Flow Characteristics of Skimming Flows in Stepped

Channels
I. Ohtsu1; Y. Yasuda2; and M. Takahashi3

Abstract: Skimming flows in stepped channels are systematically investigated under a wide range of channel slopes 共5.7°⭐␪⭐55°兲. The
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flow conditions of skimming flows are classified into two flow regimes, and the hydraulic conditions required to form a quasi-uniform
flow are determined. An aerated flow depth of a skimming flow is estimated from the assumption that the residual energy at the end of a
stepped channel coincides with the energy at the toe of the jump formed immediately downstream of the stepped channel. In a quasi-
uniform flow region, the friction factor of skimming flows is represented by the relative step height and the channel slope. The friction
factor for the channel slope of ␪⫽19° appears to have a maximum. The residual energy of skimming flows is formulated for both
nonuniform and quasi-uniform flow regions. Further, a hydraulic-design chart for a stepped channel is presented.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9429共2004兲130:9共860兲
CE Database subject headings: Hydraulic structures; Channels, waterways; Supercritical flow; Aeration; Energy dissipation; Energy
loss; Flow characteristics.

Introduction the accuracy of the depth measurements was doubtful, because an

Stepped channels are effective for dissipating the energy of su-
percritical flows that occur at steep channels, dams, weirs, and
drop structures 共Chanson 2001; Yasuda et al. 2001兲. For the hy-
draulic design of a stepped channel, it is important to predict the
depth and velocity of the supercritical flow in the chute. System-
atic investigation of the flow resistance and energy dissipation of
stepped flows is required under a wide range of hydraulic condi-
tions.
The flow conditions in a stepped channel change with the step
height S, the angle of the channel ␪, the discharge of clear water
Q w , the channel width B, the total drop height H dam , and the
upstream geometry of the stepped channel 共i.e., the crest shape兲.
Generally, the flow conditions have been classified as: 共1兲 skim-
ming flow with corner eddies formed at each step, 共2兲 nappe flow
with an air pocket at each step, and 共3兲 transition flow in which a
nappe with an air pocket is not always formed and corner eddies
are partly formed at some steps. The existence of the transition
flow was first reported by Ohtsu and Yasuda 共1997兲.
Stepped flows have been characterized as aerated flows, and it
is important to estimate the depth of an aerated flow in order to
clarify their energy dissipation and flow resistance. As a first step,
a point gage was used to measure the depth of aerated flows in
skimming flows 共e.g., Sorensen 1985; Christodoulou 1993兲, but
1
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Nihon Univ., College of
Science and Technology, Kanda Surugadai, 1-8-14 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
101-8308, Japan.
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Nihon Univ.,
College of Science and Technology, Tokyo 101-8308, Japan.
3
Research Associate, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Nihon Univ.,
College of Science and Technology, Tokyo 101-8308, Japan.
Note. Discussion open until February 1, 2005. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on May 7, 2003; approved on February 16, 2004. This
paper is part of the Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 9,
September 1, 2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429/2004/9-860– 869/$18.00.
aerated flow has a lot of water droplets splashing near the surface
and it is difficult to determine the water-surface level correctly by
visualization.
Recently, the air concentration of aerated flows has been mea-
sured, a clear-water depth has been determined, and the flow re-
sistance and the residual energy of skimming flows have been
estimated by using the clear-water depth 共e.g., Boes and Minor
2000; Matos 2000; Ohtsu et al. 2000a; Chanson et al. 2002兲.
Chanson et al. 共2002兲 gathered recent data of many researchers
and investigated the friction factor of skimming flows. But further
analysis of the experimental results might be required for the
friction factor.
This paper presents the results of a systematic investigation of
the skimming flow characteristics under a wide range of experi-
mental conditions. A new approach to determining the flow char-
acteristics is proposed, and the friction factor and the energy loss
of skimming flows are clarified. Systematic investigation for
5.7°⭐␪⭐55° reveals that skimming flows have different flow
characteristics between 5.7°⭐␪⭐19° and 19°⬍␪⭐55°.
For 19°⬍␪⭐55°, the water-surface profile of a skimming flow
in a quasi-uniform flow region is independent of the relative step
height S/d c (d c ⫽critical flow depth 关 d c ⫽ 3冑q 2w /g; g⫽acceleration
of gravity; q w ⫽water discharge per unit width (q w ⫽Q w /B)]兲,
and the water surface is almost parallel to a pseudobottom formed
by the step edges 共this is called ‘‘Type A profile’’兲 关Fig. 1共a兲兴. For
5.7°⭐␪⭐19°, the water surface of skimming flows is not always
parallel to the pseudobottom. A skimming flow of Type A is
formed for a small relative step height S/d c 关Fig. 1共b兲兴. As the
value of S/d c becomes large, the flow depth depends on the lo-
cation at which the measurement is made, and the water surface
of the skimming flow becomes partly parallel to a horizontal step
plane 共this is called ‘‘Type B profile’’兲 关Fig. 1共c兲兴.
Clarification of the friction factor and the residual energy of a
skimming flow requires appropriate estimation of a representative
depth of the stepped channel. In this paper, a method for estimat-
ing the representative depth of skimming flows having different
types of water-surface profiles is presented. Also, the relation be-

