Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

T
Computational analysis via FEM of Tirefond screws used in the
fastening system of railroads aiming to avoid a recurrent failure
case
Theunis Marinho Marotta Moreiraa, Leonardo Barbosa Godefroidb, ,
⁎

Geraldo Lúcio de Fariab, Ricardo Azoubel da Mota Silveirac

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
b
Department of Material and Metallurgical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: This work presents a computational evaluation of a Tirefond screw used in Brazilian railroads to
Tirefond screw support the plate on the wood sleepers. This component has been studied because nowadays it is
Fatigue behavior manufactured by a common low carbon steel, and due to the increase of trains speed and the axle
Finite element method load transported it has been failing with a short life time, causing significant economic losses to
the companies that control the Brazilian railways. In this context, static and dynamic analysis
were performed using the Finite Element Method (FEM) in order to better understand the re-
current failure causes. The obtained results highlighted the critical stress concentration points
where the component fatigue life is low, explaining the premature failures. Based on the gen-
erated information, it was possible to propose and to evaluate the effects of geometric and ma-
terials change on the Tirefond screw fatigue performance. The actual geometry was evaluated but
replacing the actual steel by a carbonitrited SAE 1015 and by a quenched and tempered SAE
4340. Geometric changes as the increase of the screw diameter and elimination of the continuous
diameter decrease as it moves away from the screw head were tested. The best solution that
guaranteed a fatigue life higher than 106 cycles for all critical positions along the screw structure
were the combination of the use of a SAE 4340 steel in a higher diameter screw and the use of a
carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel with a continuous 22 mm diameter.

1. Introduction

Due to a significant increase in capacity, size and speed of trains, the Brazilian rail network has demanded special care in the
selection of materials and in the prevention of accidents. Unfortunately, some recurrent failures have occurred in this sector, a fact
that increases the practice of failure analysis. Some failure examples related to welded rails, sleeper anchors and screws were
published by our working group [1–6].
The Tirefond screw is a structural component of the railroads that is part of the fasteners class. It is classified as a rigid fastener
responsible for fasten the plate to the wood sleeper. This component has an important function, because, according to some re-
searchers, if a Tirefond screw or other fastener component fail in service and it is not quickly substituted, it allows that the plate

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: leonardo@ufop.edu.br (L.B. Godefroid).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.104186

Available online 12 September 2019

Received 15 November 2018; Received in revised form 12 August 2019; Accepted 12 September 2019

1350-6307/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 1. (a) In service failure of a Tirefond screw; (b) and (c) Detail of a fractured Tirefond screw, where it is possible to observe a flat fracture surface
at the second thread; (d) The recurrent failure mode of many screws.

moves with degrees of freedom and the rail, supported on the plate, can be strongly bended, increasing the probability of crack
nucleation occurrences on the rail, leading it to catastrophic fracture [7–10].
The Tirefond screw is a component used in railways with similar characteristics around the world. It is usually made of a common
low carbon steel machined according to some local or continental standard. In Brazil, this component is specified by the NBR
8497:08/2008 standard [11]. It is usually manufactured using a SAE 1015 normalized steel. A round steel bar with 22 mm in
diameter is cut with 192 mm long and re-heated in a gas furnace at 1100 °C for 5 min. After this procedure, the screw head is hot draw
and the threads are hot rolled with a decreasing diameter from its head (highest diameter 22 mm) to the end (lowest diameter 15 mm)
[11–13].
Each Tirefond screw costs around US$2.00 for Brazilian companies and, for each kilometer there are installed approximately 8600
screws, being possible to estimate around US$17,000.00 invested in this component per kilometer in Brazilian railroads. According to
internal reports of Brazilian railway concessionaries, with the increase of the axle transported load and trains speed in the last years,
the actual Tirefond screw has presented recurrent failures, with an average life time of only three months. Besides the increase of
accident risk, the substitution of failed component may cost around US$80,000.00 per year per railroad kilometer [14–16].
Due to presented points, the failure of this component has been studied in Brazil aiming to better understand its causes and to
propose technical and economic viable solutions that may increase the Tirefond life time. Faria et al. [4] performed the first applied
study about this subject. They concluded that the actual screw fail by fatigue, always at the first or second thread due to a high stress
concentration in this area. Fig. 1 presents an example of this failure: it is a characteristically fatigue flat surface with an inclination
aligned with the thread design.
Faria et al. [4] experimentally characterized the Brazilian Tirefond screw under static loading. Like many other researchers in the
field of railway industry [17–23], they applied the Finite Element Method (FEM) to simulate the component mechanical behavior
with the aim to better understand the stress concentration along the screw. The authors concluded that the actual component,
manufactured of a SAE 1015, has not enough tensile yield strength to support the highest static loading that are developed nowadays
in Brazilian railroads. The screw project has several geometrical stress concentration points that under loading may generate stress
fields high enough to promote plastic strain and nucleate cracks. This work contributed to a preliminary knowledge of the material,
but the analysis did not involve cyclic loading, the main cause for screw failure.
In this context, this work presents new results about the failure analysis of the Tirefond screw, with the use of the Finite Element
Method (FEM) to simulate the behavior of the material under dynamic loading [24]. The software adopted for the computational
simulations was the Ansys [25], in particular, the package Ansys/Mechanical, which include dynamics simulation of fatigue, and it is
very convenient for numerical solving 3D complex problems like the class of screw failure analysis treated herein. In addition,
geometric changes and materials replacement were proposed aiming to increase the component fatigue life.

