Chapter HC Flow Through Nozzles Sa A TEE EET ERE SE understand the concepts of : Q wave propagation and sonic velocity Q variation of velocity with area ratio G supersaturated flow and its effects A nozzle is a duct of varying cross-sectional area used for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing stream of fluid. The fluid enters the nozzle with a high pressure and relatively small velocity. During the flow process, its pressures falls and velocity increases continuously from the entrance to the exit of the nozzle. ‘There arises a need for high velocity stream of fluid in the steady flow processes that occur in the following practical situations : — In steam and gas turbines, the high speed stream of fluid is directed on the curved blades and the kinetic energy is transformed into mechanical work. — In jet propulsion units and rocket motors, the thrust produced by the jet provides the necessary propulsive effort. — In flow measurement, the differential pressure drop across the nozzle is correlated to velocity to find the discharge. Other applications of nozzle are the injectors for pumping feed water into the boilers, and the ejectors for removing air from the condensers. Attention has been focussed in this chapter to analyze the one-dimensional fluid flow Learning objectives : Attention has been focussed in this chapter to enable the reader to one dimensional compressible flow and isentropic flow relations O flow of gases and vapours through nozzles, choking condition and effect of friction through a nozzle under the following set of assumptions : — Thermodynamic and mechanical properties change only in the direction of flow. — The flow process is stable, ie., the velocity of the fluid anywhere along the cross- section of the nozzle does not change in the course of time. . — There are no abrupt changes in the cross- section of nozzle. — The fluid flowing through the nozzle is ideal and the flow is isentropic in behaviour. The effect of friction is accounted for by introducing appropriate coefficients and efficiencies. 18.1. EQUATION OF STATE The state of a flowing liquid is described by three variables namely the velocity V, pressure p and temperature T, and the governing equations are those of mass, momentum and energy. Analysis of compressible flow of gases involves consideration of an additional variable, the fluid density p which is related to Pressure and temperature by the characteristic gas equation : 548Flow Through Nozzles pV =mRT or po=Rr Pp | orp = RT (18.1) where p is the absolute pressure in N/m? ; V is the volume occupied by mass m of the gas ; v is the specific volume in m3/kg ; p is the mass density in kg/m ; T is the absolute temperature in degree kelvin, and R is the gas constant. A dimensional analysis of the state equation would reveal that the gas constant R, though constant for a particular gas, is not dimensionless but has units of J/kg K or that of energy per unit mass and unit temperature. For air, the value of gas constant may be taken as 287 J/kg K. Taking logs on both sides : log p = log p + log R + log T Upon differentiation, dp _ dp dR oat BeBe oR. ah Since R is constant for a particular gas, its derivative is zero. , 2 P_& 29 propo (18.2) Equation 18.2 is the differential equation of a perfect gas. This equation shows how the changes in pressure, density and temperature are interrelated in compressible flows. 18.2. WAVE PROPAGATION AND SOUND VELOCITY The term sonic or acoustic velocity refers to the speed at which small pressure disturbances are propagated in the form of waves through a fluid. Consider a duct of constant area A inside which slides a piston without friction. The duct encloses a compressible fluid initially at rest with pressure p and density p. When a small impulse is given to the piston, a small pressure disturbance called sonic wave is created that propagates through the fluid causing the pressure of fluid to change from p to (p + 4p). This increase in pressure of the gas layer comtk. immediately adjacent to the piston compresses the gas and changes its density from p to (p + dp). During a time interval dt, the pressure Wave progresses a distance dl = a dt and the a8 particles move a distance dx = dV x dt from the initial position. Here a is the velocity of the Pressure wave propagation and dV is the velocity of gas particles that approximately equals the velocity of piston movement. Fig. 18.1. Wave propagation Applying momentum equation to the gas particles in the compressed region, we get net force of the fluid = rate of change of momentum mass flow per unit time x change of velocity pAdl + dp) A-pA= “T= xaVv dl =pLav od Bae "fade sole] VCs dl sade) =padv Ai) Before an impulse is imparted to the piston, mass within length dl of the duct equals = px volume of fluid upto length =pAdl__ After piston movement, the gas density increases to (p + dp) but the length reduces to (di ~ dx). Therefore, mass within the duct after Piston movement equals = (p + dp) A (dl - dx) From continuity considerations, the gas mass should remain constant before and after the piston movement. Therefore : p Adl = (p + dp) A (dl - dx) But = di dt and dx = dV dt p Aa dt =(p + dp) A (a dt - dV dt) (p + dp) A dt (a- dV) Dividing both sides by A dt, © @ = (p + dp) (@ - dv) =pa-pdV+adp-dpdv The piston velocity is very small compared to the velocity of pressure wave. Also the value of density change is very small. Accordingly the product of two small quantities (dp dV) can be dropped. That gives : adp=pav; av=a2 Substituting the value of dV in expression (i), dp=pax («) =a@dp ® dp ap pe ee P= pt 8 a5 which shows how the speed of wave propagation is related to pressure and density