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Fig. 1. Flow condition of skimming flows: 共a兲 and 共b兲 type A profile
and 共c兲 type B profile
tween the actual velocity of an aerated flow and the velocity
obtained according to the clear water depth of a stepped channel
is outlined.
In order to clarify the flow characteristics in a quasi-uniform-
flow region, the hydraulic conditions required to form a quasi-
uniform flow are demonstrated, and the friction factor in a quasi-
uniform-flow region is evaluated for 5.7°⭐␪⭐55°. In particular,
the friction factor f depends on the relative step height S/d c and
the channel slope ␪.
The residual energy of skimming flows in both nonuniform
and quasi-uniform flow regions is formulated in accordance with
the estimation of the representative depth of stepped channels,
and the relative energy loss of skimming flows has been calcu-
lated. By using these results, a hydraulic-design chart for stepped
channels is available.
Experiments
Fig. 2. Definition sketch: 共a兲 stepped channel used for ␪⫽19, 23, 30,
and 55°, and 共b兲 stepped channel used for ␪⫽5.7, 8.5, and 11.3°
The water discharge was measured by a sharp-edged weir. A
point gage with a reading accuracy of ⫾0.1 mm and a water-level
gage with a servomechanism 共sampling frequency: 40 ms; sam-
pling time: 120 s兲 were utilized to measure water depths in
nonaerated flow regions. Further, an electrical void probe having
a single tip of 0.1 mm in diameter 共KANOMAX Co. Ltd.兲 was
used to measure the air concentration of aerated flows 共sampling
frequency: 2 kHz; sampling time: 60 s兲.
Formation of Skimming Flows
According to systematic experiments, the flow conditions of
skimming flows change with the channel slope ␪ and the relative
step height S/d c . The flow conditions can also be classified into
Types A and B on the basis of differences in water-surface profiles
共Fig. 1兲.
Fig. 3 shows the hydraulic conditions required for the forma-
tion of each flow type in skimming flows. The upper limit of the
relative step height (S/d c ) s for the formation of skimming flows
depends on the channel slope ␪ as 共Ohtsu et al. 2001兲

The experiments were conducted by using stepped channels of a

uniform channel slope and a uniform step height, as shown in Fig.
冉 冊
S
dC S
7
⫽ 共 tan ␪ 兲 1/6 for 5.7°⭐␪⭐55°
6
(1)

2. For the stepped channels with smooth crest, a WES-type crest As shown in Fig. 3, Types A and B are separated by the rela-
was used 关Fig. 2共a兲兴. The flow characteristics of skimming flows tive step height S/d c and the channel slope ␪. Also, the boundary
have been investigated systematically under a wide range of ex- curve has been predicted by the following equation:

冉 冊
perimental conditions 共Table 1兲. For the formation of the skim-
ming flows, the jet deflection, and spray in the vicinity of the first S
⫽13共 tan ␪ 兲 2 ⫺2.73 tan ␪⫹0.373 for 5.7°⭐␪⭐19°
step 共Ohtsu et al. 2001兲 was not observed by using the stepped dC B
channel with the smooth crest. (2)

Table 1. Experimental Conditions

␪ 共deg兲 H dam /d c S/d c R⫻10⫺4 W⫻10⫺2 S (cm) H dam 共cm)
5.7 2.0–38.5 0.07–0.80 2.2– 8.0 3.5–27 0.625–5.0 30–70
8.53 9.8 –22.6 0.09–0.81 2.4 –5.3 4.2–14 0.625–5.0 65
11.3 3.8 –19.0 0.07–0.68 2.2– 8.3 3.7–27 0.625–5.0 30–70
19 6.3– 47.7 0.02–0.91 2.2– 8.6 4.4 –35 0.625–5.0 58 –240
23 21.4 – 43.7 0.10–1.00 2.0– 6.0 4.3–20 0.625–5.0 153
30 6.4 – 60.1 0.05–0.99 2.2– 8.6 4.6 –55 0.625–5.0 59–153
55 6.5– 82.4 0.03–1.21 1.6 –9.3 4.8 –52 0.625–10.0 45–247
Note: B⫽0.40 m, R⫽q w /␯ w , W⫽␳ w d w V w2 /␴ w 共with kinematic viscosity of clear water ␯ w ⫽1.0⫻10⫺6 m2 /s and surface tension of clear water ␴ w
⫽0.0728 N/m).

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 2004.130:860-869.