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Table 1
Chemical composition of the Tirefond screw (wt%) [4].
C Mn P S Si Cr Ni N Cu Sn

Screw 0.14 0.50 0.02 0.02 0.12 0.06 0.04 0.007 0.17 0.01

2. Material and methods

The screw studied in this work is a low carbon steel manufactured by hot rolling and forging. Its chemical composition is
presented in Table 1, consistent with the SAE 1015 standard [22]. Its microstructure comes from a normalizing heat treatment, and
consists of ferrite and perlite, according to Fig. 2. The main mechanical properties of this steel are shown in Table 2, consistent with
American and Brazilian standards applied for fasteners [11,23].
Confirmed the steel fatigue failure [4], two ways to improve the component performance were proposed: 1) change of the steel
characteristics, simulating for the actual geometry, a carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel and a quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel; 2)
geometric changes maintaining the normalized SAE 1015 steel as raw material; 3) combination of changes in steel characteristics and
Tirefond screw geometry, respecting the NBR 8497 Brazilian standard requirements for the studied screw manufacturing [9]. Fig. 3-a
presents a flowchart that highlight the studied conditions. Mechanical properties required for the execution of the research were
obtained from the literature [4,26–28].
The numerical fundamentals of the finite element procedures implemented in Ansys software can be found in Bathe [24]. Initially
the physical problem was defined and understood. The usual loading history applied to the component in railroads was understood.
The boundaries conditions associated with fixing systems and the materials properties were collected and registered. Finally, the
component geometry was drawn and the used elements type, as well its number, were defined. Aiming to simulate the proposed
variable effect on the Tirefond screw fatigue life, the boundary conditions and geometry were changed and, if the obtained results
were admissible, component performance was evaluated for each proposed condition (Fig. 3-b).

2.1. Geometry definitions

Initially, the Tirefond screw was modeled in the specification and geometry according to the standard currently used in the
railway [4]. Aiming to simplify the calculation and reduce the computational processing time, an axisymmetric condition was used
and ¼ of the geometry was simulated. The wood sleeper where the screw threads are fixed were also modeled.
Hexahedral finite elements were used to build the structural mesh of the screw. According to Faria et al. [4] and Bathe [24], for
this kind of component, this type of element generates better results. The meshing procedures started at the smaller edges, generating
elements at these areas with 6 mm and 4 mm sizes. The total generated elements and nodes were, respectively, 6959 and 26,694.
More refined meshes were evaluated, but no significant improvement on final results was verified and the initial proposed meshing
was maintained. Fig. 4 presents the ¼ axisymmetric model built for the Tirefond screw and the wood sleeper, where the component
was fixed.
The geometric changes evaluated in this work were: 1) use of a constant diameter Tirefond screw, that is, elimination of the
diameter decrease from its head to the end; 2) increase the Tirefond screw diameter, respecting the model number 9 described in the
NBR 8497 standard (highest diameter: 24 mm and lowest diameter:16 mm) [11]. It is important to highlight that for all tested
geometry, the meshing definitions and the loading history were the same.

Fig. 2. Optical micrograph of the Tirefond screw, Nital 2%, transversal direction.

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Table 2
Basic mechanical properties of the Tirefond screw [4].
YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) DEF (%) AR (%) HV U (J)

Screw 262 449 38 65 150 125

YS: Yield Strength; UTS: Ultimate Tensile Strength; DEF: Total strain; AR: Area Reduction; HV: Vickers Hardness; U: Charpy impact energy at
ambient temperature.

Fig. 3. (a) Flowchart highlighting the studied conditions; (b) Algorithm of procedures.