changes across a wave. Sonic velocity for an adiabatic process : In order to evaluate the expression, a = ,/ap/dp for sonic velocity, the manner in which pressure varies with density must be determined. With no temperature gradients at the boundaries of control volume, there is no’heat transfer into or out of the control volume. Further only infinitesimal changes take place across the wave. Evidently then the departure of the fluid from thermodynamic equilibrium is negligible and that constitutes a reversible process. Accordingly, the propagation of minor disturbances through air can be thought to (18.3) Engineering Thermodynamicg il i ic (i tropic) Proces be a reversible adiabatic (isentrc +s which is governed by the relation, =~ constant C; ro log p = log C + ¥ log p dp dc dp ey op eC Pp Since C is a constant, its derivative is zero, Therefore, pe p*p' dpe Equation 183 for the sonic velocity may then be written as ee ie v(m (184) It may be recalled that when the pressure and density changes are infinitesimal. dp dp ~ avyv * pip where K is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the flow medium. Then in terms of K, the velocity of sound in a medium is K= p Thus the different expressions for the velocity of propagation of pressure wave (or sound wave) in a fluid are : ae Re he fe Es - a (18.5) From the expressions for sonic velocity, the following important conclusions can be drawn : () Sonic velocity: is dependent upon the change of density for a given change in pressure. For compressible fluids such as gases or vapours, the ratio dp/dp is large compared to that for incompressible fluids like water. Consequently sonic velocity would be less ina gas than that in a liquid. For example, the sonic velocity in air at 15°C is about 340 m/s and a=Fiow Through Nozzles that in water at the same temperature i a0 m/5. \pel is about (ii) Sonic velocity is higher in flow medi with high bulk modulus of elasticity, Conversely, the sonic velocity would have a Jow value in the medium having a high value of coefficient of compressibility. (iii) Sonic velocity increases with growth in fen aaa Accordingly, it would faba with height due to temperature drop at hii altitudes. ae (jo) Sonic velocity is higher in gases with a high value of gas constant R. This constant depends upon molecular weight; the value being higher in a gas with low molecular weight. Accordingly, the sonic velocity will be higher in a gas which has a low molecular weight. Sonic velocity is about 1400 m/s in hydrogen (low molecular weight) and drops to about 100 m/s in some refrigerants which have a fairly high value of molecular weight. EXAMPLE 18.1 Find the sonic velocity for the following fluids: (i) Crude oil of specific gravity 0.8 and bulk modulus 15.3 x 108 N/m?; (ii) Mercury having 4 bulk modulus of 2.65 x 10! N/m’. Solution : The sonic velocity in a liquid is IK given by: @= Vp (i Sonic velocity in the crude oil, 15.3x10° Saociooo = 289 m5 (ii) Sonic velocity in mercury, 2,65x10" a= 73.6% 1000 = 1396 m/s EXAMPLE 18.2 Indicate whether the sonic decrease in magnitude with in above the earth's surface. rind the speed of sound woave in air at Se level here the pressure and temperature are 1.01 N/n? abs and 17°C respectively. velocity will increase or creasing elevation ee ____________—_—ee,, For air : take Gas constant R = 287 kg K and adiabatic exponent = 14. Solution : Temperature T= 273 +17 = 290K The sonic velocity given by : a= JT a= J14x287x290 = 341.35 m/s The data regarding pressure at sea level is superfluous. 18.3. BASIC EQUATIONS FOR ONE- DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW = Continuity Equation :For one-dimensional flow, the continuity equation gives : m™ = P AV where m is mass flow per unit time, A is flow rea, V is fluid velocity and p is mass density, jie, mass per unit volume. For all applications, the mass flow is taken constant and hence the continuity equation can be written a5 + p AV = constant C log p + log A + log Vz logC Upon differentiation, dA ly aC At vere Since C is constant, its derivative is zero oA, Tao (18.6) ‘The above result represents the differential form of continuity equation for one- dimensional steady, compressible flow. Momentum Equation : Consider steady fluid flow through a pipeline whose cross- sectional area has a gradual variation along the flow direction. attention on an arbitrary We focus our volume; the control volume. Let it be assumed that the fluid has the following properties and characteristics at inlet to control volume : pressure p, mean flow velocity V, area A, average fluid density p and the internal energy E. The fluid properties change as the fluid amypasses through the control volume and let the corresponding parameters at exit be: ( + dp), (V + dV), (A + dA), (p + dp) and (E + dE) (p+dp(A+da) ‘Area dA Fig. 18.2. Steady flow through a channel of varying cross-section For the chosen control volume, the pressure forces are: pressure force at inlet section = pA pressure force at exit section = (p+ dp) (A + dA) Let (p + dp/2), the average of pressures acting on the inlet and exit sections, be the pressure acting on the slanted side walls of the control surface. Therefore : average force normal to the surface of each 4 wat = (222) a 7) aA, where dA, isthe side wall area. The component of this force along the x-direction equals + (2 Naa, sin @ for one wall, and p+dp 7 _}* 24A, sin 8 for both the walls. But dA, sin @ = dA/2. Therefore x- component of pressure force acting on the side p+dp walls is (222 )aa Presuming an ideal flow, i.e., there are no shear and friction forces and if the gravitational Engineering Thermedyan effects due to change in height are then net force acting