 Fig. 5. Relative drop height to form a quasi-uniform flow; symbols
as in Fig. 6
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Fig. 3. Flow regime of types A and B in skimming flow
Hydraulic Conditions Required to Form a
Quasi-Uniform Flow
Generally, the stepped flow has both nonuniform and quasi-
uniform flow regions. In a quasi-uniform region, flow conditions
remain constant as are the residual specific energy and the flow
velocity. The hydraulic conditions for the formation of the quasi-
uniform flow are required for the hydraulic design of stepped
channels.
As a method for estimating the quasi-uniform region, the jump
formation immediately downstream of the stepped channel 共Fig.
2兲 has been utilized 共Yasuda and Ohtsu 1999; Ohtsu et al. 2000b兲,
because it is difficult to judge the change in the depth of aerated
flows. As the end depth of jump is measured precisely, it is easy
to determine the limit between nonuniform and quasi-uniform
regions from the change in the end depth of jump h 2 having a
drop height of H dam . In the quasi-uniform region, as shown by
Fig. 4, the end depth of jump h 2 /d c becomes constant for given
values of S/d c and ␪ 共Ohtsu et al. 2000b兲.
The relative drop height H e /d c required to form the quasi-
uniform flow is predicted by 共lines in Fig. 5兲
He
⫽ 共 ⫺1.21⫻10⫺5 ␪ 3 ⫹1.60⫻10⫺3 ␪ 2
dC
Here, R 2 ⫽coefficient of determination.
As shown in Fig. 5, the value of H e /d c is almost constant for
given values of ␪ if the relative step height S/d c is larger than 0.5.
Estimation of Representative Flow Depth
for Skimming Flows
As shown in Fig. 1, the water-surface profile is not always paral-
lel to the pseudobottom, and it is difficult to determine a repre-
sentative flow depth and its location uniquely from the measure-
ment of aerated flow depths. Yasuda and Ohtsu 共1999兲 proposed a
method for indirectly estimating the representative flow depth on
the basis of the assumption that the residual energy of a skimming
flow E res coincides with the energy E 1 at the toe of the jump
formed immediately downstream of the stepped-channel end.
The representative flow depth can be obtained uniquely by
using Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲, and by substituting the measured values of
the end depth of jump h 2 and the bed-pressure head at the toe of
the jump h p into Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲. Here, the representative flow
depth estimated indirectly from Eq. 共5兲 is defined as d w
␳ w q w 共 V 2 ⫺V 1 兲 ⫽ 21 ␳ w gh p h 1 ⫺ 21 ␳ w gh 22 (4)
For a skimming flow of Type A
V 21 V w2
E 1 ⫽E res :␭h 1 ⫹ ⫽d w cos ␪⫹ (5a)
2g 2g

再
⫺7.13⫻10⫺2 ␪⫹1.30兲 ⫺1 5.7⫹6.7 exp ⫺6.5 冉 S
dC 冊冎 For a skimming flow of Type B
V 21 V w2
E 1 ⫽E res :␭h 1 ⫹ ⫽d w ⫹ (5b)
for 5.7°⭐␪⭐55° 2g 2g
and In Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲, h 1 ⫽supercritical depth at the toe of the jump;
V 1 ⫽q w /h 1 ⫽average velocity at its toe; V 2 ⫽q w /h 2 ⫽average ve-
0.1⭐S/d c ⭐ 共 S/d c 兲 s 共 ␪ in degree, R 2 ⫽0.975兲 (3) locity at the end of the jump; V w ⫽q w /d w ; ␳ w ⫽density of clear
water; and ␭⫽pressure coefficient at the toe of the jump, ex-
pressed by

␭⫽1⫹
1
␳ w gq w h 1 冕 h1

0
ūp d dz (5c)

Here, p d ⫽dynamical pressure due to streamline curvature at the

toe of the jump; ū⫽mean velocity in the flow direction; and
z⫽vertical coordinate from a horizontal channel bed. Also, ū and
p d are approximated as ū⫽U(z/h 1 ) 1/8 关 ū⫽U at z⫽h 1 ] and p d
⫽␳ w g(h p ⫺h 1 )(1⫺z/h 1 ), respectively 共Yasuda and Ohtsu 1999兲.
By measuring the air-concentration ratio in the aerated-flow
region, a clear-water depth d is obtained from Eq. 共6兲 as
Fig. 4. Change of h 2 /d c with H dam /d c for 0.5⭐S/d c ⭐(S/d c ) s ; sym-
bols as in Fig. 6 d⫽ 冕 0
y 0.9
共 1⫺C 兲 dy⫽ 共 1⫺C mean兲 y 0.9 (6)

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Fig. 6. Comparison between d and d w

In Eq. 共6兲, C⫽air concentration; C mean⫽averaged air concentra-

tion for the range of 0⭐y⭐y 0.9 , y⫽normal coordinate from the
bottom 共Fig. 1兲; and y 0.9⫽y at C⫽0.9. In addition, the averaged
air concentration was obtained from 15 to 20 measuring points at
each section (⌬y⫽y 0.9 /N⫽1.0– 1.5 mm; N⫽number of measur-
ing points兲 and the minimum distance from the bottom is 0.5 mm.
Comparing the values of d w from Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲 with mea-
surements of the clear water depth d, the clear water depth at edge
Fig. 7. Friction factor: 共a兲 5.7°⭐␪⭐19° and 共b兲 19°⭐␪⭐55° 关共〫兲
Boes ␪⫽50°, 共⽧兲 Boes ␪⫽30°, 共䉲兲 Yasuda and Chanson ␪⫽16°, 共⫻兲
Chamani and Rajaratnam ␪⫽51°, 共⫹兲 Chamani and Rajaratnam
␪⫽59°兴; Large symbol: f obtained from d w ; small symbol: f obtained
from d; symbols for authors’ results as in Fig. 6

冉 冊
section d A 关Figs. 1共a and b兲兴 corresponds to d w for Type A. For
␶0 dw 3
Type B, the clear water depth on the horizontal plane of the step f ⫽4 ⫽8 sin ␪ (8)
d B 关Fig. 1共c兲兴 corresponds to the value of d w . As shown in Fig. 6, dc
2␳ wV w
1 2

the difference between d and d w is within ⫾10% error.