Fig. 4. Meshing of the Tirefond screw and the sleeper for ¼ axisymmetric models.

2.2. Loading configuration

According to the technical literature, each Tirefond screw under real application condition, must support static loading that could
meet around 30kN [7,8,11,29]. Due to this, for static loading simulations, considering the ¼ axisymmetric model, 7.5kN were
applied at screw head as Fig. 5-a illustrates. Considering the wood sleeper where the component is fixed, it was also used double
symmetry. In all cut faces, it was used frictionless supports and the others were locked, considering the sleeper volume (Fig. 5-b).
Applying the Ansys connections tool, a frictional contact between the Tirefond screw and the wood sleeper were applied with a
friction coefficient of 0.2, as suggested by RUD [30].
The dynamic loading was estimated using the Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF), according to:

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 5. (a) Representation of static loading of the Tirefond screw; (b) Representation of fixed support and frictionless support.

V − 60
DIF = 1 + c∙q∙ ⎛1 + ⎞
⎝ 140 ⎠ (1)

where c is a reliability factor, q indicates the railroad condition and V is the train average speed [29]. The DIF can be understood or
interpreted as the ratio of the dynamic (in case, resultant harmonic response) to the static value, which is normally reported as
function of strain or displacement rate. Knowledge of the DIF is of significant importance in the design and analysis of railroad safety
[31,32]. Table 3 presents the parameters considered to calculate the DIF for a railroad in good condition. It is noticeable that each
screw must support 30kN under static loading and 53.4kN as highest load under dynamic loading [19]. Due to wheels' passage, with
its characteristic of unbalancedmass effects, it was considered a dynamic loading constituted by a superposition of two periodic
loading in time. As any periodic loading can be represented as the sum of a series of simple harmonic components, this work used two
sinusoidal loading histories [32]. These sinusoidal functions were in phase, with respective frequencies of 100 Hz and 500 Hz. For a
specific condition where a complete constructive interference occurred, the highest dynamic load met 106.8kN.
Fig. 6 presents one loading cycle resultant from the sum of two sinusoidal functions with the same amplitude 1.78 (the calculated
DIF highlighted in Table 3). It is possible to observe that the highest amplitude in the generated wave is 3.56. The Ansys software
simulated the loading history multiplying the dimensionless wave function by the configured load, generating load input data for the
fatigue behavior analysis. Aiming to obtain more realistic results, the mean stress correction tool, available in the Ansys software,
were applied, using the traditional Sodeberg method. Many service load histories will have non-zero mean stress. The Sodeberg
method is one of the most used conservative method applied to carry out fatigue tests at different mean stress. In this method, a linear
dependence of the fatigue limit on mean stress is proposed, that varies from zero to the yield strength of the material. For a fatigue life

Table 3
Parameters considered to calculate the DIF and the highest dy-
namic load.
Variable Value

c (Application: fixing system) 3

q (Railroad in good condition) 0.2
V (average speed) 100 km/h
DIF 1.78
Static load (one screw) 30kN
Dynamic load (one screw) 53.4kN

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 6. One loading cycle resultant from the sum of two in Phase sinusoidal functions with the same dimensionless amplitude (1.78) and frequencies
of 100 Hz and 500 Hz.

of 107 cycles, for example, the diagram generated by the variation between the fatigue limit and the mean stress creates a space
divided into two parts: any combination outside the domain of the Soderberg line will provide the material failure at 107 cycles; any
combination within the domain will be considered safe.

2.3. Materials properties

The mechanical properties of simulated materials were an important input data to the computational simulations. The tensile
properties of SAE 1015 steel used nowadays were collected from Table 2 [4]. The SAE 1015 fatigue behavior were based on a S-N
fatigue curve presented by Boyer [28]. The considered mechanical properties of the carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel were presented by
Kanchanomai and Limtrakam [26]. Comeau [27] presented tensile and fatigue results for a quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Actual steel with actual geometry