on the fluid in accel is given by ion - — P+d) = pA-(p+dp)(A+dA)- ha = - A dp if second order dif terms are neglected. moet Now consider the change of momentum of fluid within the control volume at any insta Momentum = mass flow rate x change of Velocity, =(p AY av According to _impulse-momentum equation, time rate of change of momentum equals the force causing it. That is (p AV) AV =~ Adp ap or +vav=0 87 This is the momentum or dynamic equation and is called the Euler's equation. Integration of this equation would give the Bernouli’s equation. However, for compressible flow, the integration is possible only when the density p is a definite function of pressure p and this occurs only in homogeneous fluids. For isentropic flow conditions, we have : pr dp = Cypt-! dp Substituting this value of dp in equation 18.7, constant C Crp tg = constant constant ...(18.13) Static and stagnation values: Consider a steady flow past a body for frictionless compressible fluid and negligible changes in elevation. The energy equation for the fluid flow yields : VdV+dh=0 v2 7 + h= constant 2 7 + T= constant The kinetic energy V2/2 and enthalpy c, T always appear in flow problems and for convenience, their summation [c, T + V2/2] is considered a single quantity and is called the total head or stagnation enthalpy, hy 2 Tah The stagnation enthalpy represents the enthalpy value which would arise if the flow velocity were brought to zere no matter how, So long as no heat were added from outsideand no external work were done. The corresponding temperature Ty is then given by: ye T+ > =41% Ty is known as the stagnation or total head temperature of ‘the flow steam. When a fluid flows past blunt body, there is some stagnation Point P on the body where the stream divides and in which region the stream is virtually brought to rest. Consequently at the stagnation Point, the temperature would reach a maximum value and would be the stagnation temperature. Whereas the static temperature T is registered by a thermometer which moves with the flowing fluid, the stagnation temperature Ty is read on a thermometer when the flowing gas strikes it and is brought to rest. The term V?/2c, is called the velocity or dynamic temperature. my Fig, 18.3. Stagnation point 2 Dynamic temperature (Ty - T) = 2a, The dynamic temperature depends only on the speed, and nothing else except the specific heat of the fluid. For ambient conditions, the static and stagnation values are same as the ambient velocity is assumed to be zero. When the fluid flow is brought to rest, the static temperature becomes the stagnation temperature. ¥ Replacing ¢, by 7g R and ViRT by the sonic velocity a, equation 18.14 simplifies to "a, Engineering Thermedynanig ty v2 v Toler nS wat v2 -14 2 YRT hb mv yl Tet ae ~-(18.15) For a reversible adiabatic process, thy corresponding stagnation pressure p,’ ang density py are related by: fo (ay , P T cp Accordingly, the following relationships hold good for temperature, pressure and density in terms of local Mach number : ais Ke 1 Po _ (4, 2-d yey and ae (1 “ M ) (18.16) For given stagnation conditions, the values of pressure, temperature and density decrease as the Mach number is increased. For isentropic behaviour of a fluid, the stagnation fluid properties remain constant. Then it follows from equation 18.16 that the following relations hold good for the fluid property ratios between any two cross-sections of an isentropic fluid flow through a duct. = 1 1 (ut ua) = (1-720) = Ty = constant Hence : rye 3 ge ie iM eeree Flow Thiough Nozzles Likewise : ro Po and (18.17), 18.5. VARIATION OF VELOCITY WITH AREA RATIO ee For a steady flow, the differential form of continuity equation as obtained in equation 18.6 is: For incompressible flow, there is no change dp in density and so “= 0 dA av A =v. (18.18) ie, a small fractional decrease in area implies a corresponding fractional increase in velocity and vice versa. Thus a liquid would speed up in a contracting nozzle and slow down in an expanding diffuser. This result, however, cannot be applied for a gas flow in which density changes. For compressible flow, we recall the momentum equation ap > tay d or a? +Vdv=0 A: e dp : from continuity equation, we obtain . Substituting for (18.19) where M is the local Mach number = x The equation 18.19 shows that the ratio dA/ A can be negative or positive depending on the Mach number of the flow; hence the importance of Mach number at high speeds. ‘The following conclusions can be drawn from equation 18.19. () For subsonic velocities (M < 1): dA and V are opposite in sign, ie., an increase of cross- sectional area causes a reduction of velocity and vice versa. This statement is also true for an incompressible flow. (il) For supersonic velocities (M > 1): dA and dV are of same sign. An increase of cross- sectional area then causes an increase of velocity and vice versa. (iii) When M = : dA must be zero and since the second derivative is positive, A must ‘be minimum. Thus if the velocity of flow equals the sonic. velocity any where; it must do so where the cross-section is of minimum area. For acceleration of fluid in the subsonic region, the cross-section of the flow region converges down from entry to minimum area which is exit; such a nozzle is called converging or subsonic nozzle (Fig. 18.4). For acceleration of fluid in the supersonic velocity range, the flow passage diverges from entry to exit. Such anozzle is called diverging or supersonic nozzle (Fig. 18.46). In a convergent-divergent nozzle (Fig. 18.4c), the cross-section of the passage converges down from entry area called mouth to minimum area called throat, and then diverges from throat to exit. The fluid accelerates from subsonic in the convergent portion to supersonic in the divergent portion. The flow velocity at the throat equals the sonic velocity.