Recently, the aerated flow velocity and the air concentration of Here ␶ 0 ⫽␳ w gd w sin ␪ is the shear stress.
skimming flows downstream of the inception point were mea- In a rough open channel, the friction factor generally depends
sured by Boes 共2000a,b兲, Chanson and Toombes 共2002兲, and Ya- on the relative roughness. For a stepped channel, the effect of
suda and Chanson 共2003兲. For stepped channels having slopes of gravity on the flow characteristics of the skimming flow is large,
30 and 50°, Boes mainly measured mean velocities in selected and the friction factor f may depend not only on the relative
outer step edges cross sections by using a fiber–optical probe roughness S cos ␪/dw but also the Froude number Fw
with two tips 共Boes and Hager 1998兲. For a stepped channel hav- (⫽V w / 冑gd w cos ␪) and the channel slope ␪ as
ing a slope of 21.8°, Chanson and Toombes 共2002兲 measured
mean velocities both at the section of a step edge and at the
section between step edges by using a double conductivity probe
f ⫽F 冉 S cos ␪
dw
,
Vw
冑gd w cos ␪
,␪ 冊 (9)

共Chanson 2002兲. For a stepped channel having a slope of 16°, This can be transformed into

冉 冊
Yasuda and Chanson 共2003兲 measured flow velocities including
turbulent intensity both at the section of the step edge and at the
section between step edges by using the double conductivity f ⫽F
S dC
dC dw
cos ␪,
Vw
⫽
dC
冑gd w cos ␪ d w
冉 冊 3/2
1
冑cos ␪
,␪ (10)
probe.
From the distribution of mean velocity for the aerated flow, the Here, V w ⫽q w /d w , and d c ⫽ 3冑q 2w /g.
velocity V ave may be calculated as From Eqs. 共8兲 and 共10兲, the friction factor of skimming flow is
N
expressed by

冉 冊
1
V ave⫽ 兺 共 ū ⌬y 兲
y 0.9 i⫽1 i
(7)
f ⫽F ␪,
S
(11)
dC
Here, ⌬y⫽y 0.9 /N 共N⫽number of measuring points兲 and
In Eq. 共11兲, the relative step height S/d c may also be written as
ū i ⫽mean flow velocity at y⫽y i .
gS/V 2c ⫽1/Fs2 in which Fs ⫽V C / 冑gS is the step Froude number
By using the data of Boes 共2000a兲 and Yasuda and Chanson
and V c ⫽q w /d c is the critical flow velocity.
共2003兲, and then comparing the value of V ave with the value of
If the experimental data are arranged in accordance with Eq.
V(⫽q w /d) at the same test section in the quasi-uniform region,
共11兲, the friction factor f can be represented exclusively by the
the relation between V ave and V is outlined as V ave⫽1.05 V for
channel slope ␪ and the relative step height S/d c 共Fig. 7兲. For
␪⫽16° 共Yasuda and Chanson 2003兲, V ave⫽1.05 V for ␪⫽50°, and
S/d c ⬍0.5, f increases with S/d c for given ␪. For S/d c ⭓0.5, f is
V ave⫽1.15 V for ␪⫽30° 共Boes 2000b兲 on average. Although V ave
constant, and an air layer is intermittently observed at some steps.
is somewhat larger than V, V ave is about equal to V within 20%
In this case, the interaction between a corner eddy and the main
difference 关 (V ave⫺V)/V⫻100(%) 兴 .
flow above a pseudobottom might be small.
As shown in Fig. 7, a different trend for the friction factor is
Friction Factor of Skimming Flows obtained between 5.7°⭐␪⭐19° and 19°⬍␪⭐55°. Also, the fric-
tion factor for ␪⫽19° has a maximum for given S/d c .
In a quasi-uniform flow region, the friction factor of a skimming For 11.3°⭐␪⬍30°, the main flow passing over the step always
flow is given by 共Yasuda and Ohtsu 1999兲 impacts near the step edge on a horizontal portion 关Fig. 8共a兲兴, and

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 2004.130:860-869.

 Fig. 8. Formations of recirculating fluid and impact in skimming
flows: 共a兲 11.3°⭐␪⬍30°; 共b兲 ␪⬍11.3°; and 共c兲 ␪⭓30°
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the energy dissipation due to the impact might be predominant,

compared to that caused by the recirculating fluid. For ␪⬍11.3°,
the recirculating fluid is formed near the step corner and the im-
pact position is also near the step corner 关Fig. 8共b兲兴. In this case,
the energy dissipation due to the skin friction may develop on
each step. For ␪⭓30°, the main flow almost skims above a Fig. 9. Relation between 1/冑 f and log关S cos ␪/dw兴; symbols as in
pseudobottom and does not always impact near the step edge. Fig. 6
Also, the recirculating fluid is formed at each step 关Fig. 8共c兲兴. In
this case, the effect of the impact of the main flow on the energy
dissipation may be small, and the energy dissipation caused by Fig. 9 shows

