood.
 The scour pattern at a bridge depends upon the following factors:
i.Flood discharge ii.Direction of flow iii. Bed material iv. Bed slope. v.Pier geometry (means pier shape and size) vi.Alignment of pier
 It is more significantly important to estimate the correct scour depth so as to have a safe and sound design of a bridge.
 When it is not possible to estimate a scour, the theoretical methods may be used to estimate a scour for different types of streams.
 When linear waterway of the bridge is not less than the Regime width, then normal scour depth is equal to the Regime depth given by
the following Lacy's Regime equation
d = 0.473(Q/F)^1/2

LOCATION OF PIERS AND ABUTMENTS

 Piers are obstructures usually constructed in bridges.
 Piers are located in bridges at the ends of span of bridge at intermediate points between the abutments. In other words, Pier is a type
of substructure which being located between horizontal spans and foundations & number of piers as per design are located at
intermediate points between the abutments.
 In short pier is vertical load bearing member provide an intermediate support & located in between adjacent ends of bridge spans in
building construction.
 Piers provide vertical supports for spans at intermediate of different points and perform both main functions such as transferring
vertical superstructure loads to the foundations and resisting horizontal forces acting on this bridge.
 Piers are subjected to huge axial loads and bi-axial moments and shear forces in transverse and longitudinal direction Piers are also
called as bents.
 Piers for bridges are often installed by the caisson method.

LOCATION OF ABUTMENTS IN BRIDGES

 An abutment is the substructure located at the ends of a bridge span or dam supporting its superstructur.
 In case of single-span bridges, abutments are at each end which provide vertical and lateral support for the span. In case the earthen
fill of the bridge approach, abutment acting as retaining walls to resist lateral movement of the earthen fill.
 On short bridges, one abutment is located at either end of the bridge and connected to the embankment, sometimes including a
retaining wall.
 Bridge abutments connect the deck, or surface of the bridge, to the ground and help support its weight both honzontally and
vertically.
 The span of a bridge is associated with embankments by means of abutments.
 Abutments Bridge are constructed on the ground surface & adjoin the ground and deck of the bridge. The load or weight of the bridge
deck is supported by the abutments.

FACTOR INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF BRIDGE SUPER STRUCTURE

1. Width of river
 Length of bridge depends upon the width of the river. If width of river is small, the initial cost and maintenance cost will be less.
 Hence it is essential and desirable having the well defined and narrow channel for the selection of bridge site. Thus selection of least
possible length of bridge site is most economical.
2. Foundation
 Firm soil strata at the bridge site should available at the reasonable depth for good foundation and thus not attaching the cost. In short,
a bridge site should have hard, non Dodellin and firm bed at shorter depth for providing the foundation.
3. A straight reach and approach
 It is more desirable to have a straight reach for a considerable long distance on upstream side as well as down stream side of the
bridge.
 Due to this the purpose of bridge can be properly maintained for the design period.
 As far as possible it is desirable to avoid the bridge site on the curved portion of river. The curve path of river creates the difficulty
during construction and maintenance of bridge.
 It is also more desirable to have the bridge site with sound, economical and straight approaches.
4. Connectivity with roads
 The purpose of providing the bridge is to join or to connect the road on the both side of width of the river or low ground.
 Hence connectivity of river with roads should not involve heavy expenditure and there should be easy approach and connectivity of
road at the bridge site with respect to the river with reasonable expenditure.
5. Availability of construction material
 The site selection for bridge construction should be done in such way that there should be easy availability of construction material
nearby in order to make the bridge economical in initial cost of construction.
6. Availability of skilled and unskilled labour
 There should be easy availability of skilled as well as unskilled labour nearby so as to make bridge construction to be economical
7. Firm embankment
 The site for bridge should have firm permanent straight solid and high embankment because firm embankment will not get disturbed
due to heavy flood.
 Thus firm embankment save the cost to treat the poor embankment.
8. Velocity of flow
 There should be the site where the velocity of flow will not cause any silting or scouring and it should be between the range of
non-scouring and non-silting.
9. Minimum obstruction to waterway
 Bridge site should have minimum obstruction to waterway in order to provide less afflux.
10. Silting and scouring
 In order to minimise the maintenance cost: the bridge site should be selected to prevent the possibility of silting and scouring
Thus bridge site should be free from scouring and silting.
11. Economy
 Site selection for bridge should be economical for the overall construction cost and maintenance cost
12. Location of river tributaries
 River tributaries should not be possibly close to the bridge site and thus protecting the bridge from the various disturbances
13. Free board
 There should be sufficient free board or clearance kept in between the water level of river and bottom of bridge.
 This free board is useful for the passage of boats ship if the river is used for
14. Right angle crossings
 In order to have economical construction of bridge, it is essential to keep the axis of the stream at right angle to the centre line of the
route as far as possible.
15. High bank above HFL on each side
 The bridge site should be selected in such that bridge should have high of stable bank so that overflowing of the streams during flood
preventing silting and scouring and thus increasing the life duration of bridge.