‘Subsonic flow ‘Supersonic flow mS Mot | | 2 BP oe ' + Eb Soo J Lo Meo | oo | ! ‘Area decreases ‘Area increases Velocity increases Velocity increases (@) Subsonic (converging) nozzle (b) Supersonic (diverging) nozzle ‘Throat gA gA <0 S30 A I A) _ 7 : iar gy Mt fet Be v Axo . A a Meo ¥ (¢) Converging-diverging nozzle Fig. 18.4. Flow through nozzle A diffuser is a passage of varying cross- section that serves to achieve reduction in velocity of the flowing fluid. When the flow is subsonic (M < 1), the cross-section of the diffusing passage diverges from entry to exit. However, when the flowing fluid is in the supersonic regime (M > 1), the cross-section of the diffusing duct decreases down from entry to exit. The area-velocity relationship for a diffuser has been shown in Fig. 18.5. ‘Subsonic flow ‘Superponie flow Met wet ide ce | PY 4+ + Meg | | Weg ! ' ‘Area increases ‘Area decreases Velocity decreases Volcoycerases f@) Fig. 18.5. Flow through diffusers Some additional relationships between changes in velocity, Mach number, temperature, pressure and area can be Engineering Thermodynamigg established by combining the differential forms of the continuity, perfect 825, isentropic, Mach number and energy equations. Continuity : p AV = constant o 8 8. pow Perfect gas: p= p RT ap 40 aT ae 207 aR, i (: Ciszero fora Particular i) Isentropic : = constant 2 so 2p Energy: T+ > = «aT +VdV=0 (+ y RT = @) From these relations, we obtain : av dM 7 m8 20) ie., both velocity and Mach number either increase or decrease together._., _—_ _w A 7 y (MP1) = 02 (152-1) = 0.25 f refore, the area will be 25 percent oe fun 7 original area or the area times the original When M = 05 ; eet dA a 702 (0.5? - 1) = - 0.15 Therefore, the area will be 15 percent smaller than the original area or the required area will be 0.85 times the original area. EXAMPLE 18.4 Establish the following relations for one-dimensional compressible flow through ducts of varying area : a_i, @ = pe a-) w 422 eee YA 1 pM The symbols have their usual meanings. Solution : Recall the momentum equation for i Mag a a 828) =— le flow, a Piva; a | ‘The term inside the brackets may be an vet Vv positive or negative depending upon the i magnitude of the Mach number. Substituting for from continuity ‘Equation 18:24 can be integrated to obtain the pana Ie relationship between the citcal thtoat equation “> + “q+ y" area A, where the Mach umber is unity and the oa. Y = 0, we obtain area A at any other section where M 2 1 ip i dA, A 1 (24(-DM? yar=3) pe oe AT M(t oh #2. He, - (18.25) a pve ep } EXAMPLE 18.3. ————————__ | A supersonic flow at Mach mutber 1.5 has been | observed in a given passage. Workout the percent ap v of the original passage area needed if a 20 percent = \he increase in velocity is to be attained. Also e el the corresponding. passage area required had i | a initial flow teen suboonic ‘at Mach number 0.5. «22 wt (1 - M2) which is the Solution : For one-dimensional compressible flow through a duct,(ii) Now, yp oe

eel =A lb) po (18.27) Pressure ratio (plp,) for maximum mass flow rate : A nozzle is always designed to discharge the maximum flow rate for the given pressure drop. There is only one value of ratio (p/p) which will provide the maximum flow for the nozzle, This value can be found by differentiating [(p/p))*/ - (p/p) * 1] with respect to (p/Py) and equating the result to zero. ‘That is, m 1 a4 2(p ~ H(z)" | 1\Po Y \Po ay 1 2(p) _ ui(ey . “(é) cen ay _ w/o)" = Gli Olas. Yt 2 \ a ake fe (ay Po \y+1 ‘The exit pressure p for ma of critical pressure to initial pressure Po the critical pressure ratio : ximum discharge is called the critical re p, and the ratio called the critical pressure p, and the rae SS (18.28) Pe (2 Po \Y41, It may be pointed out tha n it a convergent nozae is employed when the exit presse is equal to or more than the critical pressure and Saconvergent-divergent nozzle is used when discharge pressure is less than the critical pressure. Relevant relations for critical density and temperature are : 1 Ce fe O ~ly+t) * % 7 #1 (18.29) For air as the fluid medium, y the above results reduce to Pe Po Maximum mass flow rate : The critical velocity for maximum mass flow rate can be obtained by substituting for the critical pressure ratio in the following expression for flow velocity : 4 and so 058; 2 = 0634; = =0833 "R Ty ‘The mass flow rate through a nozzle is :=p Engineering Thermodynamics 2 z uz mealot py pyr alrne2,F" Farhad (9 alla eee A ‘¢ maximum mass rate can be obtained wip? by substitutin, yt 8 the critical pressure ratio I he P 2\a. _ F = (AJP inte above epreion . Maximum mass flow: er 2 =AlY reo 2 Taking y = 14, the above expression ie becomes : : | 2 Max = AYPoPo x uax( = 0.685 A poPo (18.31) A passage in which the sonic velocity has been reached and thus in which the flow rate is maximum is often said to be choked or in choking conditions, Itis evident from equation 18.27 that for a fixed value of inlet pressure the mass flow depends on the nozzle exit Pressure. Fig. 18.6 depicts the variation of actual and theoretical mass flow rate versus p/py From both the curves it is found that the flow 2 i rate increases with a decrease in the pressure -al2 ay ni (3) eh ratio p/p) and attains the maximum value at the critical pressure ratio p,/pp, = 0.528 for air. Thereafter the theoretical mass flow rate ya v2 decreases with a further decrease in the exit 2)\A Pressure below the critical value. This is =A | ¥ PoPo| ye ++(18.30) contrary to the actual results where the mass flow rate remains constant after