冉 冊
the recirculating fluid might be larger than that caused by the
impact. 1 S cos ␪
⫽F log ,␪ (13)
The friction factor of skimming flow for H dam /d c ⭓H e /d c and 冑f dw
0.1⭐S/d c ⭐(S/d c ) s can be predicted by
The lines in Fig. 9 are transformed from Eq. 共12兲. The value of

冉
f ⫽ f max⫺A 0.5⫺
S
dc 冊 2
for 0.1⭐S/d c ⭐0.5;
1/冑 f does not always linearly change with log(S cos ␪/dW). For
S cos ␪/dW⬎1.0, the value of 1/冑 f is constant for given values of
␪, however.
and
f ⫽ f max for 0.5⭐S/d c ⭐ 共 S/d c 兲 s
Residual Energy of Skimming Flows
where
A⫽⫺1.7⫻10⫺3 ␪ 2 ⫹6.4⫻10⫺2 ␪⫺1.5⫻10⫺1 For design purposes, it is important to evaluate the residual en-
⫺4 2 ⫺2 ⫺2
ergy head of skimming flows E res at the stepped channel end. Fig.
f max⫽⫺4.2⫻10 ␪ ⫹1.6⫻10 ␪⫹3.2⫻10 10 shows the residual energy head E res /d c as a function of
for 5.7°⭐␪⭐19° 共 ␪ in degrees,R 2 ⫽0.919兲 (12a) H dam /d c , S/d c , and ␪. The data of E res have been obtained indi-
rectly from Eq. 共5兲. If the value of S/d c is larger than 0.25, the
冉
f ⫽ f max⫺A 0.5⫺
S
dc 冊 2
for 0.1⭐S/d c ⭐0.5;
change of E res /d c with S/d c is small.
For the quasi-uniform-flow region, E res /d c is independent of
H dam /d c
and

where
f ⫽ f max for 0.5⭐S/d c ⭐ 共 S/d c 兲 s 冉 冊
E res
dC U
⫽
dw
dC
cos ␪⫹
1 dC
2 dw 冉 冊 2

A⫽0.452
f max⫽2.32⫻10⫺5 ␪ 2 ⫺2.75⫻10⫺3 ␪⫹2.31⫻10⫺1
(12b) ⫽ 冉 f
8 sin ␪ 冊 1/3
cos ␪⫹
1
冉
f
2 8 sin ␪ 冊 ⫺2/3
(14a)

for skimming flow of Type A,

共 ␪ in degree,R 2 ⫽0.835兲
冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊
for 19°⭐␪⭐55°
2 1/3 ⫺2/3
E res dw 1 dC f 1 f
As shown in Fig. 8, the data of Chamani and Rajaratnam ⫽ ⫹ ⫽ ⫹
dC dC 2 dw 8 sin ␪ 2 8 sin ␪
共1999兲, Boes 共2000a,b兲, and Yasuda and Chanson 共2003兲 agree U
with the authors’ results, and the deviations of f are within ⫾0.08 (14b)
under given ␪ and S/d c . for skimming flow of Type B.
For a nonstepped channel having a normal concrete surface, By substituting Eq. 共12兲 into Eq. 共14兲, E res /d c is determined
the value of the friction factor in a uniform flow region is ap- by ␪ and S/d c 共lines for H dam /d c ⭓H e /d c in Fig. 10兲.
proximately f ⫽0.014– 0.02 according to textbooks 共e.g., Chow For a nonstepped channel having a normal concrete surface,
1959兲. Compared with a stepped channel for S/d c ⭓0.5, the value the residual energy head in a uniform-flow region is calculated by
of the friction factor is 5.5–13 times that for the nonstepped chan- substituting f ⫽0.014– 0.02 into Eq. 共14a兲. A comparison between
nel. stepped and nonstepped channels is shown by Table 2, and the

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Fig. 11. Relative energy loss of skimming flows for 0.5⭐S/d c

⭐(S/d c ) s ; symbols as in Fig. 6

Fig. 11 shows the change of ⌬E/E max with H dam /d c and ␪ for
0.5⭐S/d c ⭐(S/d c ) s .
If the indirectly obtained data of ⌬E data /E max is compared with
the predicted values of ⌬E cal /E max 共lines in Fig. 11兲 for a given ␪,
S/d c , and H dam /d c , the difference between ⌬E data and ⌬E cal is
within ⫾8% error 关 兩 ⌬E cal⫺⌬E data兩 /⌬E cal⫻100⭐8% 兴 .
Fig. 10. Residual energy head of skimming flows 关 (䊊)0.09 In an aerated-flow region of a skimming flow of Type A, the
⭐S/d c ⭐0.19; (䊉)0.20⭐S/d c ⭐0.29; (䊐)0.30⭐S/d c ⭐0.39; residual energy head E res is generally obtained by
(䊏)0.40⭐S/d c ⭐0.53; (䉭)0.54⭐S/d c ⭐1.2]
y 1
y
兰 0 0.9共 ␳gy cos ␪⫹p 兲 ū dy 兰 0 0.9 ␳ū 3 dy
2
value of the residual energy head for S/d c ⫽0.1 corresponds to E res⫽ y ⫹ y (17)
兰 0 0.9␳gū dy 兰 0 0.9␳gū dy
25– 45% of that for the nonstepped channel.
y
For nonuniform-flow regions, E res /d c depends on H dam /d c , where p⫽ 兰 y 0.9␳g cos ␪ dy and ␳⫽␳ w (1⫺C).
S/d c , and ␪, and is empirically formulated by If the residual energy head E res is expressed with d w and