Fig. 7 presents the von Mises stress distribution for the Tirefond screw with the actual geometry, manufactured of a normalized
SAE 1015 steel under static loading. Using procedures recommended by technical literature, 7.5kN was applied to the screw head,
considering the ¼ axisymmetric geometry [21,29]. It was possible to observe that, as described by Faria et al. and others authors
[4,17–19], the screw threads represent high stress concentration points. The highest developed stresses were verified at the root and
at the flank of the first screw thread. The highest stress was 293 MPa, therefore higher than the normalized SAE 1015 yield strength
(262 MPa) [4]. Due to this occurrence, it is expected that during the train passage, the static loading of the Tirefond screw can
promote local plastic strain, exactly at the area where the recurrent failures have been occurred.
Fig. 8 presents the dynamic analysis for the component. It is possible to observe the Tirefond screw fatigue life when submitted to
the already described loading history, considering the Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) and the Soderberg corrections [21,29]. It is
possible to verify that the first and the second thread presented the lowest fatigue life. Points along the first thread root presented
fatigue life lower than 200 load cycles, explaining the low life time of the studied component in real application conditions. The
dynamic simulation converges for the real failure occurrences, as the screw failure often happens at the first or the second threat,
accompanying the thread root, indicating a low cycle fatigue case. This is an important result that prove the Faria et al. [4]

Fig. 7. von Mises equivalent stress distribution in the actual Tirefond Screw under static loading.

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 8. Fatigue life of the actual Tirefond Screw under dynamic loading (number of cycles).

hypothesis.

3.2. Actual geometry with steel changes

Aiming to increase the steel mechanical strength and to mitigate the effects of the geometric stress concentrators, computational
simulations were performed substituting the normalized SAE 1015 steel by 1) a carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel; 2) a quenched and
tempered SAE 4340 steel, maintaining the same geometry.
Figs. 9 and 10 present the obtained results for the dynamic analysis considering the use of the carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel and
the quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel, respectively. For the carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel, the component fatigue behavior was
slightly improved. It was observed that at the same root point, where the fatigue life time was around 120 cycles, using a normalized
SAE 1015, life was now increased to 3500 cycles. This behavior may be explained due to the new steel yield strength. As the geometry
was not changed, the stress distribution along the screw is approximately the same, but the carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel has a yield
strength of 550 MPa, higher than the highest stress (293 MPa), decreasing the plastic strain occurrences [26]. Although the im-
provement of the component fatigue behavior, the use of a carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel with the actual geometry may still be
susceptible to low cycle fatigue failure.
Applying the SAE 4340 steel, the component fatigue life was increased. At the same area where the fatigue life time was around
120 cycles, using a normalized SAE 1015 steel, now it was increased to 60,000 cycles. The second screw thread did not indicate
anymore low cycle fatigue failure, but the first thread still did. Considering that the use of a SAE 4340 to manufacture a Tirefond
screw would increase the Tirefond screw cost to around US$15.00 due to the higher steel cost. It would not be acceptable any low
cycle fatigue point. So, the use of a quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel with the actual geometry would not be economically
viable.

Fig. 9. Component fatigue life simulating the use of a carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel (number of cycles).

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 10. Component fatigue life simulating the use of a quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel (number of cycles).

3.3. Actual steel with geometric changes

This topic presents obtained results considering the use of the normalized SAE 1015 steel, but now performing geometric changes
to the screw project. This first analyzed condition was the elimination of the diameter decrease along the screw structure. A con-
tinuous diameter Tirefond screw was evaluated with 22 mm diameter. Fig. 11 highlights the obtained results for the static loading
condition. It is noticeable that the evaluated geometric change returned a great result. Compared to the initial geometry, the thread
roots continue to be severe stress concentrators, but with a continuous diameter, the higher stress at the first thread was 166 MPa,
therefore lower than the normalized SAE 1015 steel yield strength.
Aiming to evaluate the effect of this geometric change on the component fatigue behavior, dynamic simulations were performed.
Fig. 12 presents the obtained results that highlight a significant improvement on the component fatigue performance. The minor
fatigue life was observed at the root of the first thread, 2.8 × 105 cycles, approaching of the minimum desired value of 106 cycles for
this application.
The second evaluated geometric change was to increase the Tirefond screw diameters according to the screw number 9 described
by the NBR 8479 standard [11]. The screw higher diameter was increased from 22 mm to 24 mm and the minor diameter from 15 mm
to 16 mm. Fig. 13 presents the von Mises stress distribution under static loading. The highest stress was 170 MPa at the first thread
root, lower than the normalized SAE 1015 steel yield strength, but higher than the first proposed geometric change. Fig. 14 shows the
component fatigue life. Comparing Fig. 12 (constant diameter along the length) and 14 (reduction of diameter along the length), it
can be noticed that the best performance by fatigue (infinite life) is verified for the constant diameter condition, where the stress
concentration is minimized.

Fig. 11. von Mises equivalent stress distribution under static loading of the SAE 1015 Tirefond screw without diameter decrease.

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 12. Component fatigue life under dynamic loading of the SAE 1015 Tirefond screw without diameter decrease (number of cycles).