the attainment The above result could also be obtained by of Maximum value. Physical interpretation of making substitution for the critical values in the choking may be given by the fact that the the expression sonic velocity represents the maximum speed Pe a at which pressure effects can be propagated. imax = A Be Ve Thus once the velocity at throat reaches the sonic value, no message can be transmitted upstream and so the fluid there is quite unware of any further reduction of pressure at the downstream end of the nozzle. The convergent Part of the nozzle continues to behave independently of conditions beyond the throat until these become subsonic again.igh Nozzles 3 2 ‘Mass flow rate, m fig. 18.6. Mass flow rate versus pressure ratio EXAMPLE 18.6 contains air at a pressure 135 kPa and temperature 27°C. The local barometric pressure is 00 kPa. Air discharges out of the tank and into atmosphere through a convergent nozzle, Determine the outflow velocity and the mass rate of air. The cross-sectional area at the nozzle outlet is 500 mm? How the mass flow rate would change if the pressure in the tank is 450 kPa ? The other data remains same. Solution : Assuming isentropic flow, the reservoir would be at the stagnation conditions represented by the suffix 0. Po = 135 kPa Ty = 273 + 27 = 300 K “Po _ 135x10° o= RT ~ 287x300 = 1.568 kg/m? Case (a) : p/Py = 100/135 = 0.741 which is greater than the critical pressure ratio. The outflow velocity, therefore, does not reach the critical velocity and is determined from the relation : xv)? 21 Po (2) r Y-1Po Po 14 _ 135x10° 5 A 135x 1 aay BO (1-(0.741) =1 1.568 omy | 22252 m/s From isentropic relation, the density of air at nozzle exit is given by 1 P= Py (2) = 1,568 x (0.741)/"4 0 = 1.266 kg/m? + Mass flow 5 AV at the nozzle exit 266 x (500 x 10) x 222.52 1408 kg/s Case (b) : p/Pp = 100/450 = 0.22 which is less than the critical pressure ratio. The nozzle exit therefore, becomes a critical section. qi 2 Th aoe T, = 300 x 0.833 = 250 K V,= 4, = yRT, = ¥14x287x250 = 316.94 m/s Pe. 0.528450 10° RT, 287x250 = 331 kg/m? 2+ Mass flow = p AV at the critical conditions 31 x (500 x 10°) x 316.94 524 kg/s This could have alternatively been found by using the relation : mass flow = 0.685 A PoPo Po ? ; P0= Rh = = 5.23 kg/m’ m = 0.685 x (500 x 10°) x {450x10? x5.23 = 0.525 kgs EXAMPLE 18.7 ‘A supersonic nozale is to be designed for air flow with Mack number 3 at the exit section which is 250 mm in diameter, The pressure and temperature of air at the nozzle exit are 8.5 KN/m? and 215 K. Make calculations for (a) reservoir pressure and temperature and (b) throat area Solution : Since the velocity in the reservoir is zero, the temperature and pressure correspondto stagnation conditions represented by the suffix 0. The Mach number is related to the static and stagnation pressures by the relation : 4 =85 [etches = 85 x (2.8)95 = 312.23 kN/n? The Mach number is related to the static and stagnation temperatures by the relation, T= rhe] = as[i+ 413] = 215 x 28 = 602 K The following correlation exists between the critical throat area A. (where the Mach number is unity) and the area A at any other section where M 2 1 ttt A ee & ut ytl 2 _ 1 [2+(14-1)x3? Jos 3 14+1 1 =3 (2.33)3 = 4.216 A =x(0.25)? 4216 4196 EXAMPLE 18.8 Air flows through a nozzle with velocity 75 m/s, temperature 300 K and pressure 650 kPa at the inlet section which has an area of 10 cmt. If pressure at the nozzle exit is 250 kPa, calculate mass flow rate through the nozzle and the flow velocity at the exit section. Assume one-dimensional isentropic flow. Solution : Let suffix 1 and 2 represent the conditions at the inlet and exit sections of the nozzle. .0116 m2 Engineering Thermodynamics Pr Mass flow rate M = p; A; V, = Rr AY 650 10° * 287x300 = 0.566 kg/s x (10x 104) x 75 The following correlation holds good for pressure ratio between any two cross-sections of an isentropic fluid flow through a duct. 1100933, ~ T+02M2 1100933, 140.2M2 1100933 0.7608 3266-1]! aS] = 1278 Further, for isentropic flow a L T ln) © (60. = 0.7608 7608 T, .7608 x 300 = 228.24 K or 0.7608 = or1 +02 M2= = 13266 M, 4 aFlow ‘Through Nozzles Flow velocity at exit Vy.= Myf, = MpyiRT, = 1278 J14x287x22824 = 387 mis EXAMPLE 18.9 Air flows through a convergent-divergent nozzle. "At some section in the nozzle pressure = 2 bar, teloity = 170 ms and temperature = 200°C aad cross sectional area = 1000 mm?. Assuming isentropic flow conditions determine : (a) stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure, (b) sonic velocity and Mach number at this section (c) elocity, Mach number and flow area at outlet section where pressure is 1.1 bar (d) pressure, temperature, velocity and flow aren at throat of the nozzle. Take R = 287 J/kg K, c, = 1000 J/kg K and y= ld Solution : Stagnation temperature vz Ty=T+ 6, 1707 = AT + Saoq9 7 18745 K a, Po (yr p AT at - (ay° =111 473 = Stagnation pressure, pp = MAL p = ell x 2 = 2.22 bar (i) Sonic velocity, a= yRT = V14x287%473 = 435.95 m/s Mach number v 170 M= 7 = @505 = 0.39 (c) Let subscript e refer to the conditions at the outlet section. Then Po lye r+ oo) 5 om = (1 +02 M25; M2 = 1.11 Mach number at exit, M,= VIII = 1.054 Temperature at exit, yw Y T,=T ee Po uy = 49745 (—4]“ = ( z ss) 398.7 K Sonic velocity at exit, = JyRT, = V14x287x3987 = 400.25 m/s «. Velocity at exit, V, = M,a, = 1.054 x 400.25 = 421.86 m/s From continuity considerations : p AV =p, A, Ve et eee ee 2.22 _ 4 (tte) Pays fe FAV = Me <. Flow area at exit, ep VE ASAT RUST 2 Ve = 1000 2 170 398.7 = 1000 * 73 * Gais6 * “473 = 617.45 mm” (@) Let subscript t refer to the conditions at the throat section of the nozzle. At throat, critical conditions prevail, ie,, the