冋冉 冊 册冉 冉 冊冊
E res E res H dam m V w (⫽q w /d w ), correction coefficients C P and C V are added in Eq.
⫽1.5⫹ ⫺1.5 1⫺ 1⫺ 共5兲
dc dc U
He
V w2
␪ E res⫽C P d w cos ␪⫹C V (18)
m⫽⫺ ⫹4 共 ␪ in degree,R 2 ⫽0.938兲 (15) 2g
25
Here
for 5.7°⭐␪⭐55°, 0.1⭐S/d c ⭐(S/d c ) s , and 5.0⭐H dam /d c
y y
⭐H e /d c . 兰 0 0.9关共 1⫺C 兲 y⫹ 兰 y 0.9共 1⫺C 兲 dy 兴 ū dy
E res /d c can be predicted by substituting Eqs. 共3兲, 共12兲, and C P⫽ y (19)
d w 兰 0 0.9共 1⫺C 兲 ū dy
共14兲 into Eq. 共15兲. Comparing the predicted values 共lines in Fig.
10兲 with the indirectly obtained data from Eq. 共5兲, the maximum and
deviation of ⌬(E res /d c ) is ⫾1.2. y
On the basis of the results concerning the residual energy head 兰 0 0.9共 1⫺C 兲 ū 3 dy
C V⫽ (20)
at the stepped channel end, the relative energy loss of skimming y
V w2 兰 0 0.9共 1⫺C 兲 ū dy
flows ⌬E/E max can also be predicted by substituting Eq. 共15兲 into
Eq. 共16兲 For a skimming flow of Type B, E res is shown by
⌬E
E max
⫽1⫺
E res
H dam⫹1.5d C
⫽1⫺
E res H dam
dC dC
⫹1.5冉 冊 ⫺1
(16) E res⫽C P d w ⫹C V
V w2
2g
(21)

where E max⫽Hdam⫹1.5d c and ⌬E⫽E max⫺Eres . Here, C P and C V are given by Eqs. 共19兲 and 共20兲 as for Type A.

Table 2. Comparison of Stepped Channel 共for S/d c ⫽0.1,0.25,0.5兲 and Nonstepped Channel with Normal Concrete Surface for Residual Energy
Heads
␪ 共deg兲 (E res /d c ) nonstep E res /d c (S/d c ⫽0.1) E res /d c (S/d c ⫽0.25) E res /d c (S/d c ⫽0.5)
5.7 6.11–7.64 2.73 2.50 2.42
11.3 9.39–11.8 3.47 2.98 2.81
19 13.0–16.5 4.20 3.62 3.33
30 17.2–21.8 6.21 4.93 4.49
55 23.8 –30.2 10.2 7.10 6.50

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 2004.130:860-869.