APPROACH ROADS
 Definition: Length of communication route at both ends of the bridge is called a approaches
 Approaches can be in embankment or in cutting depending on the design of the bridge.
 It is desirable to have straight approaches and hence as per the IRC recommendation, the approaches should be straight for a
maximum distance of 16 m on both the side of bridge.
(a) Function of approaches
(i) It carries the communication route of road upto the floor level if the bridge.(ii) It helps the vehicles to run on a road or railway
track.
(b) Types of approaches
1. Approaches with straight abutments
This type of approaches are most suitable for low height of the approach of embankment.
2. Approaches with abutment and retaining wall
This type is most suitable in urban areas. Its initial cost is more, but maintenance cost is less.
3. Approaches running over the extended portion of the bridge
This type is used when it is not economical to cover the total span of bridge. E.g. arch bridge and suspension bridges.

LOADS ACTING ON A BRIDGE

(i) Dead load
 The dead load is the weight of the structure and any permanent load fixed thereon. The dead load is initially assumed and checked
after design is completed.
 The dead load is the weight of the bridge girder/truss and any other permanent load attached to it. Hence dead load consists of two
consists of two major components:
(a) self weight of girder/truss (known as main structure) including lateral bracings, and
(b) weight of floor system. Initially, the dead load of the structure is assumed. Before finalising the design, the dead load, assumed
initially, should be checked and if the variation is more than 2%, the design should be repeated with the revised dead load.
 The best way of estimation of self-weight of main structure is by way of comparison with similar types of existing structures.
(ii) Live load
 Bridge design standards specify the design loads, which are meant to reflect the worst loading that can be caused on the bridge by
traffic, permitted and expected to pass over it.
 In India, the Railway board specifies the standard design loadings for railway bridges in bridge rules.
(iii) Impact Load
 The dynamic effect caused due to vertical oscillation and periodical shifting of the live load from one wheel to another when the
locomotive is moving is know as impact load.
 The impact load is determined as a product of impact factor. 1, and the load.
(iv) Longitudinal forces
 These forces result from vehicles braking or accelerating while travelling on a bridge. As a vehicle brakes, the load of the vehicle is
transferred from its wheels to the bridge deck.
 The IRC specifies a longitudinal force of 20% of the appropriate lane load. This force is applied at 1.2 m above the level of the deck.
 The effect of longitudinal forces on the superstructure is inconsequential substructure elements, however, are affected more
significantly.
 Longitudinal forces are set up between vehicles and bridge deck when the former accelerate or brake.
(v) Thermal forces
 The free expansion or contraction of a structure due to changes in temperature may be restrained by its form of construction.
 Where any portion of the structure is not free to expand or contract under the variation of temperature, allowance should be made for
the stresses resulting from this condition.
(vi) Wind load
 Wind load effect is not generally significant in short-span bridges, for medium spans, the design of sub- structure is affected by wind
loading: the super structure design is affected by wind only in long spans.
 Wind load is one of the structural actions which has a great deal of influence on bridge design. The significant role of wind loads is
more highlighted after it caused numbers ofbridge structures to either collapse completely, eg, Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) or
experience serviceability discomforts eg Volgograd bridge (2010).
 The nature of the wind load is dynamic. This means that its magnitude varies with respect to time and space.
(vii) Racking force
 This is a lateral force produced due to the lateral movement of rolling stocks in railway bridges.
 Lateral bracing of the loaded deck of railway spans shall be designed to resist, in addition to the wind and centrifugal loads, a lateral
load due to racking force of 6.0 kN/m treated as moving load.
 This lateral load need not be taken into account when calculating stresses in chords or flanges of main girders.
(viii) Forces on parapets
 Railings or parapets shall have a minimum height above the adjacent roadway or footway surface of 1.0 m less one half the horizontal
width of the top rail or top of the parapet.
 They shall be designed to resists a lateral horizontal force and a vertical force each of 1.50 kN/m applied simultaneously at the top of
the railing or parapet.
(ix) Seismic load
 If a bridge is situated in an earthquake prone region, the earthquake or seismic forces are given due consideration in structural design.
 Earthquakes cause vertical and horizontal forces in the that will be proportional to the weight of the structure.