flow velocity becomes equal to the sonic velocity and Mach number attains a unit value. Ty -1 = 14% mare Bae } 1, 1 | aa . Temperature at throat, 2 2 T= 1) Fyq = 87 * Tad = 406.21 K 3+. Pressure at throat, o Tn Pr = Po * 7 a =22 sy" = 1173 bar 287.45 Sonic velocity (corresponding to throat conditions) = JoRT, = J14x287%40621 = 404 m/s :. Flow velocity at throat, V, = 404 m/s | From continuity considerations, P Pee PAV= DAM: RpAV= Bp AM -. Flow area at throat, ae Az Ax xp xt sn @ © 2 170 = 406.21 = 1000x 1173 * 404 * "473 = 616 mm? 18.7. VELOCITY AND HEAT DROP Consider steady flow of fluid flowing from section 1 to section 2 of any flow passage. The steady flow equation on unit mass basis is 2 2 it +82, +Q=h,+ a + 3% +W, (18.32) The only purpose of nozzle being the conversion of heat energy (pressure energy) into kinetic energy, the flow through a nozzle is characterized by the following features : * no shaft work ; W, = 0 + walls are thermally insulated ; the system does not exchange any heat with the surroundings, ie., the flow is adiabatic ; Q = 0 « the nozzle is placed with its axis horizontal, change in elevation between the entry and exit point is negligible ; (z, - z,) = 0 With these stipulations SFEE reduces to 2-2 BoM typ Engineering Thermodynamigg Thus an increase in kinetic energy equals the decrease in enthalpy. Theoretical velocity at exit V, = (hy hy) +VE The velocity at inlet V,, called the approach velocity, is negligible in comparison with exit velocity V, and can be neglected . Then V, = (20h =a) If h, and h, are enthalpies of the workin, fluid in kJ/kg and the velocity is in m/s, then vi 2x10 = (h-hh) or V,= 447 f(y -hy) -(18.33) For a perfect gas : hh, ~ hy = 6, (T, ~ T,) and therefore V, = 44.7 Cp(Ti -T) (18.34) FLOW OF VAPOURS PI a OA The equations for critical pressure and temperature set up in previous sections apply to perfect gases only and not to vapours. This is due to the fact that in case of vapours, the exponent of expansion is no longer constant but depends upon the initial and final states of the vapour. Sufficient close approximation is however obtained for a steam nozzle if the expansion is assumed to follow the law po" = constant. For steam initially superheated : For steam initially dry saturated : n = 1.135 For steam having initially dryness fraction x, the value of exponent n can be found by using the Zeuner’s equation given below : n=1035+xxO01 (1835) This value of 1» is used in place of 7 in determining the critical pressure for steam. 1 + For steam, Pe = (Ar pi \nsi ++ Critical pressure ratio for superheated ‘steam7? gow toh Noes « (A) = 0.546 13+1 and critical pressure ratio for dry saturated teat 18 = (aen \ 15 = 0578 113541 EFFECT OF FRICTION AND NOZZLE EFFICIENCY n through the nozzle, the ansion can be represented by a aerical line 1-25 on -s chart (Fig. 18.7). However in actual expansion of fluid through Mooazle there are frictional losses due to : (a) friction between fluid and the nozzle 18.9. Assuming NO adiabatic eXP: walls. (0) friction within the fluid itself ; and (co energy dissipation due to formation of eddies and shocks. Fig, 18.7. Effect of friction The energy lost in friction is converted into heat and that tends to dry the steam and increase its enthalpy. The expansion is no longer isentropic and there is progressive increase in entropy. The actual expansion is along the curve (1 - 2), the point 2 being on the constant pressure line P,- The effect of friction losses are : () Reduction in the actual enthalpy drop from (it, ~ h,) to (I, ~ hy) (ii) Reduction in the exit velocity (ii) Increase in the dryness fraction of steam leaving the nozzle (io) Increase in the specific volume of fluid due to increase in dryness fraction of steam Due to increased specific volume and reduced velocity, the mass flow rate decreases (2) Most of the friction in the convergent divergent nozzle is assumed to, occur between the throat and exit (diverging section) and expansion from mouth to throat (converging section) is taken to be truly isentropic. This is due to the fact that (i) the diverging flow is more susceptible to losses due to higher velocities. and turbulence in that portion. (i) the losses in the convergent portion of the nozzle are much less owing to small inlet velocity and minimum turbulence. Nozzle efficiency : Nozale efficiency is @ measure of the degree of perfection of nozzle in fulfilling its sole purpose of delivering the maximum possible amount of kinetic energy for the given pressure drop. The nozzle efficiency is usually expressed as the ratio of actual enthalpy drop to the isentropic enthalpy drop between the same pressure limits. actual enthalpy drop Thozzle = jgentropic enthalpy drop hy —hy ow ..(18.36) hy Is ‘ ; ‘The exit velocity V, considering friction is then given by Vy = 447 has) * Moone For a perfect gas, the expression for nozzle efficiency can be written as «| BoB Ioaale ~ ¢y(Ty-Ts) Th ~ be (18.37) Applying the steady flow energy equation between the entry (velocity V,) and exit (velocity V, in actual and V,, in isentropic) sections, we get= isentropic : h, + ve = hy + Ye (hy = I) = Yagvt actual: hy + vi A+ us (hy — hy) vi-vi The nozzle efficiency may then be written as V3-Vve VE-We The velocity V, at entry to nozzle is negligibly smail as compared to the exit velocity V, or V,,. Then Taozsle = (18.38) The nozzle efficiency depends upon the following factors : (i) size and shape of the nozzle (ii) angle of nozzle divergence (iii) material of which the nozzle is made (iv) workmanship in the making of nozzle (2) fluid velocity, the state and the nature of fluid flowing (vi) friction and turbulence in the nozzle flow passage The nozzle