 Table 3. Values of Correction Coefficients C V and C P
Investigator CV CP
Boes 共2000兲 1.16 1.67
关␪⫽50° and S/d c ⫽0.257,0.987兴
Boes 共2000兲 1.10 1.17
关␪⫽30° and S/d c ⫽0.382,0.461,0.732兴
Yasuda and Chanson 共2003兲 1.11 1.09
关␪⫽16° and S/d c ⫽0.588]
These coefficients depend on the magnitude and distribution of
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the aerated flow velocity ū and the air concentration C. By using
the experimental data of Boes 共2000b兲 and Yasuda and Chanson
共2003兲, the values of C P and C V are obtained as shown in Table 3.
By comparing the value of d w obtained from Eq. 共5兲 关 d w(5) 兴
with that obtained from Eq. 共18兲 关 d w(18) 兴 using the values of C P
and C V in Table 3 under given values of E res , d c , S, and ␪, the
difference between d w(18) and d w(5) is ( 兩 d w(18) ⫺d w(5) 兩 /d w(5) )
⫻100⭐10%. For ␪⭓30°, the effect of the pressure term 关the first
term of Eqs. 共18兲 and 共21兲兴 on the estimation of d w is negligibly
small compared to the kinetic energy term 关the second term of
Eqs. 共18兲 and 共21兲兴. For predicting the representative depth of
skimming flows, the coefficients C P and C V can be assumed to be
unity.
Fig. 12. Flow chart for designing stepped channel
866 / JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2004
J. Hydraul. Eng. 2004.130:860-869.
Hydraulic Design of Stepped Channels
Fig. 12 shows a flow chart for the hydraulic design of a stepped
channel. This chart can be applied to a wide range of channel
slopes 共5.7°⭐␪⭐55°兲, step heights (0.1⭐S/d c ⭐(S/d c ) s ), relative
drop heights 关 5.0⭐H dam /d c ⬍H e /d c 共nonuniform region兲 and
H dam /d c ⭓H e /d c 共quasi-uniform region兲兴.
If the width of the stepped channel B, the total drop height
H dam , the slope of the channel ␪, and the design discharge Q w are
given, a critical flow depth d c (⫽ 关 (Q w /B) 2 /g 兴 1/3) is calculated,
and the relative drop height H dam /d c is obtained as a nondimen-
sional quantity.
For the hydraulic design of stepped spillways, skimming flow
is recommended for maximum discharge. If the step height is
determined in order to form either a nappe flow or a transition
flow in a maximum discharge, the absolute step height is too high,
because the latter is apt to more splashing 共Chanson 2001兲. The
upper limit of the step height required to form skimming flow
(S/d c ) s is calculated by Eq. 共1兲 for given d c and ␪. Considering
the change of the residual energy head with the relative step
height 共see Fig. 10兲, a step height of S/d c ⭓0.25 is recommended.
In addition, the flow conditions of the skimming flow can be
predicted from Fig. 3. By using Eq. 共3兲, it is possible to judge
whether the skimming flow at the end of the stepped channel is a
quasi-uniform flow.
 water droplets and splashing and the value of the air concentra-
tion C at y⫽1.4y 0.9 is 0.99 共Boes 2000b; Yasuda and Chanson
2003兲. By using Eqs. 共6兲 and 共22兲, y 0.9 is calculated, and the
height of the sidewall H w (H w ⫽1.4y 0.9) is determined.
For a small discharge in the designed stepped channel, nappe
flow is formed. For a large channel slope 共e.g., ␪⫽55°兲, jet de-
flection and spray in the vicinity of the first step might be formed.
Boes and Minor 共2002兲 proposed the design of the sidewall con-
sidering the formation of the jet deflection.
When the values of C mean , y 0.9 /d c , and f are compared in the
quasi-uniform flow region, the effects of the Reynolds and Weber
Fig. 13. C mean in quasi-uniform flow; symbols as in Fig. 6 numbers on C mean , y 0.9 /d c , and f are irrelevant in the experimen-
tal results of Table 4 and Figs. 7 and 13 under given ␪ and S/d c .
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According to Boes 共2000a兲, the air concentration distribution de-

If the approach flow reaches a quasi-uniform region, the rep-
resentative flow depth d w and the averaged velocity V w
(⫽q w /d w ) can be predicted on the basis of the results of the
friction factor Eq. 共12兲. Also, the residual energy head E res /d c and
the relative energy loss ⌬E/E max are determined from Eqs. 共14兲
and 共16兲, respectively.
If the approach flow is in the nonuniform region, E res /d c is
determined from Eq. 共15兲 for given H dam /d c , S/d c , and ␪, and
the flow depth d w and the velocity V w (⫽q w /d w ) can be predicted
by Eq. 共5兲. Also, ⌬E/E max is calculated by Eq. 共16兲.
In the quasi-uniform region, the average air concentration
C mean depends on the channel slope ␪ and the relative step height
S/d c . As shown in Fig. 13, the change of C mean may be approxi-
mated by
pends on R and W, and further investigation on scale effects
might be required. Also, accurate measurements for prototype
might be necessary.
Conclusions
The flow characteristics of skimming flows have been investi-
gated systematically, and the experimental results may be summa-
rized as follows:
1. For 5.7°⭐␪⭐19°, the flow conditions of skimming flows are
classified into Types A and B, and the boundary between
these types can be predicted by Eq. 共2兲. For 19°⬍␪⭐55°, the

再 冉 冊 冎
water surface is almost parallel to the pseudobottom, and a
2
S S skimming flow of Type A is formed.
C mean⫽D⫺0.30 exp ⫺5 ⫺4 (22a)
dc dc 2. The relative drop height H e /d c required to form a quasi-
uniform in skimming flow may be predicted with Eq. 共3兲.
D⫽0.300 共 R 2 ⫽0.692兲 3. The representative flow depth of skimming flow d w was es-
for 5.7°⭐␪⭐19° and 0.1⭐S/d c ⭐ 共 S/d c 兲 S (22b) timated from the assumption that its residual energy at the
stepped-channel end coincides with the energy at the toe of
D⫽⫺2.0⫻10⫺4 ␪ 2 ⫹2.14⫻10⫺2 ␪⫺3.57⫻10⫺2 共 R 2 ⫽0.743兲 the jump formed immediately downstream of the stepped
channel. The relation between d w and the clear water depth d
for 19°⭐␪⭐55° and 0.1⭐S/d c ⭐ 共 S/d c 兲 S (22c)
is presented. For a skimming flow of Type A, the indirect
Regarding the sidewall of a stepped channel, the value of value d w corresponds to the measured value of the clear
1.4y 0.9 might be recommended, because the stepped flow is apt to water depth d A at the step edge. For a skimming flow of