TYPES OF STRESSES ACTING ON A BRIDGE

 Stresses acting on a bridge structure: The following are the various stresses to be considered for the purpose of computing stresses,
wherever they are applicable.
(i) Temperature stresses: This type of stresses are likely to develop if change in length with variations in temperature is fully or partly
retained by fixing the ends.
(ii) Deformation stresses: The bending stress in any member of steel bridges of an open web girder or a truss caused by the vertical
deflection of the girder in connection with the rigidity of the joints is called as deformation stress. This stress is considered in steel
bridges only.
(iii) Secondary stresses: These type of stresses are addition stresses caused by eccentricity of connections, floor beam loads applied at
intermediate points in a panel, cross girders, lateral wind load, movement of the support, shrinkage of concrete etc.
(iv) Erection stresses: The stresses which are set up in any member during erection called as erection stresses. It should be checked if
unsafe provision should be made for them.
(v) Seismic stresses: The stresses which are set up due to the effect of earthquakes on bridges called as seismic stresses.

ROLE AND NECESSITY OF RAILWAY

 Role of transportation is an essential accessory of development of nation for the following purposes:
(1) Easy and quick transportation of men, heavy machines, animals, materials and goods can be made by railways.
(2) Areas which are connected by railways can be developed fast.
(3) Remote areas and rural areas become accessible and communicable if connected by railways.
(4) Railways are significant and potential way of transporting men and material on large scale over large distances.
(5) Railways play on important role in social development of the country by transporting the peoples from one comer to the other.
(6) Railways help the process of manufacturing through transportation of raw materials from far off places to the factory site and it
also helped in transporting the finished products to the marketing centers.
(7) Economic progress of country can be made by the railways.
(8) Peoples and heavy materials can be carried over the large distance on large scale.
(9) During the days of emergency eg wars, efficient and developed railway system plays a vital role for quick and easy transportation of
soldiers, food and ammunition.
(10) Transportation through railways also plays an important role of communication to the people staying in remote areas.
(11) Railways plays a very important role in uniting the peoples of various religions, customs and traditions residensing in various
regions, and states of a country and this way built and develop the national integration and unity.
(12) Railways carries the pilgrims and travellers wishing to go far places of their interest with safety, comfort and economy in time as
well as money.
(13) Railways plays a role in growth of trade and industrial development.
(14) With the help of railways, it is possible to have cheap and convenient, communication of bulks of letters, parcels, heavy luggages
and heavy goods such as coals, ores, steel etc.