efficiency ranges from 90 to 95%; the larger nozzles with straight line axis have the highest efficiency. Velocity coefficient : The velocity coefficient is defined as the ratio of actual velocity at the nozzle exit to the velocity at exit for isentropic flow from the same inlet state to the same exit pressure. Velocity coefficient actual velocity isentropic velocity actual enthalpy drop isentropic enthalpy drop Engineering Thermodynamics Ih ky hy = has nozzle efficiency 15 39, Thus the velocity coefficient is equal to the square root of the nozzle efficiency (when inlet velocity is assumed negligible). Experimental investigations have shown that the velocity coefficient depends upon nozzle dimensions, roughness of nozzle wally and the flow velocity, and its value ranges from 0.93 to 0.97. Coefficient of discharge’: The coefficient of discharge is associated With the mass flow rate and is defined as the ratio of actual mass flow rate through the nozzle to the mass flow which would be passed if the flow were isentropic from the same inlet state to the same exit pressure. m, Coefficient of discharge C,= 7% (18.40) The isentropic mass flow (1m,.,) is obtained by the actual pressure drop if the nozzle is not choked. For a choked nozzle m,,,, is obtained from the sonic flow velocity at the throat section. EXAMPLE 18.11 A nozzle with throat area 200 mm? is used to have isentropic expansion of air at 60 bar pressure and 310 K temperature to a back pressure of 40 bar. Neglect the entrance velocity, determine the outflow velocity and the mass flow rate of air. Solution : Critical pressure 2 Vat w 00 (p24 -au me Since the nozzle exit pressure (40 bar) is more than the critical pressure (31.7 bar), the exit velocity does not reach the critical velocity and the nozzle is only of convergent section. The outflow velocity is then given byFlow Through Nozzles Now : n= mRT, _ 1287x310 PL 60x10° = 0.01483 m?/kg 4 Tz x 60 x 105 x 0.01483 11095 4 (@ Pt s+ Va = (622860 x 0.1095)!/? = 261.16 m/s The mass flow rate of air is worked out from the relation Bo ee 2m (2). a)? y-1o, |\ pr PL 14, 60x10° 14-1 0.01483 m=A, = 2.83 x 10° 2 ast e)"-@F-a* ()" -"-@ = 0.5603 - 0.499 = 0.0613 ‘i. m= 200 x 10° (2.83 x 10° x 0.0613)" = 26 kg/s EXAMPLE 18.12. —————_— Ina propulsion nozzle, gases expand from 4 bar ‘and 650 K to a back pressure of 1 bar at the rate of 15 kg/s. The coefficient of discharge is 0.98 and the nozzle efficiency is 95%. Assuming inlet velocity to be negligible, compute the throat and exit areas of the nozzle. For gases y=1.3 and c, = 1.1 Kikg K Solution : Critical pressure cmt oo eee =4( 2 ya re P yaa) 3° iaH4 = 2.183 bar Since the nozzle exit pressure (1 bar) is less than the critical pressure (2.813 bar), the nozzle must be of convergent-divergent type. The mass flow is determined from the critical throat velocity. Critical temperature at throat Critical throat velocity 2h, -h,) = 2cy(T -T.) [ax(1.1 10° (650 - 565.22) = 431.87 m/s Specific gas constant ep(¥-1) 11x10? x (13-1) : 8 13 = 253.85 J/kg K Specific volume RT, _ 25385%565.22 Pe ~—(2.183x10° = 0.657 m3/kg ‘Mass flow rate for isentropic flow 5 mm, = p93 = 15306 kg/s ‘Throat area sD se : ase (: = 15.306 x 0.657, * giay 7 00283 m? = 233 om? For an isentropic expansion from the inlet conditions down to the back pressure, the temperature at nozzle exit is T,, andEnginesting Therm, », yng ve S = (hy - hy) The isentropic steam flow thr nozzle approximately follows the Taw the constant pore and the enthalpy drop (h, - h, ) work done during Rankine cyte Thay" Nozzle efficiency = 095 6 aoe t tits h-hh = Fy O%- rv) ++ Nozzle exit temperature , T, = T, - 0.95 (T, - T,) a ee S = 650 - 0.95 (650 ~ 471) = 47995 K 2 > Far M4-hy Specific volume io ip = Blk _ 25386%479.95 =a AM [Xe] ae oe 5 " i oe oe From the relation p,2," = po," we have. = 1 /n Exit velocity ae = [5 ) and as such = \&j=h) = 2h) a = y2x(1.1x 10°) x (650-479,95) = 6.11.64 m/s Throat area Ape MB _ 15.306x1.218 72 Vy 611.64 = 0.03048 m? = 304.8 cm? EXAMPLE 18.13 (a) Explain what do you mean by critical pressure ratio in connection with reversible adiabatic flow through a nozzle. ven c(. (b) When a nozzle is subjected to this pressure go 7a a n+1 ratio, show that the velocity of steam at throat for : 4 maximum discharge is given by AY a =a " n 3a OV, = GP Wi) V, = Japa Heneev, = ppm where n is index of expansion, p, is initial : i pressure of steam, and v, is specific volume ofsteam, _") TM€ expansion () can also be written as Assume frictionless adiabatic flow through a ve Axa] convergent-divergent nozzle and neglect entering 2 Pomel steam velocity. ~ 1 Solution : For frictionless adiabatic flow and a m)' (me ‘ neglecting entering velocity, the velocity of 2 er 28) lel steam at throat of nozzle is given by| nm ” “anal For maximum discharge Pr PL Mae = 3 oe n n=1 P2%* ht That gives : Ve = Jnpat2 Upon differentiation of po" = const, we have pnov'-'dv+v"dp=0 . a _ pavt _ pn dy v and -o @ dv But - 0 2 = a? where a is the sonic velocity ip Thus: @=npv and V,= fapyd, =a This indicates that under conditions of maximum discharge, the flow velocity at throat equals the sonic velocity at the throat conditions. npv EXAMPLE 18.14 Determine the throat and exit area for a steam nozzle designed to discharge steam at the rate of 0.25 kg/ s. The steam enters the nozzle at 10 bar and 250°C and the exit pressure is 2 bar. Neglect inlet velocity ‘and assume isentropic expansion which follows the law po! = const. Calculations may be made using Mollier chart or otherwise. Solution ; Let points 1, 2 and 3 represent the conditions at entrance, throat and exit of the nozzle. From steam tables v, = 0.233 m3/kg at p, = 10 bar and T, = 250°C (a) For optimum conditions (2 PA n+1 1s : ( 2 ie 13+1, Velocity at throat nayyV2 2n Pp)" athe (#) 2x13 : r. (10x 10°)x0.233 asa a —(0.5457) 13 } = 513.15 m/s 2 Specific volume at throat v, = 0, (@ Pa —ie 1 = 0233 (= ye 05457 = 0371 m°/kg Mass flow rate mo, _ 0.25x0371 V, ~ 5135 807 x 104 m? = 1,807 cm? (b) Velocity at nozzle exit nay 2 2n ps) Pneti-(2] n-1 Pi= naa say]? x1. 