Table 4. Changes of C mean , y 0.9 /d c , and f for Various R and W

␪° S/d c R⫻10⫺4 W⫻10⫺2 C mean y 0.9 /d c f Note
a
30 0.73 3.1 15 0.457 0.602 0.140
30 0.73 8.8 65 0.459 0.603 0.139
30 0.46 9.9 43 0.443 0.550 0.115
30 0.46 28 170 0.434 0.545 0.117
30 0.38 4.7 16 0.361 0.484 0.118
30 0.38 13.2 62 0.394 0.521 0.126
b
55 0.55 3.1 11 0.465 0.492 0.119
55 0.55 8.6 38 0.422 0.513 0.172
55 0.76 1.8 4.6 0.414 0.526 0.192
55 0.77 5.2 21 0.480 0.523 0.132
55 0.77 5.2 21 0.524 0.571 0.131
55 1.0 3.5 12 0.515 0.598 0.160
55 1.0 3.5 12 0.517 0.583 0.146
55 1.0 9.8 48 0.528 0.587 0.139
55 1.0 9.8 47 0.519 0.587 0.148
Note: R⫽q w /␯ w , W⫽␳ w d w V w2 /␴ w 共with ␯ w ⫽1.0⫻10⫺6 m2 /s and ␴ w ⫽0.0728 N/m).
a
Data of Boes 共2000b兲.
b
Present data.

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 2004.130:860-869.

 Type B, d w corresponds to the value of the clear water depth R ⫽ Reynolds number (R⫽q w /␯ w );
d B where the water surface is partly parallel to a horizontal R2 ⫽ coefficient of determination;
plane of the step. S ⫽ step height;
4. For skimming flows in a quasi-uniform flow region, the fric- ū ⫽ mean velocity;
tion factor can be predicted by Eq. 共12兲. The friction factor f V ⫽ q w /d;
is represented by the relative step height S/d c and the chan- V ave ⫽ actual velocity of aerated flow (V ave
nel slope ␪. Then, S/d c depends on a step Froude number
⫽(1/y 0.9) 兺 i⫽1
N
(ui⌬y));
Fs ⫽V C / 冑gS. The friction factor for S/d c ⭓0.5 is constant
Vc ⫽ critical flow velocity (V c ⫽q w /d c );
for given ␪.
5. The residual energy head is determined for both quasi- Vw ⫽ averaged velocity (V w ⫽q w /d w );
uniform and nonuniform flows according to Eqs. 共14兲 and W ⫽ Weber number (W⫽␳ w d w V 2w /␴ w );
共15兲, respectively. The nondimensional residual energy head y ⫽ normal coordinate from bottom;
E res /d c for the nonuniform flow depends on the relative drop y 0.9 ⫽ y at C⫽0.9;
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height H dam /d c , the channel slope ␪, and the relative step z ⫽ vertical coordinate from horizontal channel
height S/d c . For quasi-uniform flow, E res /d c depends on bed;
S/d c and ␪. Also, the relative energy loss of skimming flows ⌬E ⫽ head of energy loss between top and end
⌬E/E max can be predicted by using the residual energy head. sections of stepped channel (⌬E⫽E max
6. A hydraulic-design chart for a stepped channel has been pro- ⫺Eres);
posed 共Fig. 12兲, and the representative flow depth d w and the ⌬y ⫽ y 0.9 /N;
averaged velocity V w (⫽q w /d w ) at the end of the stepped ␪ ⫽ angle of channel slope;
channel can be predicted. Also, the height of the sidewall ␭ ⫽ pressure coefficient;
H w /d c is determined by using Eqs. 共6兲 and 共22兲 for given ␪ ␳ ⫽ density of aerated flow 关 ␳⫽␳ w (1⫺C) 兴 ;
and S/d c .
␳w ⫽ density of clear water; and
␶0 ⫽ shear stress.

Notations
The following symbols are used in this paper:
B ⫽ channel width;
C ⫽ air–concentration 关C⫽volume of air/
共volume of air⫹volume of clear water兲兴;
C mean ⫽ average air–concentration ratio;
C p ⫽ correction coefficient of piezo head;
C v ⫽ correction coefficient of velocity head;
d ⫽ clear water depth;
d A ⫽ clear water depth at edge section;
d B ⫽ clear water depth on horizontal plane of
step;
d c ⫽ critical depth (d c ⫽ 3冑q 2w /g);
d w ⫽ representative flow depth;
E max ⫽ total energy head at top of stepped channel
(E max⫽Hdam⫹1.5d C );
E res ⫽ residual energy head;
E 1 ⫽ total energy head at toe of jump;
Fs ⫽ step Froude number 关 Fs ⫽V C / 冑gS 兴 ;
Fw ⫽ Froude number 关 Fw ⫽V w / 冑gd w cos ␪兴;
f ⫽ friction factor;
f max ⫽ friction factor for S/dc⬎0.5;
g ⫽ acceleration of gravity;
H dam ⫽ total drop height;
H e ⫽ drop height required to form quasi-uniform
flow;
H w ⫽ height of guide wall;
h p ⫽ bed-pressure head at toe of jump;
h 1 ⫽ toe depth of jump;
h 2 ⫽ end depth of jump;
p ⫽ pressure in skimming flow with type A
y stepped spillways.’’’ J. Hydraul. Eng., 126共11兲, 865– 869.
profile 关 p⫽ 兰 y 0.9␳g cos ␪ dy兴;
p d ⫽ dynamical pressure at toe of jump;
Q w ⫽ discharge of clear water;
q w ⫽ discharge per unit width of clear water (q w
⫽Q w /B);
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