PERMANENT WAY
 Definition: When the way or track in which the combination of rails, sleepers, ballast and various fixtures and fastening are made so as
to run the railway smoothly, then it is called an permanent ways.
 In short, the railway track providing easy and safe movement to the traffic is called as permanent way.
 There are two pairs of rail which are fixed to sleepers by fixtures and fastening and sleepers rest or kept on well graded ballast.
 The main function or object of permanent way or railway track is to facilitate or to provide safe, easy, comfortable and quick
movement of traffic for passenger as well as goods from starting to the desired destination without any disturbances.
 There are certain temporary way or track similar to the permanent way used for temporary work and removed on completion of work.
COMPONENT PARTS OF PERMANENT WAY AND ITS FUNCTION
1. Function of rails
(i) Rails transmits the load of train to the sub-grade or formation through sleepers and ballast. (ii) Rails provide a hard, smooth and
continuous smooth leveled, surface for heavy moving loads of train with minimum friction between rails and wheels. (iii) Rails resists
the stresses induced because of heavy vertical loads; lateral and braking forces. (iv) It provides the easy movement of trains and act as
lateral guide for moving wheels. (v) It allows the smooth movement of trains without any jerk even after applying brakes also.
2. Function of sleepers
(i) It provides the proper support to rails. (ii) It helps in maintaining the uniform alignment of track (iii) It maintain the gauge distance
by holding the rails firmly and uniformly. (iv) It uniformly distribute the loads on the sub-grade or formation through ballast. (v) It also
act as elastic medium and absorbs vibrations or functions likely to develop due to moving trains.
3. Functions of ballast
(i) It provides the hard and good elastic bed for sleepers. (ii) It helps in distributing the load uniformly from sleepers to large area of
sub-grade. (iii) It provides the support to the sleepers and hold them in correct position and thus avoiding the movements due to
lateral load. (iv) It prevents water logging in rainy season and thus provide a good drainage work. (v) It provides the elasticity to track
and thus it is easy to make the track adjustment like alignment and gradient.
4. Functions of Fixtures and Fastening
(i) It firmly fix the mails to sleepers. (ii) It maintain the rail alignment over the entire the length of rail section. (iii) It main the gauge
between two rail. (iv) It maintain the rail joints properly. (v) It connect the two rail sections by providing fish plates and thus maintain
the full length of rail by joining the rail section end to end.
5. Function of sub-grade
(i) To provide support to the rail track. (ii) Subgrade carries entire load of rail track including the load of locomotive.
6. Sub-ballast or murum
It provide the uniform and compact support to the ballast

IDEAL REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD TRACK OR PERMANENT WAY

1.The track should able to withstand the lateral forces.
2.The permanent way should be free from excessive joints.
3. Permanent way should have uniform and correct gauge throughout the entire track or entire way.
4.There should be proper and suitable super elevation provided on curves between outer rail and inner rail.
5. The permanent way should have uniform gradient throughout the length of track.
6. The tractive resistance should be minimum i.e. the resistance offered by the steel rail to the free movement of trains should be
minimum.
7. The railway track should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.
8. The proper and suitable super elevation should be provided to the outer rail above the inner rail on curved track.
9. The track should be designed in such a way that the load of the train is uniformly distributed on both the rails to avoid unequal
settlement of the track.
10. Components like rails, sleepers, ballast, firures and fastenings
etc should fulfil the design requirements.
11. The fixtures and fastenings like chairs, spikes, fish plates, fish bolts, bearing plates etc. should be strong enough to resist the
stresses developed in the track.
12. Points and crossing laid on the track should be well designed and carefully installed.

THE COMMON GAUGES USED BY INDIAN RAILWAY

1. Narrow gauge (N.G.)
 In narrow gauge, a clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails making a rail track is either 762 mm or 610
mm.
 When there is no possibility in the construction of wider gauge because of geographic conditions or topography, then in such case
narrow gauge is most suitable. It is also most suitable in hilly and thin populated areas.
Feeder gauge
 The gauge of 610 mm is called as light gauge or feeder gauge. Feeder gauge is commonly used for feeding raw materials.
2. Meter gauge (MG)
 When there is a clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track kept as i metre or 1000 mm,
then in such case it is called as meter gauge.
 40% of Indian railway track have been laid to meter gauge.
 Meter gauge is suitable when the funds are not available adequately for the railway project or insufficient funds Therefore, such type
is used for the track in under-developed areas and in the interior areas where traffic load is less and prospects for future development
are not very bright.
3.Broad gauge (B.G)
 When a clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a rail track is kept 1676 mm, then it is called as
broad gauge.
 Such gauge is also called as standard gauge and it is the broadest gauge of the world.
 Such type of gauge is suitable when adequate funds are available for the railway project and when the prospects of revenue are very
bright.
 Railway track in India have been laid to the broad gauge.