5 2)" = | fanz *lox10 pasa (% = 79145 m/s 1 Specific volume at exit v= 0, (ay P3 a. = 0.233 ay = 0.8035 m/kg 2 +. Exit area _ ms _ 0.25x0,8035 SenaaVs 791.45 = 2.538 x 104 m? = 2.538 cm? EXAMPLE 18.15 Steam at a pressure of 7 bar and 180°C is discharged through a convergent-divergent nozzle at 1 bar. The mass flow rate of steam is estimated to 2 kgh. The pressure at the nozzle throat is 4 bar and the steam enters the nozzle with velocity of 75 m/s. Expansion upto nozzle throat is isentropic and the frictional resistance equivalent to 60 kJ/kg of steam reheats the steam in the divergent section. Make calculations for : (a) suitable areas for the throat and exit. (b) overall efficiency of nozzle based on enthalpy drop between the actual state of steam and the back pressure. Solution : Refer Fig. 18.8 for the expansion Process represented on the Mollier chart : h, hy zr Fig. 18.8. Engineering Thermodynamieg The enthalpy and dryness fraction values as read from the Mollier chart are : hy = 2795 kJ/kg, h, = 2680 kJ/kg and x, = 0.98 hy, = 2460 kJ/kg, hh, = hi, = 2460 + 60 = 2520 KI/kg and x5 = 0.93 The specific volumes of dry saturated steam corresponding to state points 2(p, = 4 bar) and state point 3(p, = 1 bar) as read from the steam tables are : 0, = 0.462 m?/kg, and 2,, = 1.695 m*/kg The velocity of steam V, at the throat of nozzle is given by 2 2 % = (hy -h) + Mie 2 VE 7 2. eps eae Fearon ~ 2795 ~ 2600) + 3 op or V;2 = 2 x 1000 x (2795 ~ 2680) + 752 = 235625 Vp = 485.4 m/s Area at nozzle throat A, = WERE _ 2x (0.980.462) a ae 485.4 = 1.8655 x 103 m? = 18.65 cm? The velocity of steam V, at exit from the nozzle is given v2 2 i = (hy = hy) + a vs = (2795 - 2520) + is 2x1000 21000 or V32 = 2 x 1000 x (2795 - 2520) +75" = 555625 V, = 745.4 m/s Area at exit from nozzle _ X03 2x(0.93x1.695) AG Va 7454 = 4.229 x 103 m? = 42.29 cm?Flow Through Nozzles (b) Overall nozzle efficiency = —Zctual heat drop _ isentropic heat drop ma hy — gg 2795-2520 27952460 = 9821 or 82.1% EXAMPLE 18.16 Steam at 10 bar and 0.97 after expansion in a group of convergent nozzles to a pressure of 0.15 bar flows in an impulse turbine which develops 150 kW of power with a steam consumption of 8 kg/kWh. Determine (a) the pressure at throat, (b) the number of nozzles required each of which is 6 mm diameter at the throat. (c) suitable diameter at exit from each nozzle. It may be assumed that 10% of the overall isentropic enthalpy drop reheats the steam in the divergent portion of the nozzle. Solution : For the wet steams, Zeuner’s equation can be used for determining the value of adiabatic expansion through the nozzle. 1.035 + 0.1 x 1.035 + 0.1 x 0.97 = 1.132 Let points 1, 2 and 3 represent the conditions at entrance, throat and exit of the nozzle. i py = 10bar Fig. 18.9. (a) Pressure at throat Lal + =P, (Ay nl 1.132 jee =5.78bar = 10 ( 2 Tis (0) The process of expansion may be represented on the Mollier diagram (t-s plot) as shown in Fig. 189. From its chart : i = 2718 Ki/kg and hy, = 2085 KI/kg 10% of isentropic enthalpy drop from entrance to exit 10 00 (2718 — 2085) = 63.3 kJ/kg Locate point 3’ at a distance corresponding to 63.3 KJ from 3s on the vertical line 1-2-3s. From 3’, draw a horizontal line till it meets the 0.15 bar pressure line at point 3. The path 1-2 3 then represents the actual expansion process in the nozzle from inlet to outlet. The following enthalpy and dryness fraction values at throat (point 2) and exit (point 3) of the nozzle are then read from the f-s chart, iy = 2618 KJ/kg 3% = 0.935 h, = 2148 KJ/kg 5% = 0815 From steam tables : V%) = 0.3275 m/kg at 5.78 bar pressure and 2,, = 10.06 m?/kg at 0.15 bar pressure Steam consumption m= ee 0.333 kg/s Velocity at throat V, = 44.7 (ha) = 44.7 (2718-2618) = 447 m/s Mass flow through a nozzle X06) _ AN, _ 1000067 x447 = > -0985%03275 = 0.0412 kg/sye] 0333 _, ++ Number of nozzles required = 95419 = (c) Velocity at exit = 447 [(y—hy) = 44.7 (2718-2148) = 1067.2 m/s Total exit area mvs _ 0.333x(10.06%0.815) oa: 1067.2 = 2.558 x 10° m? = 25.58 om? Area for one nozzle 25.58 = gy = 31975 cm? + Nozzle diameter at exit = fPB9x4 - 2018 om ™ 18.10. SUPERSATURATED FLOW AND ITS EFFECTS Temperature —> h Pr 4 Pa a = é 2s Entropy —> . Fig. 18.10. Expansion of steam under thermal equilibrium Engineering Thermodynamics Generally it is assumed that during isentropic expansion of steam vapour in a nozzle, the condensation proceeds at correct rate. This ‘means that the steam vapour begins to condense as soon as the vapour line is reached. With feference to T-s and I's plots of Fig. 18.10 the initial state of steam in the superheated region, ig at pressure p, and temperature T, (= T.,,), This steam expands isentropically through ‘the nozzle and condensation within the vapour begins immediately at point a where the isentropic line 1-2 meets the saturated vapour line. There is a stable mixture of steam and liquid at any point during expansion. If the expansion is stopped at any instant, no subsequent changes take place in the condition of steam. Under such conditions, the steam is said to be expanding in thermal equilibrium. Fig. 18.11. Supersaturated flow of steam through a nozzle In actual practice, the condensation of steam does not take place as rapidly as does the change in pressure and temperature. For condensation to take place, two or more .