Fig. 13. von Mises equivalent stress distribution under static loading of the SAE 1015 Tirefond screw with higher diameter.

Fig. 14. Component fatigue life under dynamic loading of the SAE 1015 Tirefond screw with higher diameter (number of cycles).

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 15. Component fatigue life under dynamic loading of a carbonitrited SAE 1015 Tirefond screw without diameter decrease (number of cycles).

3.4. Combination of geometry and steel changes

The first combined change evaluated was the use of a carbonitrited SAE1015 steel with the continuous 22 mm diameter screw.
Fig. 15 presents the obtained result for dynamic loading simulation. The component fatigue life was 1.7 × 108 cycles. Obviously, if a
carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel meets a fatigue life higher than 106 cycles with this geometry, a quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel
will also meets.
Figs. 16 and 17 present the simulation results considering the use of the Tirefond screw number 9, as specified by NBR 8497 [11],
with larger diameters than the one currently used, and manufactured of a carbonitrited SAE 1015 and a quenched and tempered SAE
4340 steels, respectively. It is noticeable that the use of a carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel with this geometry presents points susceptible
to a low cycle fatigue failure. However, the use of a SAE 4340 steel guaranteed a minimum fatigue life of 3.3 × 106 cycles, a better
and suitable value for the desired application.
Based on the obtained results, it was possible to confirm the Faria et al. (2016) [4] hypothesis. The actual Tirefond screw used in
Brazilian railroads are recurrent failing by fatigue, because the normalized SAE 1015 steel did not have enough mechanical strength
to support the static and dynamic loading due to the modern trains passage. The combination of geometry and materials change can
improve the component fatigue behavior, increasing its life time, decreasing the substitution procedures and decreasing the risk of
accidents.
Among the studied conditions, the best results were obtained applying: 1) carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel with 22 mm continuous
diameter; 2) quenched and tempered SAE 4340 with 22 mm continuous diameter; 3) quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel with
number 9 screw [11]. However, beyond the technical issues, it is important to perform a quick economic evaluation. Table 4 presents
estimated costs to install and to maintain the Tirefond screws per kilometer of railroad, per year. It is noticeable that nowadays, the
first application cost is low, but considering the low screw life time (3 months), the replacement cost, associated only with the screw
cost, that is, disregarding the operation costs, are too high. Using the carbonitrited SAE 1015 or the quenched and tempered SAE
4340, the application cost increase, but the replacement occurrences strongly decrease, and in concomitance, the number of

Fig. 16. Component fatigue life under dynamic loading of a carbonitrited SAE 1015 Tirefond screw with higher diameter (number of cycles).

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T.M.M. Moreira, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 106 (2019) 104186

Fig. 17. Component fatigue life under dynamic loading of a SAE 4340 Tirefond screw with higher diameter (number of cycles).

Table 4
Estimated costs related to the Tirefond screw price considering only the raw materials cost.
Estimated values considering one kilometer of railroad per year

Condition Screw first application cost (US$) Screw replacement (US$) Total (US$)

Actual Tirefond Screw 17.000 80.000 97.000

Carbonitrited SAE 1015 with Continuous Diameter 70.000 3.000 73.000
Quenched and Tempered SAE 4340 number 9 [9] 129.000 7.000 136.000

replacement operations and the risk of accidents.

4. Conclusions

The Finite Element Method (FEM) was efficiently used aiming to evaluate the recurrent failure case of the Brazilian Tirefond
screws and to evaluate the effects of geometry and materials change on the component mechanical performance.
The actual Tirefond screw used in Brazilian railroads are recurrent failing by fatigue, because the normalized SAE 1015 steel did
not have enough mechanical strength to support the static and dynamic loading due to the modern trains passage. The computational
simulation converged to the real situation predicting preferential failing points that coincides with the observed in real failures.
The combination of geometry and raw materials change can improve the component fatigue behavior, increasing its life time.
Among the studied conditions, the best results were obtained applying: 1) carbonitrited SAE 1015 steel with 22 mm continuous
diameter; 2) quenched and tempered SAE 4340 with 22 mm continuous diameter; 3) quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel with
number 9 screw.

Declaration of Competing Interest

None.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Brazilian VLI-FCA Company (Thiago Gomes Viana) for the materials supplying. The authors
also are grateful for the financial support received by from Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development
(CNPq), Minas Gerais State Research Foundation (FAPEMIG), and Federal University of Ouro Preto/PROPP. The last author thanks to
Professor Péter Z. Berke from Université libre de Bruxelles for his hospitality during the manuscript's revision at Batir/ULB.

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